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FLUID MECHANICS

zero, e.g., u⬘ ⫽ 0. The magnitude of u⬘ is usually just a few percent of u–, but
the high frequencies of eddies (in the order of a thousand per second) makes
them very effective for the transport of momentum, thermal energy, and mass.
In time-averaged stationary turbulent flow, the average values of properties
(indicated by an overbar) are independent of time. The chaotic fluctuations of
fluid particles play a dominant role in pressure drop, and these random
motions must be considered in analyses together with the average velocity.
Perhaps the first thought that comes to mind is to determine the shear
stress in an analogous manner to laminar flow from t ⫽ ⫺m du–/dr, where
u–(r) is the average velocity profile for turbulent flow. But the experimental
studies show that this is not the case, and the shear stress is much larger due
to the turbulent fluctuations. Therefore, it is convenient to think of the tur-
bulent shear stress as consisting of two parts: the laminar component, which
accounts for the friction between layers in the flow direction (expressed as
tlam ⫽ ⫺m du–/dr), and the turbulent component, which accounts for the
friction between the fluctuating fluid particles and the fluid body (denoted
as tturb and is related to the fluctuation components of velocity). Then the
r total shear stress in turbulent flow can be expressed as
ttotal ⫽ tlam ⫹ tturb (8–36)
0
u(r) The typical average velocity profile and relative magnitudes of laminar and
turbulent components of shear stress for turbulent flow in a pipe are given in
Fig. 8–21. Note that although the velocity profile is approximately parabolic
in laminar flow, it becomes flatter or “fuller” in turbulent flow, with a sharp
drop near the pipe wall. The fullness increases with the Reynolds number,
r and the velocity profile becomes more nearly uniform, lending support to the
0 ttotal commonly utilized uniform velocity profile approximation for fully devel-
oped turbulent pipe flow. Keep in mind, however, that the flow speed at the
t wall of a stationary pipe is always zero (no-slip condition).
0
tlam tturb

FIGURE 8–21
Turbulent Shear Stress
The velocity profile and the variation
Consider turbulent flow in a horizontal pipe, and the upward eddy motion of
of shear stress with radial distance for fluid particles in a layer of lower velocity to an adjacent layer of higher
turbulent flow in a pipe. velocity through a differential area dA as a result of the velocity fluctuation
v⬘, as shown in Fig. 8–22. The mass flow rate of the fluid particles rising
through dA is rv⬘dA, and its net effect on the layer above dA is a reduction in
its average flow velocity because of momentum transfer to the fluid particles
y with lower average flow velocity. This momentum transfer causes the hori-
zontal velocity of the fluid particles to increase by u⬘, and thus its momen-
tum in the horizontal direction to increase at a rate of (rv⬘dA)u⬘, which must
rv ⬘ dA u(y) be equal to the decrease in the momentum of the upper fluid layer. Noting
dA that force in a given direction is equal to the rate of change of momentum
v⬘ in that direction, the horizontal force acting on a fluid element above dA
u⬘ due to the passing of fluid particles through dA is dF ⫽ (rv⬘dA)(⫺u⬘)
⫽ ⫺ru⬘v⬘dA. Therefore, the shear force per unit area due to the eddy motion
u of fluid particles dF/dA ⫽ ⫺ru⬘v⬘ can be viewed as the instantaneous turbu-
lent shear stress. Then the turbulent shear stress can be expressed as
FIGURE 8–22
tturb ⫽ ⫺ru⬘v⬘ (8–37)
Fluid particle moving upward through
a differential area dA as a result of the where u⬘v⬘ is the time average of the product of the fluctuating velocity
velocity fluctuation v⬘. components u⬘ and v⬘. Note that u⬘v⬘ ⫽ 0 even though u⬘ ⫽ 0 and v⬘ ⫽ 0