Honors in “Electric Vehicles” Bachelor of Engineering

Modeling and Simulation of EHV (402034MJ)

Unit 3 : Control Units

Name of Author: Mr. Ravikant K. Nanwatkar

Mob: 9881955075 Mail ID: [email protected]
 Unit 3: Control Units
• Introduction-Motor Control System, Modes of Control,
Electronic Control Unit [ECU], Battery/Cell Control
System, Modes of Control, Battery Control Unit [BCU],
Sensor Management and Integration, EV and EHV
configuration based on power electronics.
• Control Methods and Strategies - Torque Coupling and
Speed Coupling, Speed and Torque Controllers, BCU,
MCU, Speed control for constant torque, constant HP
operation of all electric motors [DC/DC chopper, inverter
based V/f Operation (motoring and braking - regenerative
braking)], Control methods (Phase Flux Linkage, Phase
Inductance, Modulated Signal Injection, Mutually
Induced Voltage, Observer -Based).
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
• A Motor Control Unit (MCU) is an electronic module that interfaces
between the pack of batteries and Motor to control the electric vehicle’s
speed and acceleration based on the throttle input.
• The main function of MCU is to transform the battery’s direct current into
alternating current using a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) by applying pulse
width modulated (PWM) waveforms to the gates of VSI
switches/MOSFETs.
• PWM pulses are generated according to the position sensors
(Hall/Encoder/Resolver) feedback and the ON Time/Duty Cycle of these
pulses varies according to the required Speed/Torque command.
• To achieve efficient closed loop control of Motor drive, Vector Control
methods/Field Oriented Control (FOC) are adopted.
• In Field Oriented Control, torque and flux can be controlled separately
which results in a fast and efficient control of Motor drive.
• In addition, Vector Control methods reduce the harmonic content of the
Motor current by using a fixed frequency PWM switching, which also helps
to minimize the Motor temperature rise and noise.
The figure shows the basic block diagram description for MCU
design. It consists mainly of Power Supply Section, Sensing Circuits,
VSI, CAN Transceiver and Microcontroller etc.
This Motor control unit (MCU) can fulfill the following functions
irrespective of the Motor used.
• Control the Motor torque and speed
• Start/Stop the Motor
• Prevent from electrical faults
• Provide overload protection
• Change the motor rotation direction
• Regenerative Braking
Motor Control Unit Block Diagram Description
Following are the description for each block of MCU.
• Microcontroller: The main function of microcontroller is to control
the electrical energy received from battery using VSI and sensing
signals. While the controller itself gets the main control
signal/input from the throttle signal that can be controlled by the
vehicle driver. This throttle signal will determine how the duty
cycle of PWM pulses vary to obtain the desired speed and torque.
To achieve efficient and fast control, FOC control is implemented
in the microcontroller.
• VSI: The main function of VSI is to convert DC to AC by using position
feedback from the Motor. Generally, six MOSFETs are used to implement a
VSI. However, to increase the current capacity of the MCU, parallel
combination of MOSFETs are also used.
• Phase Current Sensing: To sense the motor phase current, Hall Effect
based current sensors are used. Generally two current sensors are utilized to
sense the two phase currents and the third phase current is derived from
these two.
• Power Supply: As MCUs have inbuilt sensors, therefore, to properly bias
these sensors, power supply is required. Also to provide the supply to
microcontroller, motor temperature sensor and position feedback sensors,
different level supply is required. To fulfill these requirement a power
supply section converts a fixed DC voltage into different level of voltages
according to the requirement.
• Gate Driver: A gate driver circuit is used to amplify the PWM pulses
voltage level generated by the microcontroller.
• CAN Transceiver: The role of the CAN transceiver is basically to drive and
detect data to and from the CAN bus. It converts the single ended logic used
by the controller for the differential signal transmitted over the CAN bus.
Modes of Control
Modes of Control
In an production vehicle, the vehicle control system is very complex, distributed on
several electronic control modules and with a lot of interactions with other vehicle
systems (braking, heating and ventilation, battery management, etc.). The purpose
of this article is to understand how a high level simplified controller works and what
is the main information exchanged between modules.
From the hardware point of view, we are going to consider four systems of the
electric vehicle:
1) powertrain
2) high voltage battery
3) vehicle (body)
4) Brakes
From the software (controller) point of view, we are going to consider several
control systems:
1) electric machine control system (EMCS)
2) stability control system (SCS)
3) battery management system (BMS)
4) driver mode system (DMS)
5) vehicle control system (VCS)
The Electric Machine Control System (EMCS)
• It is basically the inverter. It is called electric machine because it can be a
motor (positive torque) or a generator (negative torque), depending on the
driver inputs (accelerator and brake pedal position).
• The EMCS receives the torque request from the vehicle control system
(VCS) and the modulates the stator phases (for permanent magnet electric
machine) in order to obtain the required torque.
• The EMCS also performs diagnostics on the electric machines and sends out
the status.
• For example, in case of thermal protection, the electric machine control
system (EMCS) informs the vehicle control system (VCS) that it can not
apply the requested torque and sends out the torque limit (derated torque).
• An example of EMCS are the Rinehart Motion Systems PM100 and PM150
family of propulsion inverters. They are suitable for a range of applications
like high-performance vehicles, professional motor-sport, heavy vehicle
hybrid propulsion, static energy conversion, hybrid range extender or
integrated starter generator (ISG) controller.
• The PM family of propulsion inverters are designed for on-road and off-road
electric (EV) or hybrid vehicle (HEV) applications. Their main purpose is to
convert DC power from a high voltage battery to 3-phase AC power required
by the electric machine.
The Electric Machine Control System (EMCS)
• It is basically the inverter. It is called electric machine because it can
be a motor (positive torque) or a generator (negative torque),
depending on the driver inputs (accelerator and brake pedal position).
• The EMCS receives the torque request from the vehicle control
system (VCS) and the modulates the stator phases (for permanent
magnet electric machine) in order to obtain the required torque.
• The EMCS also performs diagnostics on the electric machines and
sends out the status.
• For example, in case of thermal protection, the electric machine
control system (EMCS) informs the vehicle control system (VCS) that
it can not apply the requested torque and sends out the torque limit
(derated torque).
• An example of EMCS are the Rinehart Motion Systems PM100 and
PM150 family of propulsion inverters. They are suitable for a range
of applications like high-performance vehicles, professional motor-
sport, heavy vehicle hybrid propulsion, static energy conversion,
hybrid range extender or integrated starter generator (ISG) controller.
• The PM family of propulsion inverters are designed for on-road
and off-road electric (EV) or hybrid vehicle (HEV) applications.
Their main purpose is to convert DC power from a high voltage
battery to 3-phase AC power required by the electric machine.
1) cooling circuit connections (input/output)
2) communication and input-output ports
3) high voltage battery connections (DC)
4) 3-phase output connections (AC)
• The analog inputs can be used for various sensors (position,
pressure, etc.).
• The RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) inputs are used for
temperature sensors connection. The resolver, quadrature encoder
and sin-cos encoder are inputs from position/speed sensors
(rotation).
• The CAN (Controller Area Network) is used as a communication
protocol with other modules (e.g VCS). The programming port is
used to flash the module with a different software algorithm or
software calibration.
• The Stability Control System (SCS) has multiple functions for which it
exchanges information with the Vehicle Control System (VCS).
• The main function is to control the braking system and to provide accurate
vehicle speed information to the other systems.
• It also send out the braking torque request to the VCS, which will apply it to
the electric machines, via EMCS.
• The idea is that the braking request from the driver, read through the braking
pedal position, does not translate automatically into foundation brake
(hydraulic) activation.
• Instead, the electric machines are going into generator mode, providing
negative torque and the vehicle is slowed down, recuperating electrical
energy in the same time.
• For vehicle stability purposes, the SCS calculates the maximum torque
limits for both electric machines. For example, if the vehicle is rolling on a
low friction surface (e.g. snow or ice), the electric machine torque is limited
in order to avoid wheel slip and possible vehicle instability.
• For energy recuperation purposes, the VCS informs SCS what is the
maximum braking torque that can be applied. This torque limit is calculated
based on the nominal torque capability of the electric machine or the derated
value (send by EMCS).
• The main purpose of the Battery Management System (BMS) is to monitor the
high voltage battery in terms of cell voltage balancing, state of charge (SOC) and
state of health (SOH). For thermal protection purposes, it also limits the
maximum current (positive or negative) of the battery.
• As an Main features:
1) Monitors every cell voltage
2) Field programmable and upgradable
3) Intelligent cell balancing (efficient passive balancing)
4) Enforces minimum and maximum cell voltages
5) Enforces maximum current limits
6) Enforces temperature limits
7) Professional and robust design
8) Monitors state of charge (SOC)
9) Retains data about battery history
10) Integration with 3rd party smartphone apps (Torque, EngineLink)
11) Isolation fault detection
12) Multiple BMS units may be used in series
13) Automotive grade locking connectors
14) Temperature compensation for improved monitoring in different
temperatures
• The Driver Mode System (DMS) provides the interface between the
driver and the vehicle. The driver can select (input):
1) the position of the shift lever (park, reverse, neutral, drive)
2) the torque demand (by accelerator pedal position)
3) the brake demand (by brake pedal position)
4) vehicle speed set point (for cruise control)
• All this information is fed to the VCS which makes decisions regarding
the value of the electric machine torque and direction of rotation. The
electric machine torque is fed back to the DMS and can be used to
display the powertrain mode (acceleration or braking) and the level or
energy recuperation.
• The Vehicle Control System (VCS) is the master controller of the
vehicle. Its main function is to decide the electric machine mode
(motor/generator) and the torque value. The control logic is taking into
account the state of the electric machine(s), the state of the high voltage
battery, the state of the vehicle and the inputs from the driver. In the
image below there is a simplified high level state machine which can be
used as a electric vehicle (EV) master controller.
• When the vehicle is powered up (ignition key ON) the VCS goes into Initialization
state. Function on the vehicle speed and driver inputs (shift lever position,
accelerator pedal position, brake pedal position) it can go in Acceleration, Coasting
or Energy recuperation state. In the table below is a description of the states entry
conditions.
• In the Acceleration state, the default sub-state is Nominal, which means that there is
no torque limitation on the electric machine(s) or power limitation on the high
voltage battery. Depending on the level of torque requested by the driver (by the
position of acceleration pedal), the torque can be applied only on the front axle
(Front Wheel Drive, FWD) or both axles (All Wheel Drive, AWD). In case of
thermal protection (of electric machine or battery), the vehicle can go into Torque
limitation state, which limits the maximum torque which can be applied to the
electric machine and the maximum electrical current going in or out the battery.
• In the Coasting state the VCS doesn’t apply any traction or braking torque on the
electric machine(s), in order to make fully use of the kinetic energy of the vehicle for
motion. The torque set point for the electric machines is 0 Nm.
• In the Energy recuperation state, the electric machines become generators and
produce electrical energy. Depending on the value of the brake pedal position, the
torque (negative) applied at the electric machine is variable. Also, the total negative
torque can be split between Front and Rear axle, depending on the vehicle state and
driving conditions
Electronic Control Unit [ECU]:
Electronic Control Unit [ECU]:
• An electronic control unit (ECU), also known as an electronic
control module (ECM), is an embedded system in automotive
electronics that controls one or more of the electrical systems or
subsystems in a car or other motor vehicle.
• Quite simply put ECU is a device that controls all the electronic
features in a car. This may range from fuel injection to maintaining
perfect cabin temperature to controlling braking and suspension.
• Modern vehicles have many ECUs, and these can include some or
all of the following:
1) Engine Control Module: With its sensors, the ECM ensures the
amount of fuel and ignition timing necessary to get the most
power and economy out of the engine.
2) Brake Control Module: Used in vehicles with ABS, the BCM
makes sure that the wheels are not skidding and determine when
to trigger braking and let go of the brake to ensure the wheels
don’t lock up.
3) Transmission Control Module: Used on an automatic vehicle, the TCM
ensures you get the smoothest shifts possible by assessing the engine
RPM and acceleration of the car.
4) Telematic Control Module: Another one with the same abbreviation this
TCU ensures the car onboard services are up and running. It controls the
satellite navigation and Internet and phone connectivity of the vehicle.
5) Suspension Control Module: Present in Cars with active suspension
systems, the SCM ensures the correct ride height and optimal changes to
suspension depending on the driving condition.
Working Principal:
• Each ECU typically contains a dedicated chip that runs its own software
or firmware, and requires power and data connections to operate.
• An ECU has an application software which is a set of algorithms.
ECU gets inputs from other ECUs and sensors. These inputs are assessed
and used in the algorithms to calculate or determine the output. These
outputs then control a specific function.
• An ECU receives inputs from different parts of the vehicle,
depending on its function. For example, a door lock ECU would
receive input when a passenger pushes the door lock/unlock button
on a car door or on a wireless key fob.
• An airbag ECU would receive inputs from crash sensors and from
sensors that detect when someone is sitting in a particular seat. And
an automatic emergency braking ECU would receive inputs from
forward-facing radars that detect when the vehicle is approaching
an obstacle too quickly.
• The ECU would then communicate to actuators to perform an
action based on the inputs. In our examples, the door lock ECU
would activate an actuator that locks or unlocks the corresponding
door.
• The airbag ECU would choose which airbags to deploy, depending
on the location of the passengers, and then direct the actuators to
deploy them. And the automatic emergency braking ECU would
engage the brakes to prevent a collision.
Battery/Cell Control System
Battery/Cell Control System
• A battery management system (BMS) is any electronic system that
manages a rechargeable battery (cell or battery pack), such as by
protecting the battery from operating outside its safe operating
area, monitoring its state, calculating secondary data, reporting that
data, controlling its environment, authenticating it and /
or balancing it.
• A battery pack built together with a battery management system
with an external communication data bus is a smart battery pack.
A smart battery pack must be charged by a smart battery charger.
• Functions,
1) A BMS may monitor the state of the battery as represented by various
items, such as voltage, temperature, coolant flow, current, state of charge
and health.
2) The BMS will also control the recharging of the battery by redirecting the
recovered energy (i.e., from regenerative braking) back into the battery
pack (typically composed of a number of battery modules, each
composed of a number of cells).
3) a BMS may calculate values of working parameters of battery cells
like SOC, SOH, SOP, DOD, SOS etc.
4) The central controller of a BMS communicates internally with its
hardware operating at a cell level, or externally with high level
hardware such as laptops or an HMI.
5) A BMS may protect its battery by preventing it from operating
outside its safe operating area, i.e. overcharging / overdischarging.
6) A BMS may also feature a precharge system allowing a safe way to
connect the battery to different loads and eliminating the excessive
inrush currents to load capacitors.
Working of BMS:
• The battery management system monitors individual cells in the battery
pack. It then calculates how much current can safely go in (charge) and
come out (discharge) without damaging the battery.
• The current limits prevent the source (usually a battery charger) and the load
(such as an inverter) from overdrawing or overcharging the battery. This
protects the battery pack from cell voltages getting too high or low, which
helps increase the battery’s longevity.
• The BMS also monitors the remaining charge in the battery. It continually
tracks the amount of energy entering and exiting the battery pack and
monitors cell voltages. It uses this data to know when the battery is drained
and shut the battery down. This is why lithium-ion batteries don’t show
signs of dying like a lead-acid, but just shut off.
• Battery management systems are critical in protecting the battery’s health
and longevity but even more important from a safety perspective. The liquid
electrolyte in lithium-ion batteries is highly flammable. So, these batteries
need to be operating optimally and within safety limits at all times to prevent
a fire.
Modes of control
Centralized BMS Architecture :Has one central BMS in the battery
pack assembly. All the battery packages are connected to the central
BMS directly. The structure of a centralized BMS is shown in Figure
6. The centralized BMS has some advantages. It is more compact, and
it tends to be the most economical since there is only one BMS.
However, there are disadvantages of a centralized BMS. Since all the
batteries are connected to the BMS directly, the BMS needs a lot of
ports to connect with all the battery packages. This translates to lots of
wires, cabling, connectors, etc. in large battery packs, which
complicates both troubleshooting and maintenance.
The benefits of battery management systems
• Functional Safety.
• Life Span and Reliability.
• Performance and Range.
• Diagnostics, Data Collection, and External Communication.
• Cost and Warranty Reduction.
Modular BMS Topology
Similar to a centralized implementation, the BMS is divided into several
duplicated modules, each with a dedicated bundle of wires and connections
to an adjacent assigned portion of a battery stack. In some cases, these
BMS submodules may reside under a primary BMS module oversight
whose function is to monitor the status of the submodules and communicate
with peripheral equipment. Thanks to the duplicated modularity,
troubleshooting and maintenance is easier, and extension to larger battery
packs is straightforward. The downside is overall costs are slightly higher,
and there may be duplicated unused functionality depending on the
application.
Primary/Subordinate BMS
Conceptually similar to the modular topology, however, in this case, the
slaves are more restricted to just relaying measurement information, and the
master is dedicated to computation and control, as well as external
communication. So, while like the modular types, the costs may be lower
since the functionality of the slaves tends to be simpler, with likely less
overhead and fewer unused features.
Distributed BMS Architecture
Considerably different from the other topologies, where the electronic
hardware and software are encapsulated in modules that interface to
the cells via bundles of attached wiring. A distributed BMS
incorporates all the electronic hardware on a control board placed
directly on the cell or module that is being monitored. This alleviates
the bulk of the cabling to a few sensor wires and communication
wires between adjacent BMS modules. Consequently, each BMS is
more self-contained, and handles computations and communications
as required. However, despite this apparent simplicity, this integrated
form does make troubleshooting and maintenance potentially
problematic, as it resides deep inside a shield module assembly. Costs
also tend to be higher as there are more BMSs in the overall battery
pack structure.
Sensor Management and Integration
Sensor Management and Integration
Sensor Management and Integration
Sensor Management and Integration
It contribute to address problems such as: (1) traffic congestion and
parking difficulties, (2) longer commuting times, (3) higher levels of
CO2 emissions, and (4) increase in the number of road accidents,
among others is of critical importance for improving a vehicle’s
performance as well enhancing the driving experience.
Functions:
• Sensors are required to monitor the battery and power train system,
and ensure that the demands of drivers can be met over a sustained
period of time.
• Monitor cell voltage and temperature
• Estimate battery state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH)
• Limit power input and output for thermal and overcharge
protection
• Control the battery charging profile
• Balance the state-of-charge of individual cells
• Isolate the battery pack from source and load when necessary.
Applications for In-Vehicle Sensors
• Tire-pressure monitoring is an application that is required for the
National Highway Traffic Administration of the U.S. to alert drivers
using acoustic, light or vibration warning if the tire air pressure is low.
• Proximity, ultrasonic and electromagnetic sensors are used in parking
assistance and reverse warning applications. Proximity sensors can
detect when a vehicle gets close to an object. Ultrasonic sensors use a
type of sonar to identify how far the vehicle is from an object, alerting
the driver when the vehicle gets closer than a set threshold.
Electromagnetic sensors alert the driver when an object enters an
electromagnetic field created around the front and back bumpers.
Proximity sensors have been used to develop a system based on a
rectangular capacitive proximity-sensing array for occupant head
position quantification to meet the guidelines of the Insurance Institute
for Highway Safety (IIHS). However, these types of sensors are
frequently affected by temperature and humidity, reducing their
accuracy.
• Radio Detection And Ranging (RADAR) and laser sensors constantly scan the
road for frontal, side and rear collisions and allow safety applications to adjust
throttle and activate brakes to prevent potential collisions or risk situations by
using radio waves to determine the distance between obstacles and the sensor. The
application notifies the driver if something close to the vehicle is detected and
automatically activates the brakes to avoid a collision.
• The gyroscope and accelerometer sensors are used in Inertial Navigation Systems
(INS) to determine the vehicle’s parameters such as vehicle position, orientation,
and velocity. INS are used in conjunction with Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
to improve accuracy.
• Radar and speed sensors are used in applications that warn the driver of potential
danger if changing lanes or wandering out of the lane is detected. The driver is
usually warned through vibration in the seat or steering wheel or acoustically
using an alarm.
• Cameras are used to: (1) monitor the driver’s body posture, head position and eye
activity to detect abnormal conditions such as signs of fatigue or the vehicle
behaving erratically (driving out of a straight line on the road or pedestrians
crossing suddenly in front of the vehicle) and (2) execute night vision assistance
applications to help drivers see farther down the road and detect objects such as
animals, people or trees in the path that can cause a potential risky situation or an
accident.
• LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) has become in a key
component for the evolution of autonomous vehicles. LIDAR
enables a self-driving car (or any robot) to observe the world with a
few special characteristics such as continuous 360-degree visibility
and highly accurate depth information. LIDAR sensors continually
fire off beams of laser light, and then measure how long it takes for
the light to return to the sensor.
• Although more sensors are in each vehicle, their integration with
other components and the lack of widely accepted standards among
different brands is a huge drawback in their adoption. In contrast,
current automated systems are limited in their capacities. For
example, Volvo’s city safety speed limit is 50 km/h or less to avoid
collisions with other vehicles or hitting motorcycles or cyclists. A
city safety system is based on a laser unit, so in darkness conditions,
the it can only detect a vehicle if its headlights and taillights are on
and are clearly visible.
EV and EHV configuration based on power electronics.
Batteries are one of the most important components for electromobility and must
be combined with a battery charger. In addition to battery packs and chargers, the
following components are essential for vehicle electrification:
• The electric machine(s) – used as a traction motor and sometimes as a generator.
• Propulsion power converters – such as DC/DC and DC/AC converters, operating
both in inverting and rectifying mode.
• DC/DC converter – with 12V output for auxiliary equipment (windshield wipers,
heating, radio, lights etc). Replaces the alternator in an ordinary car. The DC/
DC converter is connected to a 12V battery.
• Safety equipment – to break high currents and to monitor the battery, for
instance.
• High voltage cables – DC cables between battery and power electronics and
cables between power electronics and the electric machine (unless those
components are placed adjacent to each other). May have a total weight of
around 10kg in hybrid vehicles but may be lower for a pure electric vehicle since
the battery, motor and converter can be placed closer to one other.
• Electric cooling compressor – to keep the batteries from overheating, may also
be used to cool the passenger compartment
Series Hybrid configuration

Parallel Hybrid configuration

• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) can be classified into four kinds: series
hybrids, parallel hybrids, series–parallel hybrids (dual mode), and
complex hybrids. These classifications refer to the way in which electric
drive systems (battery, power electronic converter, and electric motor)
are connected with mechanical drive systems (fuel tank, Internal
Combustion Engine (ICE), transmission and differential).
• The series hybrid configuration has various benefits. For example, the
working point of the ICE can be chosen freely to be that which gives the
best efficiency and lowest emissions. The ICE can also be turned off so
that the vehicle can be driven in a purely electric mode giving zero
emissions (for a limited range). Furthermore, the ICE and generator set
can be placed in a separate location to that of the traction motor,
alleviating the packaging issue. However, the series hybrid configuration
has low system efficiency due the number of energy conversions.
Additionally, the electric motor and the battery pack need to be of a high
rating, and the generator adds extra weight and cost compared to the
parallel configuration, which only requires one electric machine.
• The series configuration is particularly advantageous for PHEVs, as the
electric motor and the battery pack are already of a high rating. However,
the pure series hybrid is rare for the first generation of plug-in vehicles,
which are to be rolled out between 2012 and 2014. The mechanical drive
train of the series configuration is different to an ordinary drive train
(where the ICE is mechanically connected to the transmission system),
and most first generation PHEVs are configured to allow conventional
mechanical drive train designs, such as parallel or series-parallel
configurations.
• In parallel HEVs the operating point of the ICE may also be chosen
relatively freely to give the best efficiency. Both the ICE and the electric
drive system (battery and electric motor) can be used at the same time to
cope with peak loads and to provide extra acceleration. Parallel
configurations require fewer electrical components than series
configurations – the generator is no longer needed since the traction
motor can also be used to generate electricity (charging the battery via
regenerative braking). Less power electronics is needed, and the rated
values of the electric motor and battery can be lower.
• Combinations of the series and parallel configurations are often
used to create systems that derive advantages from both
configurations, but with higher complexity and cost. In the series–
parallel hybrid, the series and parallel systems could. either be used
independently with a clutch that switches between the two systems
or simultaneously (a split system). Figure shows a schematic
diagram of a dual mode PHEV.
• Complex hybrids are similar to series–parallel hybrids but with
additional power electronics. Complex hybrids allow for versatile
operating modes that cannot be offered by the series–parallel
hybrid, such as electric or ICE-assisted four-wheel operation.
Similar to series–parallel HEVs, complex hybrids suffer from
higher complexity and cost. In sum, the size and rated values of
vehicle system components and the power value ratio between
motor types can be altered in many different ways. Similarly,
vehicle weight and differences in drive cycles should be
considered. There is no single system configuration that is suitable
for all circumstances.
Control strategies used in electric vehicle
• In EV, the fuel cell and auxiliary sources are connected in three
main topologies: FC and battery, FC and ultra capacitor, FC,
battery and ultra capacitor. This article considers control strategies
for primarily two main topologies which are widely used in EV.
The control strategies are designed in such way that it will
maintain DC bus voltage and provide current limit from auxiliary
source on change in load.
• By dynamic evolution control, we force error state to zero as the
time passes for reducing the error. So, the dynamic evolution
controller includes an error function. This dynamic evolution
controller is implemented by taking ultra capacitor as auxiliary
source. In this during start up, the fuel cell voltage is increased and
then it will provide a continuous power to the load. As regenerative
braking is applied, during this period, ultra capacitor stores the
energy and when the load demand, the ultra capacitor releases its
energy to the load.
Lyapunov-based control technique
• The control objectives which are followed by this control technique
are, maintaining DC bus voltage during change in load, track the
auxiliary current to its reference value and maintaining stability of
whole system.
• To maintain DC bus voltage, an error signal is generated from fuel
cell current compared to its reference value.
• After getting an error, the control signal of boost converter is obtained
by mathematical equation in which the objective forces error to
minimize.
• The second control objective is to track the auxiliary current to its
reference value; in this also error signal is generated. After getting an
error signal, the control signal of buck boost converter is obtained as
given in equation,
• The third control objective is to maintain the stability of the system.
This can be carried out by control signal which stabilizes the whole
system with state vectors, which shows that the closed loop
system with state vectors is asymptotically stable.
• Adaptive control includes self-tuning control (STC) and model-
referencing adaptive control (MRAC). Using STC, the controller
parameters are tuned to adapt to system parameter variations. The
key is to employ an identification block to track changes in system
parameters and to update the controller parameters through
controller adaptation in such a way that a desired closed-loop
performance can be obtained. Using MRAC, the output response is
forced to track the response of a reference model irrespective of
system parameter variations. Based on an adaptation algorithm that
utilizes the difference between the reference model and system
outputs, the controller parameters are adjusted to give a desired
closed-loop performance. Recently, both MRAC and STC have
been applied to commutator less motor drives for electric
propulsion in EVs.
• Variable structure control (VSC) has recently been applied for
motor drives to compete with adaptive control. Using VSC, the system
can be designed to provide parameter-insensitive features, prescribed
error dynamics and simplicity in implementation. Based on a set of
switch mg control laws, the system is forced to follow a predefined
trajectory in the phase plane irrespective of system parameter
variations.
• Emerging technologies such as fuzzy logic and neural networks have
recently been introduced into the field of motor drives. Fuzzy control
is essentially a linguistic process which is based on the prior
experience and heuristic rules used by human operators. Making use
of neural network control (NNC), the controller can possibly interpret
the behavior of system dynamics, then self-learn and self-adjust
accordingly. Furthermore, these state-of-the-art control strategies can
incorporate one another such as adaptive fuzzy control, fuzzy NNC
and fuzzy VSC. In near future, controllers incorporating artificial
intelligence (AI) can permit diagnosis of systems and correction of
faults to supplant the need of human intervention.
Torque and speed coupling:
• A coupling is a mechanical element part that connects two shafts
together to accurately transmit the power from the drive side to the
driven side while absorbing the mounting error (misalignment),
etc. of the two shafts.
• In speed and torque coupling drivetrain, the generator/ motor is
used to adjust the engine speed and the traction motor to adjust the
engine torque. In this way, the engine can be operated in its optimal
speed and torque region.
• Torque and speed coupling is a method of connecting the wheels
and the engine in a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) in which a
planetary gear system is used to decouple the engine speed and a
shaft fixed gear unit is used to decouple torque from that of the
wheels (vehicle). This allows the engine to work in narrow rage of
speed and torque where is is most efficient. This is used in series -
parallel hybrid vehicles.
• In torque coupling mechanical-hybrid and parallel hybrid-electric
vehicles, the mechanical power outputs from different power
sources are combined using various devices that can be generically
called "torque couplers." These include three-sprocket gears driven
by belts or chains or direct coupling on the same shaft.
• In speed coupling, a variable speed drive is installed between the
motor and the driven load. This drive may be an eddy current
clutch or a fluid clutch (sometimes called a fluid coupling). Use of
such a drive allows the motor to accelerate without accelerating the
driven load.
Variable Speed Coupling
• In this method, a variable speed drive is installed between the motor and
the driven load. This drive may be an eddy current clutch or a fluid
clutch (sometimes called a fluid coupling).
• Use of such a drive allows the motor to accelerate without accelerating
the driven load. After the motor is up to speed, the variable speed drive is
activated and the load brought up to operating speed.
• In this process, the losses that would have otherwise occurred in the
motor rotor now occur in the drive, and must be dissipated from the
drive. Usually, the drive has more effective cooling than the motor, and
also the rate of acceleration of the load can be controlled so that the rate
of heat generation in the drive can be controlled.
• It Allows higher starting inertias and very low starting current using
reduced voltage starter.
• Usually used with high inertia conditions where the motor is incapable of
absorbing the heating. Also used where very low inrush is required. Also
used where variable load speed is required.
Speed and Torque Controllers
• The controller ensures that an induction motor generates motor torque
efficiently, stably and accurately.
• The torque control system feeds back an assumed motor torque
calculated using the secondary magnetic flux and the torque current
detected from current sensors of the primary currents.
• The motor torque is controlled by using the torque current reference
determined from the generated secondary magnetic flux and the
magnetizing current reference.
• The magnetizing current reference is determined on the basis of the
torque current reference so that motor torque generation efficiency is
always optimal. The magnetizing current regulator is operated
according to the magnetizing current reference.
• This ensures the motor generates the motor torque stably even in
transient states. Fundamental performance characteristics, such as
response, accuracy and efficiency of the motor torque are verified by
simulation and experiments. The torque controller is judged suitable
for the drive system of electric vehicles.
Motor Controller
• Motor controller is a combination of power electronics and
embedded micro computing elements which makes the efficient
conversion of energy stored in batteries of an electric vehicle to
generate the motion.
• Motor controller controls the energy flow to the motor. Interfaces
like throttle, brake or forward/reverse switches are connected to the
motor controller which processes the commands from these inputs
and vary precisely controls the speed, torque, directions and
resulting horsepower of motor in the vehicle.
• Apart from this motor controller also can reverse the energy from
motor back to the batteries which helps the electric vehicles to
break more effective than simple mechanical break system.
• Motor Controllers intended for EV application can be broadly
classified into following categories: Voltage, Power & Current. The
table below summarizes such specifications for different vehicle
class.
• Motor Control Unit (MCU) is an electronic module that interfaces between the
batteries and motor to control the electric vehicle’s speed and acceleration based
on throttle input. The controller transforms the battery’s direct current into
alternating current and regulates the energy flow from the battery. The controller
also reverses the motor rotation during region which in turn charges the battery.
• Efficiency of Motor can be increased either by altering Input Current or Flux to
have better resulting Torque. But modifying these parameters affect the size of
motor which is governed by EV space and weight. Therefore, design of an
efficient controller becomes of paramount importance.
• This Motor control unit (MCU) can fulfill the following functions irrespective of
the Motor used.
1) Control the Motor torque and speed
2) Start/Stop the Motor
3) Prevent from electrical faults
4) Provide overload protection
5) Change the motor rotation direction
6) Regenerative Braking
Block diagram of MCU:
Battery Control Unit:
Battery control unit (BCU)
• BCU designs often require:
1) Resolution of voltage and temperature measurement on cell level.
2) Accurate current sense on pack level.
3) Following state-of-the-art architecture regarding system
redundancy in order to allow implementation of the system on the
highest safety level.
• A battery control system is used for managing remaining battery
voltage and control of battery charging. The voltages of the individual
cells are monitored and the balance controlled by a battery cell
monitor MCU and lithium-ion battery cell monitor ICs. Battery
management MCUs can perform management of remaining battery
voltage and battery charge control.
• The purpose of the hybrid battery control module is to continually
calculate the state of charge for the high voltage battery in a hybrid
vehicle. It then sends this information to the high voltage control unit,
which determines whether to charge or discharge the high voltage
battery.
Speed control for constant torque
Speed control for constant torque
• Constant torque loads require the same amount of torque at low speeds as
at high speeds. Torque remains constant throughout the speed range, and
the horsepower increases and decreases in direct proportion to the speed.
• Constant torque loads include most positive displacement and
reciprocating pumps and compressors as well as traction drives and
conveyors. With constant torque loads, the torque is not a function of
speed. As speed is changed, the load torque will remain fairly constant
and the horsepower will change linearly with the speed.
• For example, if the speed increases by 50%, then the power required to
drive the operation will increase 50% while the torque remains constant.
• Constant horsepower loads require high torque at low speeds and low
torque at high speeds, which means constant horsepower at any speed.
Constant horsepower loads include grinders, winding machines and
lathes. For constant horsepower loads, the torque loading is a function of
speed up to 100% operating speed. As the speed of the operation is
decreased, the torque increases so that the horsepower required remains
essentially constant.
Speed control for constant torque
• Variable torque loads require much lower torque at low speeds than
at high speeds. The torque required varies as the square of the
speed and the horsepower required varies as the cube of the speed.
Variable torque loads include most centrifugal and axial pumps,
fans and blowers and many mixers and agitators.
• As the speed is decreased, the torque will decrease by the square of
the speed decrease and the horsepower required decreases by the
cube of the speed decrease.
• As an example, when the speed of a variable torque load is reduced
by 50% or one half, the torque required to drive the load is reduced
to one-quarter or 25%. The horsepower is reduced to the speed
cubed, which is 1/8, or 12.5% of that required to drive the load at
full speed.
• A constant torque motor is a brushless motor, which reduces heat
within the rotor and stator area. They're 80% efficient compared to
PSC motors which are rated at 60% efficient. They also don't need
a capacitor to start and run.
Constant Horsepower Loads
• A constant horsepower load is when the motor torque required is
above the motor’s base speed (60 Hz). With a constant horsepower
type of load, the torque loading is a function of the changing
physical dimensions of the load.
• These types of applications would include grinders, turret lathes,
and winding reels. Constant horsepower loads require high torque
at low speeds and low torque at high speeds.
• While the torque and speed changes, the horsepower remains
constant.
• For example, an empty reel winding a coil will require the least
amount of torque, initially, and will be accelerated to the highest
speed. As the coil builds up on the reel, the torque required will
increase and the speed will be decreased.
• The motor torque remains constant below its normal speed and its
value decreases above normal speed. The HP remains fairly
constant above normal speed.
• Constant torque control is achieved below the base speed while the
power increases linearly; the maximum power is acquired when the
speed reached the base speed; then the torque starts to decrease to
keep the power at its maximum value.
• The region below base speed where armature voltage control may
be applied is called the constant torque region. Above base speed,
the flux is reduced and the motor enters the "field weakening
region". This region is also sometimes known as the constant
power region.
Control methods
Phase flux linkage:
• Flux linkage is the linking of the magnetic field with the
conductors of a coil when the magnetic field passes through the
loops of the coil, expressed as a value. The flux linkage of a coil is
simply an alternative term for total flux, used for convenience in
engineering applications.
• Its formula is, emf = dλ/dt. If the current i created the magnetic
flux density B, then the flux linkage is given by λ = Li. In this
case, emf = L di/dt. L is the self inductance of the coil.
• Flux linkage occurs when a magnetic field interacts with a material
such as what would happen when a magnetic field goes through a
coil of wire. Flux linkage is determined by the number of windings
and flux, where ϕ is used to indicate the instantaneous value of a
time-varying flux.
Phase Inductance:
• Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a
change in the electric current flowing through it.
• Phase inductance is the key parameter in designing current
controllers. Additionally, the rotor position is essential for
coordinate transformation during the motor startup.
• E = N(dϕ/dt) The number of turns in the coil is N, and the induced
EMF across the coil is E. Using Lenz's law, rewrite the above
equation, E = -N(dϕ/dt) The previous equation is modified to
compute the value of inductance.
• Use the formula L = R * sqrt(3) / (2 * pi * f). L is the inductance,
so you need the resistance (R) and the frequency (f).
Modulated Signal Injection
• Modulation is defined as the process of superimposing a low-frequency
signal on a high-frequency carrier signal.
• Injection modulation is the effect observed when laser oscillation is
perturbed by an injected signal below the threshold of locking. In this
regime the oscillation becomes a wave modulated in frequency as well as
in amplitude. The modulation envelope has a characteristic waveform
which depends on the amplitude and phase of the injected signal.
Mutually Induced Voltage
• Mutual induction is defined as the property of the coils that enables it to
oppose the changes in the current in another coil. With a change in the
current of one coil, the flow changes too thus inducing EMF in the other
coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual induction.
• E.g. Two inductors whose self-inductances are given as 75mH and 55mH
respectively, are positioned next to each other on a common magnetic
core so that 75% of the lines of flux from the first coil are cutting the
second coil.
• When two coils are brought in proximity with each other the
magnetic field in one of the coils tend to link with the other. This
further leads to the generation of voltage in the second coil. This
property of a coil which affects or changes the current and voltage
in a secondary coil is called mutual inductance.
• The formula of two coils is given as M= ( μ0.μr. N1. N2. A) / L.
Where μ0= permeability of free space = 4π10-2, μ = permeability
of the soft iron core, N1= turns of coil 1, N2= turns of coil 2,
A= cross-sectional area in m2,L = length of the coil in meters. The
unit of mutual inductance is kg. m2.s-2.A-2
• A device that produces the effect of mutual induction is called a
transformer. However, a very interesting property of the device is
its ability to change voltage and current ratio only according to a
simple ratio, which is determined by the input, and the output of
the coil turns.
Observer based Theory:
• In control theory, a state observer or state estimator is a system that
provides an estimate of the internal state of a given real system,
from measurements of the input and output of the real system. It is
typically computer-implemented, and provides the basis of many
practical applications.
• Knowing the system state is necessary to solve many control
theory problems; for example, stabilizing a system using state
feedback. In most practical cases, the physical state of the system
cannot be determined by direct observation. Instead, indirect
effects of the internal state are observed by way of the system
outputs. A simple example is that of vehicles in a tunnel: the rates
and velocities at which vehicles enter and leave the tunnel can be
observed directly, but the exact state inside the tunnel can only be
estimated. If a system is observable, it is possible to fully
reconstruct the system state from its output measurements using
the state observer.
• Typical observer model are,
1)Discrete-time case
2)Continuous-time case
3)Peaking and other observer methods
• State observers for nonlinear systems
1)Linearizable error dynamics
2)Sliding mode observer
• Multi-observer
• Bounding observers