RADIATION

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

Definition

Radiation, energy transfer across a system boundary due to a ΔT, by the mechanism of photon emission or
electromagnetic wave emission.

Because the mechanism of transmission is photon emission, unlike conduction and convection, there need be no
intermediate matter to enable transmission. The significance of this is that radiation will be the only mechanism for heat
transfer whenever a vacuum is present.
 Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

• Orthonormal oscillating electric and magnetic field

• Carry energy, mass and momentum
 Interaction with Matter
• Electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength absorbed by matter
• High temperature photons: ionizing radiation
- Ultraviolet, X ray and gamma radiation
- More dangerous per unit of energy than non ionizing radiation
- Break chemical bonds
• Applies to UV
- Can damage molecules due to electronic excitation
Thermal radiation
- Absorbed radiation heats the material (increase internal energy)
- Visible, infrared, microwave and radio wave
- Intense thermal radiation can be dangerous as well
- Radio waves can thermally burn living tissue and cook food
- Microwave used in cooking
 Electromagnetic Phenomena
We are well acquainted with a wide range of electromagnetic phenomena in modern life. These phenomena are
sometimes thought of as wave phenomena and are, consequently, often described in terms of electromagnetic wave
length, Examples are given in terms of the wave distribution shown below:
An electromagnetic wave propagates at the speed of light (3×108 m/s). It is characterized by its wavelength λ or its
frequency ν related by

Emission of radiation is not continuous, but occurs only in the form of discrete quanta. Each quantum has energy

where, = 6.6246×10-34 J.s, is known as Planck’s constant.

E = hv

Which phenomenon is related to the term radiation? Thermal radiation takes place from a body by
electromagnetic waves as a result of
a. magnetic phenomenon
b. gravity a. the weight of the body
c. electromagnetic phenomenon b. the magnetic power of the body
d. none of the above c. the temperature of the body
d. none of the above
 THERMAL RADIATION

• The electromagnetic radiation encountered in practice covers a wide range of

wavelengths, varying from less than 10-10 m for cosmic rays to more than 1010 m for
electrical power waves.
• The electromagnetic spectrum also includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet
radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, thermal radiation, microwaves, and
radio waves, as shown in Figure.
• Different types of electromagnetic radiation are produced through various mechanisms.
For example, gamma rays are produced by nuclear reactions, X-rays by the
bombardment of metals with high-energy electrons, microwaves by special types of
electron tubes such as klystrons and magnetrons, and radio waves by the excitation of
some crystals or by the flow of alternating current through electric conductors.
Thermal radiation
• The type of electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent to heat transfer is the thermal radiation emitted as a result of
energy transitions of molecules, atoms, and electrons of a substance.
• Temperature is a measure of the strength of these activities at the microscopic level, and the rate of thermal radiation
emission increases with increasing temperature.

• Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter whose temperature is

above absolute zero. That is, everything around us such as walls, furniture, and
our friends constantly emits (and absorbs) radiation.
• Thermal radiation is also defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
that extends from about 0.1 to 100 m, since the radiation emitted by bodies due to
their temperature falls almost entirely into this wavelength range. Thus, thermal
radiation includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well as a portion
of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
 Visible Light
Light is simply the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that
lies between 0.40 and 0.76 m. Light is characteristically no different
than other electromagnetic radiation, except that it happens to trigger
the sensation of seeing in the human eye. Light, or the visible spectrum,
consists of narrow bands of color from violet (0.40–0.44 m) to red
(0.63–0.76 m), as shown in Table 11–1.
• A body that emits some radiation in the visible range is called a light source.
• The sun is obviously our primary light source.
• The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is known as solar radiation, and nearly all of it falls into
the wavelength band 0.3–3 m.
• Almost half of solar radiation is light (i.e., it falls into the visible range), with the remaining being ultraviolet and
infrared.
• The radiation emitted by bodies at room temperature falls into the infrared region of the spectrum, which extends from
0.76 to 100 m.
• Bodies start emitting noticeable visible radiation at temperatures above 800 K. The tungsten filament of a lightbulb
must be heated to temperatures above 2000 K before it can emit any significant amount of radiation in the visible
range.
Ultraviolet radiation
• The ultraviolet radiation includes the low-wavelength end of the thermal radiation spectrum and lies between the
wavelengths 0.01 and 0.40 m. Ultraviolet rays are to be avoided since they can kill microorganisms and cause serious
damage to humans and other living organisms.
• About 12 percent of solar radiation is in the ultraviolet range, and it would be devastating if it were to reach the
surface of the earth.
• Fortunately, the ozone (O3) layer in the atmosphere acts as a protective blanket and absorbs most of this ultraviolet
radiation.
• The ultraviolet rays that remain in sunlight are still sufficient to cause serious sunburns to sun worshippers, and
prolonged exposure to direct sunlight is the leading cause of skin cancer, which can be lethal.

Microwave

• Microwave ovens utilize electromagnetic radiation in the microwave region of the spectrum generated by
microwave tubes called magnetrons.
• Microwaves in the range of 102–105 m are very suitable for use in cooking since they are reflected by metals,
transmitted by glass and plastics, and absorbed by food (especially water) molecules. Thus, the electric energy
converted to radiation in a microwave oven eventually becomes part of the internal energy of the food. The fast
and efficient cooking of microwave ovens has made them as one of the essential appliances in modern kitchens.

When a body receives radiation in the wavelength range

of 0.1 to 100 μm (micrometer), then its temperature

a. increases
b. decreases
c. does not change
d. unpredictable
 Radio wave
• Radars and cordless telephones also use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave region.
• The wavelength of the electromagnetic waves used in radio and TV broadcasting usually ranges between 1
and 1000 m in the radio wave region of the spectrum.

Important Note: In heat transfer studies, we are interested in the energy emitted by bodies because of their
temperature only. Therefore, we will limit our consideration to thermal radiation, which we will simply call
radiation. The relations developed below are restricted to thermal radiation only and may not be applicable to other
forms of electromagnetic radiation.
 Important Applications

o Combustion
o Fire
o Rocket propulsion
o Hypersonic shock layers
o Plasmas in fusion reactors
o Solar and atmospheric radiation
o Material Processing
o Lasers
o Diagnostic techniques
 Importance of Radiation

• Furnace design, heat and mixing patterns

• Fuel efficiency

• Low emission

• Improved methods for heat recuperation for cost effective heat recovery processes

• Optimization of emissivity of materials used in furnaces or burners

• Increased combustion intensity

 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES
Emissive power
• It is the emitted thermal radiation leaving a system per unit time, per unit area of surface.
• The total emissive power of a surface is all the emitted energy, summed over all the direction and all wavelengths, and is
usually denoted as E.
• The total emissive power is found to be dependent upon the temperature of the emitting surface, the subsystem which
this system is composed, and the nature of the surface structure or texture.
• The monochromatic emissive power Eλ, is defined as the rate, per unit area, at which the surface emits thermal radiation
at a particular wavelength λ.
 ABSORPTIVITY, REFLECTIVITY, AND TRANSMITTING
The emissive power, radiosity, and irradiation of a surface are inter-related by the reflective, absorptive, and
transmissive properties of the system.

When thermal radiation is incident on a surface, a part of the radiation may be reflected by the surface, a part may be
absorbed by the surface and a part may be transmitted through the surface as shown in fig.. These fractions of reflected,
absorbed, and transmitted energy are interpreted as system properties called reflectivity, absorptivity, and
transmissivity, respectively.
Thus using energy conservation,

where, ρ , α , τ are total reflectivity, total absorptivity, and total transmissivity. The subscript λ indicates the
monochromatic property.

•In general the monochromatic and total surface properties are dependent on the system composition, its roughness,
and on its temperature.
• Monochromatic properties are dependent on the wavelength of the incident radiation, and the total properties
are dependent on the spectral distribution of the incident energy. 40% of incident radiant energy on the surface of a
thermally transparent body is reflected back. If the
transmissivity of the body be 0.15, then the absorptivity of
surface is
(a) 0.45
(b) 0.55
(c) 0.40
(d) 0.75
(e) 0.60
•Most gases have high transmissivity, i.e. τ~ 1 and ρ = α = 0 (like air at atmospheric pressure). However, some other
gases (water vapour, CO2 etc.) may be highly absorptive to thermal radiation, at least at certain wavelength.
• Most solids encountered in engineering practice are opaque to thermal radiation Thus for thermally opaque solid
surfaces,
ρ+α=1

Another important property of the surface of a substance is its ability to emit radiation. Emission and radiation have
different concept. Reflection may occur only when the surface receives radiation whereas emission always occurs
if the temperature of the surface is above the absolute zero. Emissivity of the surface is a measure of how good it is
an emitter.
 Irradiation
It is the term used to denote the rate, per unit area, at which thermal radiation is incident upon a surface (from all the
directions). The irradiative incident upon a surface is the result of emission and reflection from other surfaces and may
thus be spectrally dependent.

where, G and Gλ are the total and monochromatic irradiation.

The radiation flux incident on a surface from all directions is called irradiation, G
 RADIOSITY
Surfaces emit radiation as well as reflecting it, and thus the radiation leaving a surface consists of emitted and reflected
components, as shown in Figure. The calculation of radiation heat transfer between surfaces involves the total radiation
energy streaming away from a surface, with no regard for its origin. Thus, we need to define a quantity that represents the
rate at which radiation energy leaves a unit area of a surface in all directions. This quantity is called the radiosity J, and is
expressed as
Reflection two types
 BLACK BODY
• A body at a temperature above absolute zero emits radiation in all directions over a wide range of wavelengths.
• The amount of radiation energy emitted from a surface at a given wavelength depends on the material of the body and
the condition of its surface as well as the surface temperature. Therefore, different bodies may emit different amounts
of radiation per unit surface area, even when they are at the same temperature.
• Thus, it is natural to be curious about the maximum amount of radiation that can be emitted by a surface at a given
temperature. Satisfying this curiosity requires the definition of an idealized body, called a blackbody, to serve as a
standard against which the radiative properties of real surfaces may be compared.
• A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
• At a specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.
• A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction. Also, a blackbody emits radiation
energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to direction of emission. That is, a blackbody is a diffuse
emitter.
The term diffuse means “independent of direction.”
The Stefan–Boltzmann Law
The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area was determined
experimentally by Joseph Stefan in 1879 and expressed as
Eb(T ) = σT 4
where σ = 5.67x108 W/m2 · K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature of the surface
in K. This relation was theoretically verified in 1884 by Ludwig Boltzmann. Equation is known as the Stefan–
Boltzmann law and Eb is called the blackbody emissive power. Note that the emission of thermal radiation is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
Closest approx. of black body
 PLANCK’S LAW

A surface emits radiation of different wavelengths at a given temperature (theoretically zero to infinite wavelengths).
At a fixed wavelength, the surface radiates more energy as the temperature increases. Monochromatic emissive
power of a blackbody is given by

-34
where, h = 6.6256 X 10 JS; Planck’s constant
8
c = 3 X 10 m/s; speed of light
T = absolute temperature of the blackbody
λ = wavelength of the monochromatic radiation emitted
-23
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3805 X 10 J/K
2 -34
C1 = 2пhc = 2 x 3.14 x 6.6256 x 10 x (3 x 10^8)^2 = 3.742 x 10^ -16
W.m4/m2 = 3.742 x 10^ -16 x (10^6)^4 = 3.742 x 10^ 8 W.µm4/m2
ℎ𝐶 6.6256 X 10−34 X 3 X 108 −2 mk = 1.439 𝑋 104 μmK
𝐶2 = = 3 = 1.439 𝑋 10
𝑘 1.3805 X 10−2
The plot shows the following distinct characteristics of black body
radiations:
1. The energy emitted at all wavelengths increases with rise in
temperature
2. The peak spectral emissive power shifted towards a smaller
wavelength at higher temperature. This shift signifies that at
elevated temperature, much of the energy is emitted in a
narrow band ranging on both sides of wavelength at which the
monochromatic power is maximum.
3. The area under the monochromatic emissive power versus
wavelength, at any temperature, gives the rate of radiant energy
emitted within the wavelength interval dλ. Thus,
 WIEN’S LAW

Figure shows that as the temperature increases the peaks of the curve also increases
and it shift towards the shorter wavelength. It can be easily found out that the
wavelength corresponding to the peak of the plot (λmax) is inversely proportional to
the temperature of the blackbody (Wein’s law).
Now with the Wien’s law or Wien’s displacement law, it can be understood if we
heat a body, initially the emitted radiation does not have any colour. As the
temperature rises the λ of the radiation reach the visible spectrum and we can able
to see the red colour being height λ (for red colour). Further increase in temperature
shows the white colour indicating all the colours in the light.

λmax T = 2898
Monochromatic emissive power of a blackbody is given by

𝑪𝟏
𝑬𝒃𝝀 =
𝑪
𝝀𝟓 [𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝟐 − 𝟏]
𝝀𝑻
 Dividing both sides by 5C1λ-6 , we get

Solving this equation by trial and error method, we get

A combination of Planck’s law and Wein’s displacement law yields the condition for the maximum monochromatic
emissive power for a black body.
Planck’s law holds good for
𝑾
(𝑬𝒃𝝀 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑻𝟓 (a) black bodies
𝒎𝟐 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (b) polished bodies
(c) all coloured bodies
(d) all of the above
(e) none of the above.
 EMISSIVITY

• The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a given temperature to the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of a surface is denoted by 𝜖 , and it varies
between zero and one, 0 ≤ 𝜖 ≤ 1
• Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody, for which 𝜖 = 1.
• The emissivity of a real surface is not a constant. Rather, it varies with the temperature of the surface as well as the
wavelength and the direction of the emitted radiation.

Two plates spaced 150 mm apart are maintained at 1000°C

and 70°C. The heat transfer will take place mainly by
(a) convection
(b) free convection
(c) forced convection
(d) radiation
(e) radiation and convection
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Consider an enclosure as shown in fig. and a body is placed inside the enclosure. The radiant heat flux (q) is incident
onto the body and allowed to come into temperature equilibrium. The rate of energy absorbed at equilibrium by the
body must be equal to the energy emitted.

where, E is the emissive power of the body, α is absorptivity of the of the body at equilibrium temperature, and A is
the area of the body.
Now consider the body is replaced by a blackbody i.e. E → Eb and α = 1, the equation 7.14 becomes
Eb= q
At this point we may define emissivity, which is a measure of how good the body is an emitter as compared to
blackbody. Thus the emissivity can be written as the ratio of the emissive power to that of a blackbody,

Above equation is the Kirchhoff’s law, which states that the emissivity of a body which is in thermal equilibrium
with its surrounding is equal to its absorptivity of the body.
Absorptivity of a body will be equal to its emissivity

(a) at all temperatures

(b) at one particular temperature
(c) when system is under thermal equilibrium
(d) at critical temperature
(e) for a polished body.
 GREY BODY

If grey body is defined as a substance whose monochromatic emissivity and absorptivity are
independent of wavelength
Comparison of grey and blackbody
Blackbody Grey body
ε=1 ε<1
α=1 α<1

OPAQUE BODY
Most materials encountered in practice, such as metals, wood, and bricks, are opaque to thermal radiation, and radiation is
considered to be a surface phenomenon for such materials. That is, thermal radiation is emitted or absorbed within the first
few microns of the surface, and thus we speak of radiative properties of surfaces for opaque materials.

For opaque surfaces, 𝜏 = 0, and thus

𝛼+ 𝜌=1
Consider a 20-cm-diameter spherical ball at 800 K suspended in air . Assuming the
ball closely approximates a blackbody, determine
(a) the total blackbody emissive power, (b) the total amount of radiation emitted by
the ball in 5 min, and (c) the spectral blackbody emissive power at a wavelength of
3 μm.
Solution: An isothermal sphere is suspended in air. The total blackbody emissive power, the total radiation emitted in 5
minutes, and the spectral blackbody emissive power at 3 mm are to be determined.
Assumptions The ball behaves as a blackbody.
(a) The total blackbody emissive power is determined from the Stefan–Boltzmann law to be
Eb = σT 4 = (5.67 X 10-8 W/m2 · K4)(800 K)4 = 23.2 X 103 W/m2
That is, the ball emits 23.2 kJ of energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation per second per m2 of the surface area of the
ball.
(b) The total amount of radiation energy emitted from the entire ball in 5 min is determined by multiplying the blackbody
emissive power obtained above by the total surface area of the ball and the given time interval:
As = пD2 = п x 0.2 2 = 0.1257 m2
∆t = (5 min)60 s= 300 s
Qrad = EbAs ∆t = (23.2 kW/m2)(0.1257 m2)(300 s) = 876 kJ
That is, the ball loses 876 kJ of its internal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves to the surroundings in 5 min

(c) The spectral blackbody emissive power at a wavelength of 3 μm is determined from Planck’s distribution law to be

𝑪𝟏 3.743 x 108
𝑬𝒃𝝀 = = 4 = 3848 W/m2 ·μm
𝑪
𝝀𝟓 [𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝟐 − 𝟏] 3 5 [exp
1.4387x 10
𝝀𝑻 − 1]
3 𝑥 800
 Assuming the sun to be a black body emitting radiation with maximum intensity at 𝝀 = 0.49 𝝁𝒎,
Calculate the following :
i) The surface temperature of the sun and
ii) The heat flux at surface of the sun

Solution: Given : 𝝀max = 0.49 𝝁𝒎

i) The surface temperature of the sun, T:

From Wien’s displacement law,
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2898 𝜇𝑚𝐾
0.49 𝑋 𝑇 = 2898
𝑇 = 5914 K
ii) The heat flux at surface of the sun : 𝑸𝒔𝒖𝒏 = 𝝈𝑨𝑻𝟒
𝑸𝒔𝒖𝒏 −
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 = = 𝝈𝑻𝟒 = 5.67 x10 8 x 59144
𝑨

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 6.936 𝑥 107 𝑊/𝑚2

 HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

A body having emissivity at temperature T1 emits the radiant energy equal to ƐσT14 per unit area. If the surroundings
are black, none of this radiation will be reflected by them and if the surroundings are at temperature T2, they will emit
the radiation equal to Ɛ σT24. If a body is grey, it will absorb fraction Ɛ of this energy, so that the net rate of radiation
energy flow from the grey body to the black surrounding is given by the expression
𝑄
= 𝜖𝜎 (𝑇14 − 𝑇24)
𝐴

Where Ɛ = emissivity of grey body

T1 = Absolute temperature of grey body
T2 = absolute temp of surroundings
This equation is also applicable when a heat surrounding is small as compared to the surrondings.
Calculate the heat loss by radiation from an unlagged horizontal steam pipe, 50 mm OD
at 377 K to air at 283K. Data: Ɛ = 0.90
𝑸
= 𝝐𝝈 (𝑻𝟏𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐𝟒)
𝑨
𝑄
= 0.90 𝑥 5.67 𝑥 10 − 8 (3774 − 2834)
𝐴
𝑄
= 704 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐴
 Calculate the following for an industrial furnace in the form of a black body and emitting radiation at
2500 0C :
i) Monochromatic emissive power at 1.2 𝝁𝒎 length
ii) Wavelength at which the emission is maximum
iii) Maximum emissive power
iv) Total emissive power of the furnace if it is assumed as a real surface with emissivity equal to 0.9
Solution : T = 2500 + 273 = 2773 K ; λ = 1.2 𝜇𝑚, Ɛ = 0.9

i) Monochromatic emissive power at 1.2 𝝁𝒎 length:

𝑪𝟏 3.742 𝑋 10−16
𝑬𝒃𝝀 = =
𝟓 𝑪𝟐 1.4388 𝑋 10−2
𝝀 [𝐞𝐱𝐩 − 𝟏] (1.2 𝑋10−6 )5 [exp − 1]
𝝀𝑻 1.2 𝑋10−6 𝑋 2773
𝑊
= 2.014 𝑋1012 2
𝑚
ii) Wavelength at which the emission is maximum: From Wien’s displacement law,
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2898 𝜇𝑚𝐾
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 2773 = 2898
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.045 𝜇𝑚
iii) Maximum emissive power : 𝑾
(𝑬𝒃𝝀 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑻𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝒎𝟐 𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑊 𝑊
(𝐸𝑏𝜆 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.285 𝑥10−5 27735 2 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2.1 𝑥1012 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚2

Extra [The total rate of energy emission, Eb:]

−8
𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒 = 5.67 × 10 𝑋 2773 4 = 3.352 𝑥 106 W/m^2

iv) Total emissive power of the furnace if it is assumed as a real surface with emissivity equal to 0.9

−8
𝐸 = 𝜖𝜎 𝑇4 = 0.9 X 5.67 X 10 X 2773 4 = 3.017 X 10^6 W/m2
 INTENSITY OF RADIATION
When a surface element emits radiation, all of it will be intercepted by a hemispherical surface placed over the element.
The intensity of radiation (I) is defined as the rate of energy leaving a surface in a given direction per unit solid
angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space. A solid angle is defined as a
portion of the space inside a sphere enclosed by a conical surface with the vertex of the cone at the centre of the sphere. It
is measured by the ratio of the spherical surface enclosed by the cone to the square of the radius of the sphere; its unit is
2𝜋𝑟 2
steradian (sr). The solid angle subtended by the complete hemisphere is given by: 𝑟2
= 2𝜋

Fig. (a) shows a small black surface of area dA (emitter) emitting radiation
in different directions. A black body radiation collector through which the
radiation pass is located at an angular position characterised by zenith
angle 𝜃 towards the surface normal and angle ф of a spherical coordinate
system. Further the collector subtends a solid angle dω when viewed from
a point on the emitter.

(a) Spacial distribution of radiations emitted from a surface

 Let us now consider radiation from the elementary area dA1 at the centre of a sphere
as shown in Fig. (b). Suppose this radiation is absorbed by a second elemental area
dA2 a portion of the hemispherical surface.

The projected area of dA1 on a plane perpendicular to the line joining dA1 and dA2 = dA1 cos Ɵ

𝑑𝐴2
The solid angle subtended by 𝑑𝐴2 =
𝑟2
𝑑𝑄1−2
The intensity of radiation, 𝐼=
𝑑𝐴2
𝑑𝐴1 cos Ɵ 𝑥
𝑟2

Where, 𝑑𝑄1−2 is the rate of radiation heat transfer from dA1 to dA2
It is evident from fig b that 𝑑𝐴2 = 𝑟 𝑑𝜃(𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜑)
𝑑𝐴2 = 𝑟2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
𝑑𝑄1−2 = 𝐼 𝑑𝐴1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑

(b) Illustration for evaluating area dA2

The total radiation through the hemisphere is given by
𝜋
𝜃= 𝜑=2𝜋
2
𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑑𝐴1 න න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
𝜃=0 𝜑=0
𝜋
𝜃= 2
𝑄 = 2𝜋𝐼 𝑑𝐴1 න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0
𝜋
𝜃=
2
𝑄 = 𝜋𝐼 𝑑𝐴1 න 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0
𝜋
𝜃= 2
𝑄 = 𝜋𝐼 𝑑𝐴1 න sin 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0

𝐸𝑑𝐴1 = 𝜋𝐼 𝑑𝐴1

𝑬 = 𝝅𝑰

The total emissive power of a diffuse surface is equal to 𝝅 times its intensity of radiation
 The effective temperature of a body having an area of 0.12 m2 is 527 0C, Calculate the following:
i) The total rate of energy emission
ii) The intensity of normal radiation and
iii) The wavelength of maximum monochromatic emissive power

Solution: Given A =0.12 m2, T = 527 + 273 = 800 K

i) The total rate of energy emission, Eb:

Q = 𝝈𝑨𝑻𝟒
−8 4
𝑄 = 5.67 × 10 𝑋 0.12 𝑋 800

ii) The intensity of normal radiation, Ibn :

𝐸𝑏 𝜎𝑇 4
𝐼𝑏𝑛 = = = 7392.5 𝑊/𝑚2. 𝑠𝑟
𝜋 𝜋
i) The wavelength of maximum monochromatic emissive power, I max :
From Wien’s displacement law,
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2898 𝜇𝑚𝐾
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 800 = 2898
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.622 𝜇𝑚
Assuming the sun (diameter = 1.4 x 109 m) as a black body having a surface temperature of 5750 K and at a mean distance of
15 x 1010 m from the earth (diameter = 12.8 x 106), estimate the following:

i) The total energy emitted by the sun

ii) The emission received per m2 just outside the atmosphere of the earth
iii) The total energy received by the earth if no radiation is blocked by the atmosphere of the earth, and
iv) The energy received by a 1.6 m x 1.6 m solar collector whose normal is inclined at 50 0 to the sun. The energy loss
through the atmosphere is 42 percent and diffuse radiation is 22 percent of direct radiation.

Radius of the sun, rs = (1.4 x 10^9)/2 = 0.7 x 10^9 m

Mean distance of the sun from the earth, R = 15 x 10^10 m

Radius of the earth re = (12.8 x 10^6 )/2 = 6.4 x 10^ 6 m

Surface temp T = 5750 K

Total energy emitted by the sun: = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟏𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔 W

Emission received per m2 =1349 W/m2
The total energy received by the earth =1.736 x 10 17 W
energy received by collector=1872 W
 VIEW FACTOR

• Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of the surfaces relative to each other as well as
their radiation properties and temperatures
• For example, a camper will make the most use of a campfire on a cold night by standing as close to the fire as
possible and by blocking as much of the radiation coming from the fire by turning her front to the fire instead of her
side. Likewise, a person will maximize the amount of solar radiation incident on him and take a sunbath by lying
down on his back instead of standing up on his feet.
• To account for the effects of orientation on radiation heat transfer between two surfaces, we define a new parameter
called the view factor, which is a purely geometric quantity and is independent of the surface properties and
temperature. It is also called the shape factor, configuration factor, and angle factor.
 RADIATION EXCHANGE
BETWEEN BLACK BODIES SEPARATED BY A NONABSORBING MEDIUM

Let' us consider heat exchange between elementary areas dA1 and dA2 of two black radiating bodies, separated by a non
absorbing medium, and having areas A1 and A2 and temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. The elementary areas are at a
distance r apart and the normal to these areas make angles 𝜃 1 and 𝜃 2 with the line joining them. Each elemental area
subtends a solid angle at the centre of the other. Let dω1 be subtended at dA1 by dA2 and dω2 subtended at dA2 by dA1

.Then

𝑑𝐴2 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 cos 𝜃1

dω1 = dω 2 =
𝑟2 𝑟2
The energy leaving dA1 in the direction given by the angle per unit solid angle = Ib1 dA1 cos 𝜃 1
where, Ib = Black body intensity, and

dA1 cos 𝜃 1 = Projection of dA1 on the line between the centres.

The rate of radiant energy leaving dA1 and striking on dA2 is given by
Radiation heat exchange
between two black surface
 𝑑𝑄1−2 = 𝐼𝑏1 𝑑𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 . dω1

𝐼𝑏1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2

=
𝑟2

This energy is absorbed by the elementary area dA2 , since both the surfaces are black. The quantity of energy
radiated by dA2 and absorbed by dA1 is given by
𝐼𝑏2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2
𝑑𝑄2−1 =
𝑟2

The net rate of transfer of energy between dA I and dA2 is

𝑑𝑄12 = 𝑑𝑄1−2 − 𝑑𝑄2−1

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2

= (𝐼𝑏1 − 𝐼𝑏2 )
𝑟2
𝐸 𝑏1 𝐸 𝑏2
𝐼𝑏1 = 𝐼𝑏2 =
𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2
𝑑𝑄12 = (𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 )
𝜋𝑟 2
 𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2 4 4
𝑑𝑄12 = ( 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝜋𝑟 2
The rate of total net heat transfer for the total areas A 1 and A2 is given by

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2

𝑄12 = න 𝑑𝑄12 = 𝜎( 𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 ) න න
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2
The rate of radiant energy emitted by A I that falls on A2 , from eqn. is given by

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2

𝑄1−2 = 𝐼𝑏1 න න
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑟2

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2

𝑄1−2 = 𝜎𝑇1 4 න න
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2
The rate of total energy radiated by A 1 is given by
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝜎𝑇1 4
Hence the fraction of the rate of energy leaving area A 1 and impinging on area A2 is given by
𝑄1−2 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2
= න න
𝑄1 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2
 𝑄1−2
= 𝐹1−2
𝑄1

𝐹1−2 is known as configuration factor or surface factor or view factor between the two radiating surfaces and is a
function of geometry only.
Thus, the shape factor may be defined as "The fraction of radiative energy that is diffused from one surface element
and strikes the other surface directly with no intervening reflections."

𝑄1−2 = 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 𝜎𝑇1 4

Similarly, the rate of radiant energy by A2 that falls on A 1 ,

4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2

𝑄2−1 = 𝜎𝑇2 න න
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2
The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by
𝑄2−1 = 𝐴2 𝜎𝑇2 4
Hence the fraction of the rate of energy leaving area A2 and impinging on area A 1 is given by
𝑄2−1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴1 𝑑𝐴2
= න න
𝑄2 𝐴2 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2
 𝑄2−1
= 𝐹2−1
𝑄2
𝐹2−1 is the shape factor of A2 with respect to A 1

𝑄2−1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2 𝜎𝑇2 4

𝐹1−2 𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2

The above result is known as reciprocity theorem. It indicates that the net radiant interchange may be evaluated by
computing one way configuration factor from either surface to the other. Thus the net rate of heat transfer between two
surfaces A1 and A2 is given by

𝑄1−2 = 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 𝜎 𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2 𝜎( 𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )

For the calculation of shape factors for specific geometries and for the analysis of radiant heat exchange between
surfaces, the following facts and properties will be useful:

1. The shape factor is purely a function of geometric parameters only.

2. When two bodies are exchanging radiant energy with each other, the shape factor relation is given by the eqn.
𝐹1−2 𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2
1. When all the radiation emanating from a convex surface 1 is intercepted by the enclosing surface 2, the shape factor
of convex surface with respect to the enclosure F1-2 is unity. Then in conformity with reciprocity theorem, the shape
factor F2-1 is merely the ratio of areas. i.e., when surface A1 is entirely convex, say a sphere, completely enclosed by
A2, then according to reciprocity relation, we have
when surface A1 is entirely convex, say a sphere, completely enclosed by A2, then according to reciprocity relation, we
have 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2 𝐹1−2 =1 as as surface 1 completely sees surface 2
𝐴
𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2 𝐹2−1 = 𝐴1 𝐹2−1 + 𝐹2−2 =1
2
4. A concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiant energy coming out from one part of the
surface is intercepted by the another part of the same surface. The shape factor of a surface with respect to itself is
F 1-1
5. For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself is zero (i.e., F1-1 = 0). This is due to the fact
that for any part of flat or convex surface, one cannot see/view any other part of the same surface.
6. If two surfaces A1 and A2 are parallel and large, radiation occurs across the gap between them so that A1 = A2
and all radiation emitted by one falls on the other; then F1-2 = F2-l = 1
7. If one of the two surfaces (say A) is divided into sub-areas Ai1, Ai2, ... Ain' then
𝐴1 𝐹𝑖−𝑗 = σ 𝐴𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑛−𝑗
Radiating surface A1 has been split up into areas A3 and A4; we have
𝐴1 𝐹1−2 = 𝐴3 𝐹3−2 + 𝐴4 𝐹4−2
Evidently, 𝐹1−2 ≠ 𝐹3−2 + 𝐹4−2
Thus if the radiant surface is subdivided, the shape factor for that surface with respect to the receiving surface is
not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.
Relation between shape factors
 Receiving surface A2 has been divided into subareas A3 and A4; we have
𝐴1 𝐹1−2 = 𝐴1 𝐹1−3 + 𝐴1 𝐹1−4
𝐹1−2 = 𝐹1−3 + 𝐹1−4

Obviously the shape factor from a radiating surface to a subdivided receiving surface is simply the sum of individual
shape factors.
8. Let us now take the case of an enclosure in which one surface is exchanging radiation with all the other surfaces in the
enclosure including itself, if it happens to be a concave surface; this is because a concave surface can see/view another
part of it (the shape factor of a convex surface with its enclosure is always unity because all the heat radiated from a
convex surface is intercepted by its enclosure but not vice- versa).
If the enclosure comprises n surfaces, then the energy radiated from one surface is always intercepted by the other
(n - 1) surfaces, and the surface itself if it is a concave one. This is called principle of conservation.
𝐹1−1 + 𝐹1−2 + 𝐹1−3+ ………+ 𝐹1−𝑛 =1
𝐹2−1 + 𝐹2−2 + 𝐹2−3 + ………+ 𝐹2−𝑛 =1
𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 + 𝐹𝑛−3 + ………+ 𝐹𝑛−𝑛 =1
 Calculate the shape factors for the configurations shown in the Fig.

(i) A black body inside a black enclosure:

𝐹2−1 =1

Because all radiation emanating from

the black surface is intercepted by the
enclosing surface 1

𝐹1−1 + 𝐹1−2 = 1

𝐹1−2 𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2
𝐹1−2 = 𝐹2−1 (𝐴2 /𝐴1 )

𝐹1−1 + 𝐹2−1 (𝐴2 /𝐴1 ) = 1

𝐹1−1 = 1 − (𝐴2 /𝐴1 )

ii) A tube with cross-section of an equilateral triangle:

𝐹1−1 + 𝐹1−2 + 𝐹1−3 = 1

𝐹1−1 = 0

𝐹1−2 + 𝐹1−3 = 1

𝐹1−2 = 𝐹1−3 = 0.5

𝐹2−1 + 𝐹2−2 + 𝐹2−3 = 1

𝐹2−1 + 𝐹2−3 = 1
𝐹2−3 = 1 - 𝐹2−1

𝐹1−2 𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2

𝐴1 = 𝐴2
𝐹2−3 = 1 - 𝐹2−1 = 1 − 𝐹1−2 = 1- 0.5 = 0.5
 (iii) Hemispherical surface and a plane surface:

𝐹1−1 + 𝐹1−2 = 1
𝐹1−2 𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2

𝐹2−1 = 1

𝜋𝑟2
𝐹1−2 = 𝐴2 / 𝐴1 = = 0.5
2𝜋𝑟2
A small sphere (outside diameter = 60 mm) with a surface temperature of 300 0C is located at the
geometric centre of a large sphere (inside diameter = 360 mm) with an inner surface temperature of 15
0C. Calculate how much of emission from the inner surface of the large sphere is incident upon the outer
surface of the small sphere; assume that both sides approach black body behaviour.

What is the net interchange of heat between the two spheres?

F2-1 = 0.0278
F2-2 = 0.9722
Qnet =64.66 W
 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN NON-BLACK BODIES

• The black body concept is an idealization which serves as a standard for the performance of a real body. In
engineering applications, most surfaces encountered do not behave like black bodies which absorb the entire
incident radiation.
• The real surfaces (non-black) do not absorb the whole of the incident radiation; a part is reflected back to the
radiating surface and this back and forth reflections between the surfaces may go on several times.
• As the emissivities and absorptivities are not uniform in all directions and for all wavelengths, it is worthwhile to
simplify the problem to some extent by considering the bodies to be gray for which the emissivities and
absorptivities are constant over the whole wavelength spectrum.
• Now we shall discuss exchange of heat for simple cases involving opaque gray bodies.
 INFINITE PARALLEL PLANES

The following assumptions are made for the analysis of radiant heat exchange between two non- black parallel
surfaces:

[Link] configuration factor of either surface is unity.

[Link] is non-absorbing medium (such as air) in between the surfaces.
[Link] emissive and reflective properties are constant over all the surfaces.

As depicted in Fig., the surface (plane) 1 emits radiant energy

𝐸1 which strikes the surface (plane) 2. Here a part 𝛼2 𝐸1 is absorbed
(by the surface 2) and (1 - 𝛼2 ) 𝐸1 (remainder) is reflected back to
surface 1. Here a part 𝛼1 (1 - 𝛼2 ) 𝐸1 is absorbed (by the surface) and
the remainder (1 - 𝛼1 ) ( 1 - 𝛼2 ) 𝐸1 is refleced and so on. The amount of
energy that has left surface 1 per unit time (Q 1 ) is given by:
Heat exchange (radiant) between two non-black
parallel surfaces.
𝑄1 = 𝐸1 − [𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 𝐸1 + 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 2𝐸1 + 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼1 2 1 − 𝛼2 3𝐸1 + … … … … . ]

𝑄1 = 𝐸1 − 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 𝐸1 [1 + 1 − 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 + 1 − 𝛼1 2 1 − 𝛼2 2 + ………….]

𝑄1 = 𝐸1 − 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 𝐸1 [1 + 𝑍 + 𝑍2 + … … … … . ]

𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 𝐸1 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 As per Kirchhoff's law,

𝑄1 = 𝐸1 − = 𝐸1 [1 − ]
1−𝑍 1 − 1 − 𝛼1 1 − 𝛼2 emissivity and absorptivity of
a surface are equal and so 𝛼1 =
Ɛ1 1 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1 ; 𝛼2 = Ɛ2
𝑄1 = 𝐸1 [1 − ]
1 − 1 − Ɛ1 1 − Ɛ2
1 − 1 − Ɛ1 1 − Ɛ2 − Ɛ1 1 − Ɛ2
𝑄1 = 𝐸1 [ ]
1 − 1 − Ɛ1 1 − Ɛ2

1 − 1 − Ɛ1 − Ɛ2 + Ɛ2 Ɛ1 − Ɛ1 − Ɛ1 Ɛ2
𝑄1 = 𝐸1 [ ]
1 − (1 − Ɛ1 − Ɛ2 + Ɛ2 Ɛ1 )

1 − 1 + Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1 − Ɛ1 + Ɛ1 Ɛ2 𝐸1 Ɛ2
𝑄1 = 𝐸1 [ ] 𝑄1 = [ ]
1 − 1 + Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1 Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1
Similarly the surface 2 emits radiant energy E2. A part 𝛼1 𝐸2 is absorbed by the surface l and the remainder ( l - 𝛼1 ) 𝐸2 is
reflected back to surface 2. A part 𝛼2 ( l - 𝛼1 ) 𝐸2 is absorbed and the rest (1 − 𝛼2 )( l - 𝛼1 ) 𝐸2 is reflected and so on.
Proceeding as done earlier, we can determine that the amount of radiant energy which leaves surface 2 per unit time is given
by Ɛ1
𝑄2 = 𝐸2 [ ]
Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1

The net flow of heat/energy from surface l to surface 2 per unit time is given by

𝑄12 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

𝐸1 Ɛ2 𝐸2 Ɛ1
= −[ ]
Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1 Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1

𝐸1 Ɛ2 − 𝐸2 Ɛ1
=
Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1
For non-black surfaces,
𝐸1 = Ɛ1 σ𝑇1 4
𝐸2 = Ɛ2 σ𝑇2 4

Ɛ1 σ𝑇1 4 Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 σ𝑇2 4 Ɛ1
𝑄12 =
Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1 Infinite Parallel Planes
Ɛ1 Ɛ2 σ (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
𝑄12 = 𝝈 (𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 )
Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1 𝑸𝟏𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏
Ɛ𝟏 Ɛ𝟐 − 𝟏
+

𝑄12 = 𝑓12 σ (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )

Ɛ1 Ɛ2
𝑓12 =
Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ2 Ɛ1
1
𝑓12 =
1 1 and is called interchange factor for the radiation from surface 1 to surface 2.
+ −1
Ɛ1 Ɛ2
Calculate the net radiant heat exchange per square meter for very large planes at temperatures of 703K
and 513K respectively. Assume that the emissivity of the hot and cold planes are 0.85 and 0.75
respectively.
𝝈 (𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 )
𝑸=
𝟏 𝟏
Ɛ𝟏 Ɛ𝟐 − 𝟏
+

5.67𝑥10−8 (7034 −5134 )

𝑄=
1 1
+ −1
0.85 0.75

𝑄 = 6571 𝑊/𝑚2
 INFINITE LONG CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS

Consider two concentric cylinders as shown in Fig. of areas A 1 and A 2 , emissivities Ɛ1 and Ɛ2 and their
surfaces maintained at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.
𝐴1 σ (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
𝑄12 =
1 𝐴1 1
Ɛ1 𝐴2 (Ɛ2 − 1)
+

𝑄12 = 𝑓12 𝐴1 σ (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )

1
𝑓12 =
1 𝐴1 1
Ɛ1 𝐴2 (Ɛ2 − 1)
+
Consider two concentric cylinders as shown in Fig. of areas A1 and A2, emissivities Ɛ1 , Ɛ2 and and their surfaces maintained
at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.
A1 F1-2 = A2 F2-l
F1-2 = 1
𝐴2
F2-l =
𝐴1
Inner cylinder emits energy = E1
Outer cylinder absorbs energy = α2 E1 = Ɛ2 E1
Outer cylinder reflects energy = E1 - Ɛ2 E1 = E1 (1 - Ɛ2)
Inner cylinder absorbs energy = E1 (1 - Ɛ2) F2-l α1 = E1 (1 - Ɛ2) (A1/A2) Ɛ1
Inner cylinder reflects energy = E1 (1 - Ɛ2) - E1 (1 - Ɛ2) Ɛ1 (A1/A2) = E1 (1 - Ɛ2) [ 1 - Ɛ1 (A1/A2)]
It can be shown that the energy absorbed by the inner cylinder on the second reflection would be
E1 (1 - Ɛ2)2 Ɛ1 (A1/A2)[ 1 - Ɛ1 (A1/A2)]
This absorption and reflection continue indefinitely, so we can find the net energy lost by the inner cylinder considering
infinite times absorptions and reflections.
 E1Ɛ2
Q1 =
𝐴 𝐴
Ɛ1 𝐴1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ1Ɛ2 𝐴1
2 2
𝐴
E2Ɛ1 𝐴1
2
Q2 =
𝐴 𝐴
Ɛ1 𝐴1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ1Ɛ2 𝐴1
2 2

Q12 = Q1 - Q2 𝐴1
𝐴1E1Ɛ2 𝐴 E2 Ɛ1
2 𝐴2
Q12 = −
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
Ɛ 1 𝐴1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ1Ɛ2 𝐴1 Ɛ1 𝐴1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ1Ɛ2 𝐴1
2 2 2 2
𝐴1E1Ɛ2 − 𝐴1E2Ɛ1
Q12 =
𝐴 𝐴
Ɛ1 𝐴1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ1Ɛ2 𝐴1
2 2
𝐴1Ɛ1Ɛ2 σ 𝑇14 − 𝐴1Ɛ1Ɛ2σ𝑇24
Q12 =
𝐴 𝐴
Ɛ1 𝐴1 + Ɛ2 − Ɛ1Ɛ2 𝐴1
2 2
1
𝐴1σ ( 𝑇14 −𝑇24 ) 𝑓 1 − 2=
Q12 = = 𝑓 1 − 2𝐴1σ ( 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) 1 𝐴 1
1 𝐴1 1 + 1 −1
+ Ɛ1 𝐴2 Ɛ2
Ɛ1 𝐴2 Ɛ2 − 1
Calculate the loss of heat by radiation from a steel tube of diameter 70 mm and 3 m long at a temperature of
500K, if the tube is located in square brick conduit 0.3 m side at 300K. Assume Ɛ for steel as 0.79 and for brick
conduit as 0.93
𝑨𝟏 𝝈 (𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 )
𝑸𝟏𝟐 =
𝟏 𝑨 𝟏
+ 𝟏 ( − 𝟏)
Ɛ𝟏 𝑨𝟐 Ɛ𝟐

𝐴1 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 𝜋 × 70 × 10−3 × 3 = 0.659 𝑚2

𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 4 0.3 × 3 = 3.6 𝑚2

0.659 𝑥 5.67 𝑥 10−8 (5004 −3004 )

𝑄=
1 0.659 1
+ ( − 1)
0.79 3.6 0.93

𝑸 = 1588.8 W
 The inner sphere of a flask is 30cm in diameter and outer sphere is 36 cm dia. Both spheres are coated
with a material for which emissivity is 0.05. Find the rate at which liquid oxygen (latent heat = 21.44
kJ/kg) would evaporate at 90K. When the outer sphere temperature is 293K. Assume that the other modes
of heat transfer are absent.

𝐴1 π𝑑1 2 302 Latent heat of vaporization of liquid oxygen= 21.44 kJ/kg

Solution: = = = 0.6944
𝐴2 π𝑑2 2 362
Amount of oxygen evaporated , m
𝜀1 = 𝜀1 = 0.05
𝑄 = 𝑚ሶ λ
𝑨𝟏 𝝈 (𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 )
𝑸= 12.69 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑥 21.44 x 10^3
𝟏 𝑨 𝟏
+ 𝟏 ( − 𝟏)
Ɛ𝟏 𝑨𝟐 Ɛ𝟐
ሶ 𝑘𝑔/ℎ
𝑚ሶ = 0.59
𝜋 𝑥 302 𝑥 5.67 𝑥 10−8 (2934 −904 )
𝑄=
1 1
+ 0.6944( − 1)
0.05 0.05

𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3.527 𝑊 = 3.527 = 12.69
𝑠 ℎ𝑟
 SMALL GRAY BODIES

• Consider two small gray bodies (the gray bodies are said to be small if their size is very small as compared to the
distance between them) 1 and 2 having emissivities Ɛ1 , Ɛ2 , or absorptivities 𝛼1 , 𝛼2
• The radiant energy emitted by body 1 is partly absorbed by body 2. The portion of radiation unabsorbed and thus
reflected on the first incidence is considered to be lost in space (due to surfaces being small) i.e., nothing returns back to
surface 1. Similar is the case with surface 2.
𝑄12 = 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 Ɛ1 Ɛ2 𝜎 𝑇1 4 − 𝐹2−1 𝐴2 Ɛ1 Ɛ2 𝜎 𝑇2 4
The energy emitted by body 1 = 𝐴1 Ɛ1 𝜎 𝑇1 4
𝐹1−2 𝐴1 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2
The energy incident on body 2 = 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 Ɛ1 𝜎 𝑇1 4
The energy absorbed by body 2 = 𝛼2 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 Ɛ1 𝜎 𝑇1 4 𝑄12 = 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 Ɛ1 Ɛ2 𝜎( 𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )

The energy transfer from body 1 to body 2, 𝑄12 = 𝑓1−2 𝐴1 𝐹1−2 𝜎( 𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )

𝑄1 = 𝐹1−2 𝐴1 Ɛ1 Ɛ2 𝜎 𝑇1 4
Similarly, The energy transfer from body 2 to body 1, Where, 𝑓1−2 = Ɛ1 Ɛ2 represents the equivalent emissivity or
interchange factor for radiant heat exchange between two
𝑄2 = 𝐹2−1 𝐴2 Ɛ1 Ɛ2 𝜎 𝑇2 4
small gray bodies.
 RADIATION SHIELD

• In certain situations it is required to reduce the overall heat transfer between two radiating surfaces. This is done
by either using materials which are highly reflective or by using radiation shields between the heat exchanging
surfaces.
• The radiation shields reduce the radiation heat transfer by effectively increasing the surface resistances without
actually removing any heat from the overall system. Thin sheets of plastic coated with highly reflecting metallic
films on both sides serve as very effective radiation shields.
• These are used for the insulation of cryogenic storage tanks. A familiar application of radiation shields is in the
measurement of the temperature of a fluid by a thermometer or a thermocouple which is shielded to reduce the
effects of radiation.
 Let us consider two parallel plates, 1 and 2, each of area A (A1 = A2 = A) at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively with
a radiation shield placed between them as shown in Fig..

With no radiation shields, the net heat exchange between the parallel plates is
σ 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
given by: (𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 1
+ −1
Ɛ1 Ɛ2
If the emissivity of the radiation shield is Ɛ3 , we can use this equation to
find heat exchange between surfaces 1, 3 and 3, 2.
σ 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇3 4 )
(𝑄13 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 1
+ −1
Ɛ1 Ɛ3
σ 𝐴(𝑇3 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
(𝑄32 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 1
+ −1
Ɛ3 Ɛ2
 Since the radiation shield does not deliver or remove heat from the system, therefore

σ 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇3 4 ) σ 𝐴(𝑇3 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
=
1 1 1 1
+ − 1 Ɛ3 Ɛ2 − 1
+
Ɛ1 Ɛ3

1 1 1 1
𝑇1 4 (Ɛ + Ɛ − 1) + 𝑇2 4 (Ɛ + Ɛ − 1)
3 2 1 3
𝑇3 4 =
1 1 1 1
+ − 1 + ( Ɛ1 Ɛ3 − 1)
+
Ɛ3 Ɛ2

𝜎 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
(𝑄13 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 1 1 1
+ − 1 + (Ɛ3 Ɛ2 − 1)
+
Ɛ1 Ɛ3

1 1
Ɛ1 Ɛ2 − 1
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 +
=
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 1 1 1 1
+ − 1 + (Ɛ3 Ɛ2 − 1)
+
Ɛ1 Ɛ3

If Ɛ1 = Ɛ2 = Ɛ3 ,then right hand side of eqn. reduces to

 (𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 1
=
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 2

Thus when one shield is inserted between two parallel surfaces, the direct radiation heat transfer between them is
halved. The corresponding value of T3 of the shield attains the value

In the general case where there are n shields, all the surface resistances would be the same, since
the emissivities are equal. There will be two surface resistances for each shield and one for each heat
transfer surface. There will also be (n + 1) 'space resistances' but the configuration factor is unity for
each infinite parallel plane.
 A double walled flask may be idealised to be equivalent to two infinite parallel plates. The emissivity of walls are
0.3 and 0.7 respectively. The space between them is evacuated. A shield of polished aluminium of Ɛ =0.05 is
inserted between them. Find the reduction in heat transfer due to insertion of the radiation shield.
𝝈 𝑨(𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 ) 4 (𝑇1 4 + 1.093 𝑇2 4 )
Without shield (𝑸𝟏𝟐 )𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝑇3 =
+ −𝟏 2.093
Ɛ𝟏 Ɛ𝟐
Substitute the value of 𝑇3 4
𝜎 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 ) 𝜎 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 ) σ 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇3 4 )
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = (𝑄13 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 1 3.76 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.7 Ɛ1 Ɛ3
σ𝐴 4 (𝑇1 4 + 1.093 𝑇2 4 )
(𝑄13 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 = [𝑇1 − ]
1 1 2.093
𝝈 𝑨(𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 𝟒 ) 𝝈 𝑨(𝑻𝟑 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 ) + −1
With shield = 0.3 0.05
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ −𝟏 + −𝟏 σ 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
Ɛ𝟏 Ɛ 𝟑 Ɛ𝟑 Ɛ𝟐
(𝑄13 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
42.766
𝜎 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇3 4 ) 𝜎 𝐴(𝑇3 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
= Reduction in heat transfer using shield,
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.05 0.05 0.7
𝜎 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 ) σ 𝐴(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
(𝑄12 ) − (𝑄13 ) −
(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇3 4 ) = 1.093 (𝑇3 4 − 𝑇2 4 ) 𝑋 100 = 3.76 42.766 𝑋 100 = 91.2%
𝑄12 4 4
𝜎 𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
3.76
 Find the heat transfer rate per unit area due to radiation between two infinitely long parallel planes. The first
plane has an emissivity of 0.4 and is maintained at 473 K. The emissivity of the second plane is 0.2 and is
maintained at 303K. If a radiation shield having Ɛ = 0.5 is interposed between the given planes, find the
percentage reduction in heat transfer rate and the steady state temperature attained by the shield.

𝝈 𝑨(𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 ) 𝑻𝟑 = 431.68 K
Without shield (𝑸𝟏𝟐 )𝒏𝒆𝒕 =
𝟏 𝟏
+ −𝟏
Ɛ𝟏 Ɛ𝟐 (𝑸𝟏𝟑 )𝒏𝒆𝒕 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑥 ( 4734 − 431.684 )
= = 248.33𝑊/𝑚2
1 1
−𝟖 𝟒
𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 (𝟒𝟕𝟑 −𝟑𝟎𝟑 ) 𝟒
𝑨
0.4 0.5 − 1
+
(𝑸𝟏𝟐 )𝒏𝒆𝒕
=
𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 + −𝟏 (𝑸𝟏𝟐 ) − (𝑸𝟏𝟑 ) 363.1 − 248.33
𝟎. 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝑋 100 = 31.60 %
𝑸𝟏𝟐 363.1
(𝑸𝟏𝟐 )𝒏𝒆𝒕
= 𝟑𝟔𝟑. 𝟏 𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝑨
𝝈 𝑨(𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 𝟒 ) 𝝈 𝑨(𝑻𝟑 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 )
=
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ −𝟏 + −𝟏
Ɛ𝟏 Ɛ𝟑 Ɛ𝟑 Ɛ𝟐
(4734 − 𝑇3 4 ) (𝑇3 4 − 3034 )
=
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.4 0.5 0.5 0.2
 ELECTRICAL NETWORK ANALOGY FOR THERMAL RADIATION
SYSTEMS
An electrical network analogy is an alternative approach for analysing radiation heat exchange between gray or black
surfaces. In this approach the two terms commonly used are irradiation and radiosity.

Irradiation (G): It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area. It is expressed in
W/m2
Radiosity (J): This term is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit [Link] is expressed in
W/m2
The radiosity comprises the original emittance ф from the surface plus the reflected portion of any radiation incident upon
it.
J = 𝐸 + ρ𝐺
J = 𝜖 𝐸𝑏 + ρ𝐺
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝛼+ 𝜌+ 𝜏=1
𝛼+ 𝜌=1
𝜌=1 −𝛼
J = 𝜖 𝐸𝑏 + (1 − 𝛼)𝐺
𝛼=𝜖
J = 𝜖 𝐸𝑏 + (1 − 𝜖)𝐺
 J − 𝜖 𝐸𝑏 = (1 − 𝜖)𝐺

𝐽 − 𝜖 𝐸𝑏
𝐺=
(1 − 𝜖)
The net energy leaving a surface is the difference between its radiosity and irradiation. Thus,
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
=𝐽 −𝐺
𝐴
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐽 − 𝜖 𝐸𝑏 𝐽 − 𝐽𝜖 − 𝐽 + 𝜖 𝐸𝑏 𝜖(𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽)
=𝐽 − = =
𝐴 1 −𝜖 1 −𝜖 1 −𝜖

(𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽)
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 −𝜖
𝐴𝜖
1 −𝜖
The representation of this equation in the form of electric network is shown in figure. The quantity is known
𝐴𝜖

as surface resistance, as it is related to the surface properties of the radiating body

 Two Zone Enclosure
Now consider the exchange of radiant energy between the two surfaces
(non black) 1 and 2. Of the total radiation which leaves surface 1, the
amount that reaches surface 2 is J1A1F1-2. Similarly, the heat radiated by
surface 2 and received by surface 1 is [Link] net interchange of
heat between the surfaces (Q1-2) is given by

𝑄12 = 𝐽1 𝐴1 𝐹1−2 − 𝐽2 𝐴2 𝐹2−1

𝐴1 𝐹1−2 = 𝐴2 𝐹2−1

𝑄12 = 𝐴1 𝐹1−2 (𝐽1 − 𝐽2)

𝐽1 − 𝐽2
𝑄12 =
(1/𝐴1 𝐹1−2 )
1/𝐴1 𝐹1−2 = is called the space resistance because it is due to the distance and geometry of the radiating bodies.
If the surface resistances of the two bodies and space resistance between them is considered then the net heat
flow can be represented by an electric circuit as shown in Fig. . The net heat exchange between the two gray
surfaces is given by

𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
+ +
𝐴1 𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐹1−2 𝐴2 𝜖 2

𝐴1 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹1−2 𝜖 2 𝐴2
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴1 (𝐹𝑔 )1−2 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
1
(𝐹𝑔 )1 − 2 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹1−2 𝜖 2 𝐴2

Gray body factor

 When exchange of heat takes place between two black surfaces, the surface resistance becomes zero as Ɛ1 = Ɛ2 =
1; (𝐹𝑔 )1 − 2 changes to 𝐹 1 − 2
(𝑄 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 𝐹 1−2 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
1. When the radiating bodies are infinite parallel planes:
In this case, 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 and 𝐹 1−2 = 1
1 1
(𝐹𝑔 )1 − 2 = =
1 − 𝜖1 1 − 𝜖2 1 1
+ 1 + 𝜖1 𝜖2 − 1
+
𝜖1 𝜖2
2. When the radiating bodies are concentric cylinder or sphere:
𝐹 1−2 = 1 In case of concentric cylinder
1 𝐴1 π𝑑1𝑙 𝑑1 𝑟1
(𝐹𝑔 )1 − 2 = = = =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋 𝑑2𝑙 𝑑2 𝑟2
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹1−2 𝜖 2 𝐴2
In case of sphere

𝐴1 4π𝑟12 𝑟12
= = 2
𝐴2 4𝜋𝑟2 2 𝑟2
3. When a small body lies inside a large enclosure:
𝐴1
𝐹 1−2 = 1 →0 𝐴1 ≪ 𝐴2
𝐴2
1
(𝐹𝑔 )1 − 2 =
1 − 𝜖1
𝜖1 + 1
 Calculate the heat transfer rate per m2 area by radiation between the surfaces of two long cylinders having
radii 1OO mm and 50 mm respectively. The smaller cylinder being in the larger cylinder. The axes of the
cylinders are parallel to each other and separated by a distance of 50 mm. The surfaces of inner and outer
cylinders are maintained at 127 0C and 27 0C respectively. The emissivity of both the surfaces is 0.5.
Assume the medium between the two cylinders is non-absorbing.

𝐴1 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
Solution: (𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹1−2 𝜖 2 𝐴2
𝐴1 𝑟1
=
𝐴2 𝑟2

(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 5.67 𝑋 10−8 (4004 − 3004 )

= −3 = 396.9 𝑤/𝑚2
𝐴1 1 − 0.5 1 1 − 0.5 50𝑥 10
+1+
0.5 0.5 100 𝑥10−3
 For a hemispherical furnace, the flat floor is at 700 K and has an emissivity of 0.5. The hemispherical
roof is at 1000 K and has emissivity of 0.25. Find the net radiative heat transfer from roof to floor.

𝐴1 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
Solution: (𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹1−2 𝜖 2 𝐴2
𝐴1 π𝑟12
= = 0.5
𝐴2 2𝜋𝑟2 2

𝐹 1−2 = 1

−8 4 4
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 5.67 𝑋 10 (700 − 1000 )
= = −12310.4 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐴1 1 − 0.5 1 − 0.25
+1+ 𝑋 0.5
0.5 0.25
Two parallel rectangular surfaces 1m x 2m are opposite to each other at a distance of 4 m. The surfaces are
black and at 100 0C and 200 0C. Calculate the heat exchange by radiation between the two surfaces.

The heat flow between the two surfaces is given by

𝐴1 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹1−2 𝜖 2 𝐴2

𝑌 1 𝑋 2
= = 0.25 = = 0.5 𝐹1−2 = 0.043
𝐿 4 𝐿 4

(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝑋1 𝑋 0.043𝑋 5.67 𝑋 10 − 8 4734 − 3734 = 149.5 𝑊

 An electric heating system is insulated in the ceiling of a room 5 m (length) x 5 m(width) x 2.5 m (height). The
temperature of the celling is 315 K whereas under equilibrium conditions the walls are at 295 K. If the floor is non
sensitive to radiations and the emissivity of the celling and wall are 0.75 and 0.65 respectively. Calculate the radiant
heat loss from the celling to the walls

A1 = 5 X 5 = 25 m2 A2 = 5 x 2.5 = 12.5 m2

𝐴1 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹1−2 𝜖 2 𝐴2

The ceiling and wall are perpendicular surfaces with common edge for which

𝑍 2.5 𝑌 5 𝐹1−2 = 0.15

= = 0.5 = =1
𝑋 5 𝑋 5
𝐴1 𝜎 (𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 ) 25𝑋 5.67𝑋 10−8 (3154 − 2954 )
(𝑄12 )𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = = 398.77 𝑊
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2 𝐴1 1 − 0.75 1 1 − 0.65 25
𝜖1 + 𝐹1−2 + 𝜖2 𝐴2 0.75
+
0.15
+
0.65 12.5

the radiant heat loss from the celling to the four walls = 4 x 398.77 = 1595 W
Three Zone Enclosure
Re radiating surface

• A re-radiating surface is one which radiates the entire amount of radiation that it
receives from other surfaces, at steady state there is no net radiation absorption or net
radiation emission at the re radiating surface. Qnet = 0

• A re radiating surface is functionally adiabatic.

• Well insulated surfaces like those of furnace walls are sometimes assumed to be
reradiating.
Radiation Heat Exchange for two black surfaces connected by a single
refractory surface
Total resistance between Eb1 and Eb2
Radiation Heat Exchange for two grey surfaces connected by a single
refractory surface
A furnace is shaped like a long equilateral triangular duct, as shown in Figure. The width of each side is 1 m. The
base surface has an emissivity of 0.7 and is maintained at a uniform temperature of 600 K. The heated left-side
surface closely approximates a blackbody at 1000 K. The right-side surface is well insulated. Determine the rate at
which heat must be supplied to the heated side externally per unit length of the duct in order to maintain these
operating conditions.
Therefore, heat at a rate of 28 kW must be supplied to the heated surface per unit length of the duct to
maintain steady operation in the furnace.
The configuration of a furnace can be approximated as an equilateral triangular
duct which is sufficiently long that the end effects are negligible. The hot wall is
maintained at T1 = 900K and has an emissivity ε1=0.8. The cold wall is at T2= 400 K
and has an emissivity ε2 = 0.8. The third wall is a re radiating zone. Calculate the
net radiation heat flux leaving the hot wall.

Answer: 19.5 Kw/m2

Coefficient of radiant heat transfer and radiation combined with convection

In several practical applications the phenomenon of simultaneous heat exchange due to radiation and convection
occurs; examples being;
i) The loss of heat from a hot steam pipe passing through a room
ii) The flow of hot combustion products through a cooled duct
A proper analysis of the above cases would a simultaneous solution of convection and radiation equations which is
obviously a complicated task. The total heat transfer by both convection and radiation can be calculated by the linear
supposition of heat fluxes due to these modes

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝑞 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤) + ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤)

Where Tg and Tw are the gas and wall temperatures respectively (Tg>Tw) and hrad is the radiation heat transfer
coefficient defined by
ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇 𝑤 = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑔4 − 𝑇𝑤4 )
𝜀𝜎 𝑇𝑔4 −𝑇𝑤
4
ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = 𝜀𝜎 𝑇𝑔2 + 𝑇𝑤2 (𝑇𝑔 + 𝑇𝑤)
𝑇𝑔−𝑇𝑤
The values of hrad can be calculated from the heat flux equation for any configuration. For example, the value
of hrad for the case of two large parallel plates is given by

𝑄 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )
= = ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝐴 1 1
𝜀1 + 𝜀2 − 1

1 1
ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜎(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )(𝑇12 + 𝑇22 )/ +𝜀 −1
𝜀1 2
 The heat transfer coefficient including convection radiation is 30 W/m2 0C for the outer
surface of the pipe in a large enclosure. Assume pipe surface is black. Calculate the
radiation heat transfer coefficient if walls of the pipe surface and enclosure are at 200 0C
and 100 0C respectively. Also find heat transfer coefficient by convection.
Solution: hconv + hrad = 30 W/m2 0C

As enclosure is large, the heat flow from the pipe is given by

(𝑄12)𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐴1 𝜖1 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )

= 1𝑋1𝑋5.67𝑋10−8 (4734 − 3734 )

= 1740.56 𝑊/𝑚2

(𝑄12)𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐴1 ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2)

1740.56 = 1𝑥ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑥(373 − 273)

ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 17.4 𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐶

ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 30 − 17.4 = 12.6 𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐶
One side of metallic plate is insulated while the other side absorbs total heat flux of 900
W/m2. The convective heat transfer coefficient between the plate and the ambient air is
10 W/m2.K. The surface emissivity of the plate is 0.8. The surrounding and ambient air
are at 27 0C. Determine the temperature of the plate under steady state conditions.

𝑞𝑎 = 𝑞𝑐 + 𝑞𝑟

900 = ℎ𝑐 𝑇𝑝 − 27 + 273 + εσ(𝑇𝑝4 − 𝑇𝑎4 )

900 = 10 𝑇𝑝 − 27 + 273 + 0.8𝑥5.67𝑥 10−8 (𝑇𝑝4 − 3004 )

𝑇𝑝 = 355 K
 Estimate the total heat loss by convection and radiation from an unlagged steam pipe, 50 mm OD
at 415 K to air at 290K
Data: Ɛ = 0.90
The film coefficient (hc) to calculate heat loss by natural convection is given by
∆𝑻 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
𝒉𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 W/m2 K
𝑫𝟎

Solution: outside area of pipe/Length = 𝜋𝐷 = 𝜋 𝑥 0.05 = 0.157 𝑚2/𝑚

∆T = T1 – T2 = 415 -290 = 125 K

125 0.25
ℎ𝑐 = 1.18 W/m2 K
0.05

ℎ𝑐 = 8.34 W/m2 K

Heat loss by convection per 1 m length of pipe is

𝑸𝑪 = 𝒉𝒄A (T1 - T2)
𝑄𝐶
= 8.34 𝑥 0.157 𝑥 415 − 290 = 163.7 𝑊/𝑚
𝐿
 𝑸
= 𝝐𝝈 (𝑻𝟏𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐𝟒)
𝑨
𝑄
= 0.9 𝑥 5.67 𝑥 10 − 8 𝑥 0.157 4154 − 2904 = 181 𝑊/𝑚
𝐿
Total heat loss by convection and radiation per 1 m length of the pipe is

𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑐 + 𝑄𝑟 = 163.7 + 181 = 344.7 𝑊/𝑚

 RADIATION EXCHANGE WITH EMITTING AND
ABSORBING GASES
• So far we considered radiation heat transfer between surfaces separated by a medium that does not emit,
absorb, or scatter radiation—a nonparticipating medium that is completely transparent to thermal
radiation. A vacuum satisfies this condition perfectly, and air at ordinary temperatures and pressures
comes very close.
• Gases that consist of monatomic molecules such as Ar and He and symmetric diatomic molecules such
as N2 and O2 are essentially transparent to radiation, except at extremely high temperatures at which
ionization occurs. Therefore, atmospheric air can be considered to be a nonparticipating medium in
radiation calculations.
• Gases with asymmetric molecules such as H2O, CO2, CO, SO2, and hydrocarbons HnCm may participate
in the radiation process by absorption at moderate temperatures, and by absorption and emission at high
temperatures such as those encountered in combustion chambers.
• Combustion gases in a furnace or a combustion chamber, for example, contain
sufficient amounts of H2O and CO2, and thus the emission and absorption of gases in
furnaces must be taken into consideration
The presence of a participating medium complicates the radiation analysis
considerably for several reasons:
• A participating medium emits and absorbs radiation throughout its entire volume. That
is, gaseous radiation is a volumetric phenomena, and thus it depends on the size and
shape of the body. This is the case even if the temperature is uniform throughout the
medium.
• Gases emit and absorb radiation at a number of narrow wavelength bands. This is in
contrast to solids, which emit and absorb radiation over the entire spectrum. Therefore,
the gray assumption may not always be appropriate for a gas even when the
surrounding surfaces are gray.
• The emission and absorption characteristics of the constituents of a gas mixture also
depends on the temperature, pressure, and composition of the gas mixture. Therefore,
the presence of other participating gases affects the radiation characteristics of a
particular gas.
The attenuation of a radiation beam while passing through an absorbing medium of thickness L
Radiation Properties of a Participating Medium

• Consider a participating medium of thickness L. A spectral radiation beam of intensity

Iλ, 0 is incident on the medium, which is attenuated as it propagates due to absorption.

• The decrease in the intensity of radiation as it passes through a layer of thickness dx is

proportional to the intensity itself and the thickness dx. This is known as Beer’s law,
and is expressed as

where the constant of proportionality is the spectral absorption coefficient of the

medium whose unit is m -1
Separating the variables and integrating from x = 0 to x = L gives
where we have assumed the absorptivity of the medium to be independent of x.

Note that radiation intensity decays exponentially in accordance with Beer’s law.

The spectral transmissivity of a medium can be defined as the ratio of the intensity of
radiation leaving the medium to that entering the medium. That is,

Note that τλ =1 when no radiation is absorbed and thus radiation intensity remains
constant. Also, the spectral transmissivity of a medium represents the fraction of
radiation transmitted by the medium at a given wavelength.

Spectral absorptivity of a medium of thickness L is

From Kirchoff’s law, the spectral emissivity of the medium is

Emissivity and Absorptivity of Gases and Gas Mixtures

Charts for the total emissivities of gases are first presented by Hottel

Hottel Method

With gray assumption, the total emissivity and absorptivity of a gas depends on the
geometry of the gas body as well as the temperature, pressure, and composition.

Assumption: Emission of radiation from a hemispherical gas body to a small

surface element located at the center of the base of the hemisphere.
Emissivity at a total pressure P other than P = 1 atm is determined by multiplying the
emissivity value at 1 atm by a pressure correction factor, Cw
If the CO2 and H2O gases exist together in a mixture with nonparticipating gases

• The emissivity of each participating gas can still be determined using its partial
pressure, but the effective emissivity of the mixture cannot be determined by simply
adding the emissivities of individual gases (although this would be the case if
different gases emitted at different wavelengths). Instead, it should be determined
from

where ∆ε is the emissivity correction factor, which accounts for the overlap of emission
bands. For a gas mixture that contains both CO2 and H2O gases
Mean beam length L, which represents the radius of an equivalent hemisphere.
The mean beam lengths for various gas geometries are listed in Table
When the total emissivity of a gas g at temperature Tg is known, the emissive power of
the gas (radiation emitted by the gas per unit surface area) can be expressed as Eg =εg
As.σ Then the rate of radiation energy emitted by a gas to a bounding surface of area As
becomes

Absorptivity of a gas that contains CO2 and H2O gases for radiation emitted by a source
at temperature Ts can be determined similarly from
If the bounding surface is black at temperature Ts, the surface will emit radiation to the
gas at a rate of σAsTs 4 without reflecting any, and the gas will absorb this radiation at a
rate of αgAs σ Ts 4, where αg is the absorptivity of the gas.

Then the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the gas and a black surface
surrounding it becomes

Non Black
A cylindrical furnace whose height and diameter are 5 m contains combustion gases at
1200 K and a total pressure of 2 atm. The composition of the combustion gases is
determined by volumetric analysis to be 80 percent N2, 8 percent H2O, 7 percent O2, and
5 percent CO2. Determine the effective emissivity of the combustion gases
SOLUTION The temperature, pressure, and composition of a gas mixture is given.
The emissivity of the mixture is to be determined.
Assumptions
1. All the gases in the mixture are ideal gases.
2. The emissivity determined is the mean emissivity for radiation emitted to all
surfaces of the cylindrical enclosure.

Analysis: The volumetric analysis of a gas mixture gives the mole fractions yi of the
components, which are equivalent to pressure fractions for an ideal gas mixture.
Therefore, the partial pressures of CO2 and H2O are
The mean beam length for a cylinder of equal diameter and height for radiation emitted to
all surfaces is
The emissivities of CO2 and H2O corresponding to these values at the gas
temperature of Tg 1200 K and 1 atm are

These are the base emissivity values at 1 atm, and they need to be corrected for the 2
atm total pressure. Noting that (Pw + P)/2 (0.16+ 2)/2 = 1.08 atm, the pressure
correction factors are
 Both CO2 and H2O are present in the same mixture, and we need to correct for the
overlap of emission bands. The emissivity correction factor at T= Tg = 1200 K is

Then the effective emissivity of the combustion gases becomes