Learning

• The major goal of instruction on the field should be to

equip the athlete with the type of skills that are
durable (i.e., capable of sustaining long periods of
disuse) and flexible (i.e., capable of being applied in
different contexts). In other words, the goal of
instruction is to facilitate learning, which must be
inferred at some point after instruction.
• Learning, however, must be distinguished from
performance, which is what can be observed and
measured during instruction or training. In sport, we
are able to use major theories to better understand our
athletes and to apply to various learning situations.
These major theories are: Behaviourism, Cognitive and
Social Learning theory
 Theories of Learning
• Behaviourism
• Social Learning
• Cognitive approach
 Behaviorism

• Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a

learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. The learner starts off
as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior
is shaped through positive reinforcement or
negative reinforcement.
• Behaviouristic approach is based on stimulus-
response theories
• Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing
more than the acquisition of new behaviour
based on environmental conditions.
• In assuming that human behaviour is learned,
behaviourists also hold that all behaviours can
also be unlearned, and replaced by new
behaviours; that is, when a behaviour
becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by
an acceptable one. A key element to this
theory of learning is the rewarded response.
The desired response must be rewarded in
order for learning to take place.
 Classical conditioning
Pavlov 1849-1936
• Classical conditioning is a process that involves
creating an association between a naturally
existing stimulus (unconditioned) and a
previously neutral one.
• In his experiments Pavlov noticed that dogs being
used would salivate(unconditioned response)
after their actual food (unconditioned stimulus)
will arrive in response to the noise of the food
being prepared.
• Pavlov paired the food with various stimuli such
as the ringing of a bell. After the food and bell
(auditory stimulus) were presented together
several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s
dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the
sound of the bell (without the food). The bell
began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did
not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by
pairing the bell with the stimulus that did
produce the salivation response, the bell was able
to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation
response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how
stimulus-response bonds (which some consider
as the basic building blocks of learning) are
formed.
• In technical terms, the food is considered an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s
salivation is the unconditioned response
(UCR).
• The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog
learns to associate the bell with food. Then
the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)
which produces the conditioned response (CR)
of salivation after repeated pairings between
the bell and food.
• It can be difficult to find examples of this
within the sporting world. Something like a
referee blowing the whistle signifying that
play should stop is a good example. The
athletes know what to do without having to
think about it.
• Teachers and coaches can through repetitive
practice, get a beginner to associate a
particular action with a particular stimulus.
 Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner 1904-1990
• Operant conditioning can be described as a
process that attempts to modify behavior
through the use of positive and negative
reinforcement.
• Skinner saw the learner as being more
involved in the learning process where the
learner response in a situation was very much
based on consequences of their previous
actions.
• Positive Reinforcement - Rewarding the correct
response with praise or a treat. This strengthens the
stimulus - response bond (S-R Bond) making this
response more likely to be repeated in the same
situation in the future.

• 2. Negative Reinforcement - Removal of unpleasent

consequence from coach when correct technique is
shown e.g. coach will stop shouting at the performer.
This will also strengthen the S-R Bond as performer will
see when the correct action is performed.

• 3. Punishment - This is used when the action

performed is not desirable e.g. a player may be sent off
for a reckless tackle, they could miss a game, be fined
or lose their role in a team. This weakens the S-R Bond
meaning that this action is less likely to be repeated in
the future.
 Example in Sports
Can be situations such as a football shooting
practice. The coach may direct the players to strike
the ball into the right side of the goal. If this is done
they are rewarded. The area is then reduced to the
top half of the right side, and then maybe the top
right hand corner only. Rewarding this behaviour
strengthens the link. In Operant Conditioning the
behaviour is shaped by the coach and the player
need not understand why they are performing like
this, just that they will be rewarded if they do it
correctly.
Skinner drew heavily on Thorndike’s three laws
(1874-1949)
• Law of exercise - rehearsing (or exercising) the
stimulus-response (SR) connections helps
strengthen them and reinforce the correct
skill. Repetition of the correct technique is
important, sometimes referred to as “the law
of use”. Failure to practice will result in the
“law of disuse” when the bond is weakened.
• Law of readiness - The athlete must be both
mentally and physically capable of performing
the skill efficiently in order for learning to be
effective (appropriate maturational
development, motivation and prerequisite
learning).
• Law of effect - If the skill is followed by a
pleasant reaction, then the SR bond is further
strengthened. If the following reaction is
negative, then the SR bond is weakened.
Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its
consequences. (Thorndike’s cat) trial and error
 Cognitive learning
• Cognitive learning" is the function based on how
a person processes and reasons information. It
revolves around many factors, including problem-
solving skills, memory retention, thinking skills
and the perception of learned material.
• The theory is a broad theory that explains
thinking and differing mental processes and how
they are influenced by internal and external
factors in order to produce learning in individuals.
 Cognitive learning theories
Wolfgang Kohler and Edward Tolman
• Cognitive learning also known as the Gestalt
theory, The word Gestalt in German language
means ‘whole’, ‘total pattern’ or
‘configuration’. Is a complex form of learning.
It involves interpreting present perceptions in
the light of past information to get our way
through unfamiliar problems. It is more than
just gathering information. It involves new
ways of learning, acting and solving.
• The performer needs to understand the whole
problem before performing the skill correctly.
They base their response on their previous
experiences and the current situation.
Perceptual ability is used to decide on the
response based on their skill level and the task
at hand.
• The Cognitive theory does not focus on
stimuli-response connections as important
factors in learning.
 Wolfgang Kohler
• Believed that animals are capable of
intellectual accomplishments. He believed
that animals are able to see the relationship
between things and act accordingly to reach
their goal. He believed that animals could
have a clear and immediate understanding of
a situation and come up with a solution that
does not necessarily involve trial and error
• Humans, especially, have the power to see the
relationship between things and come up with
a solution. An example would be the times
when we try our best to come up with a
solution but are trials would prove to be
fruitless. But suddenly, out of nowhere, a
solution would come to us. This is what
Kohler called as insight learning.
• To understand further the theory of Kohler, we
would look into a study done with Sultan, a
chimpanzee. Sultan is inside a cage and
outside the cage is a banana. The banana is
way beyond his reach. Inside his cage is a
short stick. The stick is still too short for him
to reach the banana. The stick however is
long enough to reach a longer stick that is
outside the cage. The longer stick would later
help him draw the banana closer to him.
Five characteristics of Insight Learning:
1) The greater the intelligence, the greater are the
possibilities of achieving insight

2) The stronger the experiences of the organism, the

greater possibility it will have of achieving insight

3) Insight learning can be tested in the laboratory

4) Insight learning can be applied to new situations

5) Even if insightful learning is not the result of trial and

error, trial and error is present in insight learning
 Edward Tolman
Came up with a theory involving the study of rats.
This is the sign learning theory. His study involved
rats that were trained to run in a complicated maze.
The rats later found the shortest path to reach the
food at the end of the maze. When the route was
blocked, the rats would use the second shortest
path. Moreover, if the food was transferred, the
rats showed that they had a cognitive map of the
maze. It was as if the rats came to expect a series
of spatial relationships on the basis of their
experience with the maze.
 Edward Tolman
• He said that people do not simply respond to
stimuli but rather act according to their
beliefs, thoughts, feelings and attitudes.
Behavior is defined as goal-oriented and
defined by a purpose. It is either going
towards something or getting away from
something.
• Cognition refers to the individual’s thoughts,
feelings, ideas, knowledge and understanding
about himself and the environment. Thus, an
organism applies this cognition in learning
which results in not merely the response to a
stimulus, but the application of internal image
of the external environment, so as to
accomplish the goal.
• The cognitive processes are: observing,
categorizing, and forming generalizations
about our environment.
• When cognitive processes are working
normally then acquisition and storage of
knowledge works well, but when these
cognitive processes are ineffective, learning
delays and difficulties can be seen.
Criterion or Essentials of Learning by Insight:

1. Comprehension as a whole: Learning by insight

requires full comprehension of the situation as a whole.

2. Clear goal: The goal must be quite clear to begin with.

3. Power of generalisation: The learner must possess

power of generalisation along with those of
differentiation.

4. Suddenness of solution: Suddenness of the solution is

the hall mark of learning by insight i.e., the solution
flashes suddenly to the learner. No lengthy reasoning is
involved.
5. New forms of objects: As a result of insight
into the problem or situation objects appear in
new forms and patterns.

6. Transfer: Transfer of learning occurs as a

result of insight. The principles learnt in one
situation are applied to the other situation.

7. Change in behaviour: Insight changes our

behaviour to the extent which we have learnt
through insight.
• Laws of Insight Formation:
1. Capacities:
Insight depends upon the capacity of the organism.
Individuals offer in their capacities. The more
developed is the individual, the more will be the
capacity to develop insight.

2. Previous experience:
Insight depends upon relevant previous experience
and maturation. Some practice, trial and error and
maturation up to the level is essential before insight
develops. A child of five years cannot develop
mathematical insight since he has not done
sufficient practice in it.
3. Experimental arrangement:
Development of insight depends upon experimental
arrangement also.

4. Fumbling and search:

Insight follows a period of fumbling and search.

5. Readily repeated:
Insightful solutions can be readily repeated.

6. Use in new situation:

Insight once achieved can be used in new situation.

7. Wholesome experience:
Experience of insight is always wholesome. Whole is just not
equal to its parts.
• Importance of motivation: The theory stresses
the importance of motivation in learning.
Therefore, the teacher should motivate the
students properly for insightful learning.
• Individual differences: The teacher keep in
mind the intelligence level, maturity and other
types of individual differences. Intelligence
plays a major role in learning by insight. The
more intelligent a child is, the more he will
learn through insight. The less intelligent child
takes more time and makes more efforts to
gain insight.
 Social Learning Theory
• Many examples of human behaviour has been
copied from others. We were all aware of our
elders actions habits and actions and those
that we view in a high status were the ones
we were most likely to copy.
• We observe and copy behaviour because it
helps us be part of a group and be more
socially accepted. This is social learning
 Social Learning Theory
• Bandura's Social Learning Theory argues that
people learn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modelling. The theory has often
been called a bridge between behaviourist and
cognitive learning theories because it
encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
• Bandura identified four requirements for
learning—observation (environmental), retention
(cognitive), reproduction (cognitive), and
motivation (both).
Bandura identified three basic models
of observational learning
• A live model, which involves an actual
individual demonstrating or acting out a
behaviour
• A verbal instructional model, which involves
descriptions and explanations of a behaviour
• A symbolic model, which involves real or
fictional characters displaying behaviours in
books, films, television programs, or online
media
 Observation Learning
People learn through observing others’
behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those
behaviors.
“Most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from
observing others, one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions
this coded information serves as a guide for
action.” (Bandura).
• In observational learning the person being
observed is the model. What we learn
depends not only on what we see but also on
the identity of the model. Social learning is
not just about imitating actions-it is also about
adopting moral judgments and patterns of
social organizations.
• Note: The social learning theory is clearly
evident in sport when young athletes mimic
their sporting heroes in style of play,
mannerisms, product consumption and dress.
 This study (Bobo doll) demonstrated
several important points
1. If the model showed behaviour that is more
appropriate according to social norms, it is
more likely to be copied. Example aggressive
male models are more likely to be copied
that aggressive female models.
2. The relevance of the model’s behaviour is
also important. Boys are more likely to
imitate aggression because through
socialization they see aggressive behaviour as
being relevant.
3. The similarity of the model to the child (age,
sex) is also important.
4. Warm and friendly adults are more likely to
be imitated by children.
5. Models whose behaviour is reinforced by
significance is more likely to be copied.
6. More powerful models are more likely to be
imitated.
7. If the model behaviour is consistent it is more
likely to be copied.
 NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR
EFFECTIVE MODELING
• Attention — in order to ensure that a performer
learns through observing it is very important that
they give careful and specific attention to the
model.
Various factors increase or decrease the amount of
attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective
valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value.
Attention is gained by models that are attractive,
successful and powerful
• Retention — The learner must be able to
retain the skill in their memory and recall it
when appropriate. Remembering what you
paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding,
mental images, cognitive organization,
symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal.
Demonstrations becomes meaningful when it is
relevant and realsitic
• Reproduction/ Motor production —Learners
will need time to practice the modelling.
Reproducing the image. Including physical
capabilities, and self-observation of
reproduction.
• Motivation — having a good reason to imitate.
Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional
behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives)
and vicarious (seeing and recalling the
reinforced model). Without motivation a
learner will not carry out the previous 3 stages
• Social learning theory has sometimes been
called a bridge between behaviorist and
cognitive learning theories because it
encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation.
 Learning styles
The learning style theory was popularized in
1992 when Fleming and Mills suggested a new
model of learning.
The VARK Model was designed by Neil Fleming
in 1987 is used to explain the different ways that
students learn.
The four core learning styles in the VARK model
include visual, auditory, reading and writing,
and kinesthetic.
Visual - Visual learners are better able to retain information
when it’s presented to them in a graphic depiction, such as
arrows, charts, diagrams, symbols, and more.
Visual learners enjoy analyzing and observing things like
pictures, diagrams, and charts that showcase clear information
in order of importance.
When a whiteboard is used to draw a diagram with meaningful
symbols for the relationship between different things that will be
helpful for those with a Visual preference.
Whether you’re using a whiteboard, smartboard, or giving a
presentation, make sure visual learners have enough time to
process and absorb visual cues.
Auditory - Sometimes referred to as “aural” learners, auditory
learners prefer listening to information that is presented to them
vocally. These learners work well in group settings where vocal
collaboration is present and may enjoy reading aloud to
themselves, too.
They learn best from lectures, group discussions, radio, email, using
mobile phones, speaking and talking things through.
They may say again what has already been said or ask an obvious
and previously answered question. They have a need to say it
themselves and they learn by saying it – their way.
If you’re giving a lecture, make sure you are addressing your
auditory learners directly to get them involved in the conversation.
Group discussions, engaging videos, and audio recordings are other
great ways to engage auditory learners in your classroom.
Reading & Writing - Focusing on the written word, reading and
writing learners succeed with written information on worksheets,
presentations, and other text-heavy resources. These learners are
note-takers and perform strongly when they can reference written
text.
This preference emphasizes text-based input and output – reading
and writing in all its forms but especially manuals, reports, essays,
and assignments. People who prefer this modality are often
addicted to PowerPoint, the Internet, lists, diaries, dictionaries,
thesauri, quotations and words, words, words…
Make sure these learners have ample time to absorb written
course material and give them every opportunity to get their ideas
down on paper or a digital device.
Kinesthetic - Taking a physically active role, kinesthetic learners
are hands-on and thrive when engaging all of their senses during
work. These learners tend to work well in scientific studies due
to the hands-on lab component of the course.
The key is that people who prefer this mode are connected to
reality, “either through concrete personal experiences, examples,
practice or simulation”. It includes demonstrations, simulations,
and videos of “real” things, as well as case studies, practice, and
applications.
When possible, get kinesthetic learners up and moving. If you’re
teaching Shakespeare, for example, have them act out a scene
with a few of their kinesthetic-focused peers. You can also create
learning games that encourage these types of learners to move
about the classroom at different points in the lesson.
 Multimodality
Life is multimodal. There are seldom instances where one mode
is used or is sufficient, so that is why there is a four-part VARK
profile. Those who do not have a standout mode are defined
as multimodal.
• VARK Type One Multimodality:
There are those who are flexible in their communication
preferences and who switch from mode to mode depending on
what they are working with. They are context specific. They
choose a single mode to suit the occasion or situation. If they
have to deal with legalities they will apply their Read/write
preference. If they are to watch the demonstration of a
technique they will be expressing their Kinesthetic preference.
• VARK Type Two Multimodality:
There are others who are not satisfied until they have had input
(or output) in all of their preferred modes. They take longer to
gather information from each mode and, as a result, they often
have a deeper and broader understanding. These people may be
seen as procrastinators or slow deliverers but some may be
merely gathering all the information before acting – and their
decision-making and learning may be better because of that
breadth of understanding.

• VARK Transition
This is the term we use to describe those who fall somewhere
between these two categories.
 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple
Intelligences?
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences divides human
intelligence into eight different types instead of looking at a
single ability. The theory claims that human beings have different
ways in which they process data, each being independent. The
eight types of intelligence described by Gardner include:
musical-rhythmic, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, logical-
mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
and naturalistic. In 2009, he also suggested two additional types
of intelligence, namely, existential and moral.
Gardner suggested that his theory meant to ’empower learners’
and not limit them to a single learning modality.
1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence
People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing
things. These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps,
charts, videos, and pictures.
2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words
well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very
good at writing stories, memorizing information, and reading.
3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at
reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These
individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and
patterns.
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at
body movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are
strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and
dexterity.
5. Musical Intelligence
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking
in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong appreciation
for music and are often good at musical composition and
performance.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence
Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at
understanding and interacting with other people. These
individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations,
desires, and intentions of those around them.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at
being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and
motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis,
including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and
assessing their personal strengths.
8. Naturalistic Intelligence
Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has
been met with more resistance than his original seven
intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this
type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often
interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning
about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware
of even subtle changes to their environments.
9. Existential Intelligence
Existential intelligence is the ninth type of intelligence suggested as
an addition to Gardner's original theory. He described existential
intelligence as an ability to delve into deeper questions about life
and existence. People with this type of intelligence contemplate
the "big" questions about topics such as the meaning of life and
how actions can serve larger goals.