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A DESIGN FRAMEWORK FOR SYNTHESIZING THE
MOBILE AND STATIC WAYFINDING
INFORMATION IN COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS

HASSAN IFTIKHAR

PhD
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
2022
 The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
School of Design

A Design Framework for Synthesizing the Mobile and

Static Wayfinding Information in Complex
Environments

Hassan IFTIKHAR

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
August 2021
 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and
belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written, nor material that has been
accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma, except where due acknowledgement has
been made in the text.

Hassan IFTIKHAR
(Name)

(Signature of the Student)

i
This thesis is dedicated to my parents and friends who helped me in every stage of life.

ii
 ABSTRACT

Wayfinding involves navigation and destination finding using different environmental cues
and dedicated wayfinding aids, (i.e., static or mobile aids). This activity is influenced by various
factors like individual differences, spatial design, design of wayfinding aids, other environmental
and visual factors. These factors can affect the wayfinding activity and provide hurdles in the
intuitive navigation of people, especially in public institutions. Public institutions like hospitals,
shopping malls, passenger terminals, and academic campuses attract thousands of visitors and
workers from different locations. The public sector institutions located in the dense urban areas or
city centres of metropolitan cities have been transformed into spatially complex environments. The
high-rise buildings with the scarcity of space make these environments challenging to navigate
and find the required destination. Owing to this, these public institutions need to face navigation
difficulties for the public daily, which leads to disorientation and cause severe time losses. The
legibility of public institutional environments requires less spatial complexity or efficient
wayfinding systems to mitigate the public navigation problems.
A wayfinding system consists of different dedicated wayfinding aids informing users about the
routes, facilities, destinations, and overall spatial familiarity. The wayfinding aids help users find
their required destination with minimal effort to make the institutional environment more efficient.
Traditional wayfinding aids consist of directional signs, identification signs, building landmarks,
pathways, intersections, artistic landmarks, etc. With the advent of technological advancements,
multiple mobile wayfinding aids have been introduced. These mobile wayfinding aids use GPS or
different beacon-based technologies to provide context-aware information to the navigator. The
context-aware information helps reorient the lost person towards the required destination. Due to
the technical limitations in GPS and beacon-based technologies, the complex spatial environments

iii
are still considered to be hard to transform into an efficient institutional environment. Various
research studies have been performed in quantifying the factors of disorientation and tried to
provide the requisite wayfinding solution. However, both static and mobile wayfinding aids and
solutions were insufficient to eradicate the wayfinding issues significantly.
This study investigated the potential wayfinding issues in complex environments of public
sector institutions that are largely ignored. An intensive literature review has been identified
involving several research questions. The literature review has been performed to identify the
factors that make an environment complex to navigate. Existing wayfinding metrics and human-
related differences have been explored from the previous work. This review has delineated several
issues in the wayfinding aids for complex environments, including individual differences of
preferences and behaviour in obtaining environmental information. Based on this, a mixed-method
research study has been planned to explore the current wayfinding issues in complex environments
and current user practices of wayfinding in such environments. The studies have identified the
cultural and individual differences in obtaining the wayfinding information from static information
sources like signages and maps. In addition to that, this research identifies potential limitations of
mobile wayfinding aids as well for estimating the navigator’s exact location and orientation. Both
wayfinding aids have not been efficient enough to reduce the wayfinding issues.
This study also suggested synthesising the information sources on the individual level and
improving the system design of wayfinding information sources. Current user practices
recommended a significant need for providing context-aware information. The context-aware
information may include current location, orientation, visible directions at decision points and
environmental validation after arriving at the destination. The study also investigated the current
user practices of information symbiosis and investigated users’ performance, behaviour and
preferences while performing various wayfinding tasks. The acquired data has been analysed and
transformed into theoretical design guidelines for improving the current wayfinding issues in
public sector institutions. The design guidelines have been constructed to guide the navigators to
synthesise static and mobile information for individual practices. Moreover, the guidelines will
provide a complete insight for the environmental and information designers to incorporate the

iv
syntheses of various environmental information sources. The improvements for the wayfinding
system design have also been suggested for the complex public institutional environment.

Keywords: Complex environments, institutional facilities, wayfinding information design,

wayfinding syntheses, static & mobile wayfinding information.

v
 PUBLICATIONS

Journal Papers
1. Iftikhar, H., Asghar, S., & Luximon, Y. (2020). A Cross-Cultural Investigation of Design
and Visual Preference of Signage Information from Hong Kong and Pakistan, The Journal
of Navigation, 0:0 1–19, DOI:10.1017/S0373463320000521
2. Iftikhar, H., Asghar, S., & Luximon, Y. (2020). The efficacy of campus wayfinding
signage: a comparative study from Hong Kong and Pakistan. Facilities. DOI:10.1108/F-
04-2020-0035
3. Iftikhar, H., Shah, P., & Luximon, Y. (2020) Human wayfinding behaviour and metrics in
complex environments: a systematic literature review, Architectural Science Review,
DOI:10.1080/00038628.2020.1777386
4. Iftikhar, H. & Luximon, Y. (2022) The syntheses of static and mobile wayfinding
information: An empirical study of wayfinding preferences and behaviour in complex
environments- (Facilities), DOI: 10.1108/F-06-2021-0052
5. Multiple layer digital wayfinding information: A study of user preferences for information
content and design in wayfinding applications- (International Journal of Human-Computer
Studies) (Under Revision).
6. Wayfinding information syntheses: a study of wayfinding efficiency and behaviour in
complex environment- (HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal) (Under
Revision)

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to thank the almighty Allah for His countless blessings and guidance. I
would also like to present my sincere thanks to my very patient supervisor Dr Yan Luximon for
being continuous support, a source of encouragement and a person to believe in. During this
degree, the whole research process would not be possible without the continuous backing of group
members from the Asian Ergonomics Design Lab. Their encouragement made me believe that I
can do better than the last time. I would also like to thank my family and friends from Hong Kong
and Pakistan for their advice, especially during social unrest and the CoVid-19 pandemic.
I would be very thankful to the school of design, Hong Kong Polytechnic University for
granting me the scholarship opportunity to fulfil my dream of becoming a doctor. I cannot even
imagine this without the enormous financial and emotional support from PolyU and its staff. I
would also like to thank UGC of Hong Kong for considering me a potential candidate for a fully-
funded PhD scholarship scheme.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY .........................................................................................................................i 

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................................... iii 
PUBLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................................................vi 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... vii 
TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................................................................... viii 
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................................xiv 
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................................xvi 
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 1 

  CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS................................................................................................................. 1 
  RESEARCH BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................... 1 
  RESEARCH QUESTIONS................................................................................................................. 7 
  AIMS & OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 3 
  RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE ........................................................................................................... 4 
  RESEARCH PLAN ............................................................................................................................ 7 

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 12 

  CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS............................................................................................................... 12 

  WAYFINDING INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 12 
  COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS .........................................................................................13 
  WAYFINDING METRICS ................................................................................................14 
  SPACE SYNTAX...............................................................................................................14 
  ENVIRONMENTAL FAMILIARITY ...............................................................................15 

  VISUAL-SPATIAL FACTORS ......................................................................................................... 16 

  VISUAL CLUTTER ...........................................................................................................17 

  ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS ...................................................................................................... 17 

  INDIVIDUAL RELATED DIFFERENCES ..................................................................................... 18 
  CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ............................................................................................18 
  GENDER DIFFERENCES .................................................................................................19 
  SPATIAL ABILITIES ........................................................................................................19 

viii
   OTHER FACTORS ............................................................................................................20 

  WAYFINDING TECHNOLOGIES .................................................................................................. 20 

  VIRTUAL REALITY .........................................................................................................21 
  AUGMENTED REALITY .................................................................................................21 
  MOBILE DEVICES ...........................................................................................................22 

  WAYFINDING INFORMATION SYSTEMS .................................................................................... 23 

  STATIC WAYFINDING INFORMATION.......................................................................24 
  MOBILE WAYFINDING INFORMATION .....................................................................27 

  DIGITAL WAYFINDING INFORMATION ..................................................................................... 28 

  SINGLE/MULTIPLE-LAYER INFORMATION ..............................................................29 
  TYPES OF NAVIGATION STYLES ................................................................................30 
  TYPES OF INFORMATION CONTENT..........................................................................30 
  WAYFINDING INFORMATION MODELS ....................................................................31 

  LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY............................................................................................... 32 

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 34 

  CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS............................................................................................................... 34 

  MIXED-METHOD APPROACH ..................................................................................................... 34 
  METHODOLOGIES OF PRECEDING STUDIES ......................................................................... 34 
  PROPOSED RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES ............................................................................. 35 
  SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ...........................................................................................36 
  REAL ENVIRONMENT EXPERIMENT .........................................................................37 
  VALIDATION EXPERIMENT .........................................................................................38 
  PROPOSED DATA ANALYSIS .......................................................................................39 
  LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................................................39 

CHAPTER 4: STUDY 1 – CULTURAL AND INDIVIDUAL-RELATED INFLUENCES ON HUMAN

WAYFINDING BEHAVIOUR................................................................................................................................. 40 

  CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS............................................................................................................... 40 

  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 42 
  QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN.............................................................................................43 
  DATA COLLECTION .......................................................................................................45 
  DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................46 
ix
   RESULTS ........................................................................................................................................ 47 
  GENERAL DEMOGRAPHICS .........................................................................................47 
  CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ............................................................................................48 
  ENVIRONMENTAL FAMILIARITY ...............................................................................51 
  INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES .........................................................................................54 
  CORRELATION ANALYSIS ...........................................................................................58 

  DISCUSSION & FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 61 

  CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................................. 63 

CHAPTER 5: STUDY 2 - SIGNAGE DESIGN PREFERENCE & VISUAL UNDERSTANDING .................. 66 

  CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS............................................................................................................... 66 

  INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 66 
  METHOD ........................................................................................................................................ 67 
  QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................67 
  DATA COLLECTION PROCESS .....................................................................................72 
  DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS ..........................................................................................72 

  RESULTS ........................................................................................................................................ 73 

  INITIAL DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................73 
  CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON ..............................................................................75 
  INDIVIDUAL INFLUENCES ...........................................................................................79 
  CORRELATION ANALYSIS ...........................................................................................80 

  DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ......................................................................................................82 

  CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................................. 84 

CHAPTER 6: STUDY 3- INFORMATION CONTENT AND DESIGN IN DIGITAL WAYFINDING

APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 86 

  OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER ............................................................................................................ 86 

  INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 86 
  METHOD ........................................................................................................................................ 87 
  PARTICIPANTS ................................................................................................................87 

  DATA COLLECTION ..................................................................................................................... 88 

  PRE-EXPERIMENT INTERVIEW ...................................................................................88 
  WAYFINDING EXPERIMENT ........................................................................................89 
x
   POST-EXPERIMENT INTERVIEW .................................................................................92 

  DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 94 

  RESULTS ........................................................................................................................................ 95 
  TYPES OF INFORMATION CONTENT & USAGE .......................................................96 
  STEPS OF INFORMATION ............................................................................................ 100 
  PREFERENCES FOR INFORMATION CONTENT & DESIGN .................................. 102 
  INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ....................................................................................... 103 

  DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 104 

  CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 106 

CHAPTER 7: STUDY 4 – WAYFINDING PREFERENCES AND BEHAVIOUR IN COMPLEX

ENVIRONMENTS FOR THE SYNTHESES OF WAYFINDING INFORMATION ...................................... 108 

  OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................... 108 

  INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 108 
  METHOD ...................................................................................................................................... 109 
  PARTICIPANTS .............................................................................................................. 109 
  EXPERIMENT DESIGN ................................................................................................. 110 
  DATA ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 116 

  RESULTS ...................................................................................................................................... 118 

  WAYFINDING PERFORMANCE .................................................................................. 118 
  EFFICACY AND SYNTHESES OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SOURCES
122 
  GENDER DIFFERENCES ............................................................................................... 124 
  DIFFERENCES BASED ON SPATIAL ABILITIES ...................................................... 127 
  CULTURAL DIFFERENCES .......................................................................................... 129 

  DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 132 

CHAPTER 8: PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR AUTO GUIDED NAVIGATION SYSTEM &

WAYFINDING INFORMATION SYNTHESES ................................................................................................. 135 

  OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................... 135 

  EXISTING FRAMEWORK FOR WAYFINDING INFORMATION ............................................... 135 
  COMPONENTS OF THEORETICAL MODEL .............................................................. 135 

xi
   PROPOSED WAYFINDING FRAMEWORK ................................................................................ 139 
  WAYFINDING INFORMATION PROCESSING .......................................................... 139 
  TYPES OF INFORMATION TOOLS ............................................................................. 141 
  INFORMATION GATHERING ...................................................................................... 141 
  COGNITIVE PROCESS .................................................................................................. 142 
  WAYFINDING ACTIONS .............................................................................................. 143 

  WAYFINDING INFORMATION SYNTHESES ............................................................................. 143 

  INFORMATION SOURCES ........................................................................................... 145 
  ENVIRONMENTAL VALIDATION .............................................................................. 147 
  WAYFINDING TASKS ................................................................................................... 147 

  WAYFINDING INFORMATION REQUIREMENT....................................................................... 149 

  STARTING POINT .......................................................................................................... 151 
  WALKING .......................................................................................................................151 
  DECISION POINTS......................................................................................................... 152 
  DESTINATION................................................................................................................ 153 

CHAPTER 9: VALIDATION STUDY FOR INFORMATION SYNTHESES & TYPES FOR WAYFINDING
TASKS IN COMPLEX ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................................ 155 

  OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER.................................................................................................. 155 

  INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 155 
  METHOD ...................................................................................................................................... 156 
  PARTICIPANTS .............................................................................................................. 157 

  DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................................... 158 

  PRE-EXPERIMENT ........................................................................................................ 158 
  EXPERIMENT ................................................................................................................. 159 

  RESULTS ...................................................................................................................................... 166 

  DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 170 

CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS .................................................................................. 174 

  OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER.................................................................................................. 174 

  KEY FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................ 174 
  COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS ..................................................................................... 174 
  CULTURAL & INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ........................................................... 175 
xii
   INFORMATION AIDS, TYPE & VOLUME ................................................................ 176 
  WAYFINDING BEHAVIOUR ...................................................................................... 176 
  INFORMATION SYNTHESIS ...................................................................................... 177 

  THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION ............................................................................................... 178 

  LIMITATIONS............................................................................................................................... 181 
  FUTURE WORK ........................................................................................................................... 182 

................................................................................................................................................................................... 185 

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Differences of static & digital information content ....................................................... 5 

Figure 1.2 Information syntheses.................................................................................................... 6 
Figure 1.3 Research Plan ................................................................................................................ 9 
Figure 2.1 Directional, information, identification and regulatory signage in HK polytechnic
university....................................................................................................................................... 25 
Figure 2.2 Wayfinding kiosk at K-11 musea Hong Kong ............................................................ 26 
Figure 2.3 Information and wayfinding display at Heathrow airport London .............................. 27 
Figure 4.1 Simple statistics of cultural groups.............................................................................. 50 
Figure 4.2 Simple statistics of Environment Familiarity (EF) level ............................................. 54 
Figure 4.3 Simple statistics of gender ........................................................................................... 57 
Figure 5.1 Signage design consistency ......................................................................................... 69 
Figure 5.2 Colour coding in signage ............................................................................................. 70 
Figure 5.3 Signage information volume ....................................................................................... 71 
Figure 5.4 Simple statistics of cross-cultural comparison ............................................................ 78 
Figure 6.1 Coding of application menu ........................................................................................ 91 
Figure 6.2 Navigation pattern of the wayfinding application ....................................................... 92 
Figure 6.3 Information content accessed by the participants ........................................................ 96 
Figure 6.4 Steps of information & navigation pattern ................................................................ 100 
Figure 6.5 Information layers access for multilayer information content .................................. 101 
Figure 7.1 Campus Map.............................................................................................................. 111 
Figure 7.2 3D aerial view of campus .......................................................................................... 112 
Figure 7.3 Wayfinding application (Tab menu, side bar menu, home page).............................. 113 
Figure 7.4 Ideal routes ................................................................................................................ 118 
Figure 7.5 All participant route ................................................................................................... 120 
Figure 7.6 Comparison of wayfinding tasks completion time .................................................... 121 

xiv
Figure 7.7 SBSDS vs Difference of total time ............................................................................ 127 
Figure 7.8 Task completion time for cultural groups ................................................................. 130 
Figure 8.1 Wayfinding Framework with Auto Guided navigation system ................................. 140 
Figure 8.2 Information syntheses for wayfinding tasks .............................................................. 144 
Figure 8.3 Wayfinding tasks and information process ............................................................... 150 
Figure 9.1 Experimental setup in design lab ............................................................................... 160 
Figure 9.2 Word cloud of preferred information sources ........................................................... 170 
 

xv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Environmental features of complex university settings .................................................. 4 

Table 4.1 Questionnaire design..................................................................................................... 43 
Table 4.2 Participants summary .................................................................................................... 47 
Table 4.3 Cross-cultural comparison of groups ............................................................................ 48 
Table 4.4 Comparison of Environmental Familiarity (EF) level .................................................. 51 
Table 4.5 Comparison of gender ................................................................................................... 55 
Table 4.6 Kendall tau’s correlation test ........................................................................................ 60 
Table 5.1 Participant information in questionnaire construction .................................................. 67 
Table 5.2 Summary of general demographics .............................................................................. 74 
Table 5.3 Summary of questions responses .................................................................................. 74 
Table 5.4 Summary of questions explanation responses .............................................................. 75 
Table 5.5 Summary of cultural differences in design selection .................................................... 76 
Table 5.6 Summary of cultural differences in questions’ explanation ......................................... 76 
Table 5.7 Summary of cultural differences in questions’ explanation ......................................... 77 
Table 5.8 Statistical analysis of gender differences ...................................................................... 79 
Table 5.9 Statistical analysis of age differences ........................................................................... 79 
Table 5.10 Statistical analysis of literacy level ............................................................................. 80 
Table 5.11 Spearman’s correlations .............................................................................................. 81 
Table 6.1 Pre-experiment Interview questions ............................................................................. 88 
Table 6.2 Pre-experiment Interview questions ............................................................................. 93 
Table 7.1 Locations for wayfinding tasks ................................................................................... 116 
Table 7.2 Participant's performance (Difference in ICT vs ACT) .Error! Bookmark not defined. 
Table 7.3 Comparative analysis of gender differences in wayfinding information syntheses ... 126 
Table 7.4 Spatial ability vs task performance ................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 
Table 7.5 Significant differences based on spatial ability in wayfinding behaviour .................. 128 

xvi
Table 7.6 Comparative analysis of cultural differences in wayfinding information syntheses .. 131 
Table 7.7 Significant cultural differences in wayfinding behaviour........................................... 131 
Table 9.1 Pre-experiment questionnaire ..................................................................................... 158 
Table 9.2 Experiment variables .................................................................................................. 161 
Table 9.3 Controlled factors during the experiment ................................................................... 161 
Table 9.4 Experiment metrics and pre-requisites ....................................................................... 162 
Table 9.5 Location complexity parameters ................................................................................. 163 
Table 9.6 Experimental conditions ............................................................................................. 164 
Table 9.7 Latin square balance of environmental settings .......................................................... 164 
Table 9.8 Wayfinding tasks performance ................................................................................... 166 
Table 9.9 Descriptive analysis .................................................................................................... 167 
Table 9.10 Information types and frequencies ............................................................................ 170 

xvii
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

This chapter consists of the research background and its fundamental objectives and
significance. The chapter also explains the research methodology of the project and the
potential research questions for the initiation of said research.

RESEARCH BACKGROUND

It has been a complex task to search for a shorter and more efficient route towards the
required building or a destination in a complex spatial setting. This task requires a complete
understanding of the spatial settings and some navigational aids to direct a navigator in the
right direction. This requisite task of finding a destination is known as wayfinding. It can also
be described as a general navigation task from one point to another (Golledge, 1999; Ruddle
and Lessels, 2006). ‘Kevin Lynch introduced wayfinding’ as a term in his well-renowned book
The Image of the City, and since then, it has been a topic of great interest for city planners and
designers (Lynch, 1960). As per Lynch’s definition, it is an activity that uses the sensory
information from the environment and processes it afterwards. Since then, quite many
researchers have investigated the said topic in detail, exploring different dimensions.
Wayfinding tasks also require a significant number of cognitive efforts to process the
environmental information and develop the required strategies for route finding (Brugger,
1999; Foster and Afzalnia, 2005). Therefore, the environmental wayfinding information should
be efficient and easy in understanding and deploy the plan in a real environment. The real
environmental settings will be hard to navigate for the navigators if this is complexly designed
and challenging to recall while navigating (Iftikhar, Shah and Luximon, 2020). Such
environments are complex for wayfinding and general navigation. In such environments, the
navigational and spatial information is unclear and misleading for the navigators (Stankiewicz
and Kalia, 2007). Most of the public institutions and places situated in the centre of the city can
be described as complex environments, including both indoors and outdoors. Such
environments like university campuses, hospitals, malls, or other complex spatial settings are

1
hard to navigate effectively. Owing to this, many navigators encountered spatial disorientation
which can further leads to frustration and mental stress (Haake, Smith and Pick-Jr., 1984;
Chang, 2013). Wayfinding in such environments has gained the interest of multiple researchers
to investigate the parameters and metrics further to overcome the spatial complexity. Multiple
studies (Garling, Book and Lindenberg, 1986; Emo et al., 2014; Meneghetti et al., 2017;
Afrooz, White and Parolin, 2018) have investigated these complex environments by taking the
examples of city centre university campuses. They have identified several issues for spatial
disorientation, especially for the newcomers or visitors.
The spatial complexity in public sector institutions has been enhanced due to the unplanned
and post-occupancy extensions of building structures. Due to high-rise building structures with
shortened axial lines, the whole environment looks quite complex visually. Concurrently less
attention has been given to the design and planning of wayfinding systems; this further leads
to morphing such spatial settings, which is hard to memorise in the first stage and hard to recall.
Wayfinding research has been there for a long time; however, this research focused on city-
wide or pedestrian wayfinding. For city wayfinding or pedestrian wayfinding, certain elements
have been proven effective in assisting wayfinding, i.e., well-identified roads, crossings,
identified walkable areas and directional signs. Whereas in public institutions' complex
environments of public institutions there is a lack of well-identified walkable areas, fused
nature of facilities, cross-cultural and individual differences in understanding the wayfinding
aids, visual cluster, and crowd influence (Delnevo et al., 2018), this perfectly develops a fused
and complex environment that has low environmental legibility.
There are specific parameters to understand the complex environments and make them
efficient for the public to ensure organizational efficiency. The spatial ability and wayfinding
performance are dependent on several parameters, including environmental features and the
wayfinding information (Miller and Lewis, 1999). One of these parameters is the wayfinding
guiding system to inform the navigators about their wayfinding tasks. The wayfinding guiding
systems include the wayfinding aids like maps, signage, pathways, intersections, and digital
devices. Studies (MacEachren, 1992; Wiener, Büchner and Hölscher, 2009) have identified
that if the navigators navigate a complex environment or an unfamiliar environment, they
obtain the environmental information through purposely designed wayfinding aids. Multiple
studies (Carpman and Grant, 1993; Fewings, 2001; Holscher et al., 2007; Rodrigues, Coelho

2
and Tavares, 2018) have investigated the impacts of different wayfinding aids and proved that
it could make the complex environment spatially legible for navigators, hence can be very
effective for aiding the wayfinding tasks. The design of a wayfinding system consists of two
major divisions, (i.e. Static wayfinding information systems and mobile wayfinding
information systems) (Jeffrey, 2017). The static system of wayfinding information includes
signage, printed maps, and environmental information leaflets. In comparison, the digital
wayfinding information system includes digital displays (Sykes, Pentland and Nardi, 2015)
interactive booths/kiosks, smart devices and application-based wayfinding.
The static and digital wayfinding systems should work hand in hand to address the
wayfinding issues in contemporary institutional environments. The static information system
can describe the physical environmental features effectively in real-world settings. Effective
and efficient wayfinding systems combine the features of the environment and navigation
information design (Rodrigues, Coelho and Tavares, 2018). The mobile digital information
systems can accommodate a greater volume of wayfinding information. The wayfinding
systems consisting of static and mobile information need to be synthesized to mitigate
contemporary wayfinding issues (Jeffrey, 2017). The complex university environments require
a robust design for the effective delivery of environmental information due to the inefficacy of
the current wayfinding system (Iftikhar, Asghar and Luximon, 2020b). Therefore, it is
necessary to investigate the user behaviour for static and mobile wayfinding aids for mitigating
the navigation issues in public sector complex environments.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this research are as under as follows:

 Literature review related to human wayfinding behaviour
 Identify the effective wayfinding aids in complex environments
 Investigate the individual differences in wayfinding behaviour
 Investigate the visual understanding of static wayfinding information
 Investigate the role of digital wayfinding information in complex environments
 Investigate the most appropriate strategies for designing the wayfinding information
content

3
 Develop guidelines necessary for efficient syntheses of the static and digital wayfinding
information

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE

In the public institutional environment, wayfinding has been considered an essential

parameter due to its importance in saving professional time losses, stress, and frustration. The
public institutions situated in the middle of populated urban areas have been developed into a
complex environment due to various factors. These factors include post-occupancy
construction, scarcity of space, fused facilities, and extension of buildings. This environment
building is necessary due to the professional requirements of the selected institutions; however,
the existing infrastructure structure has not been disturbed. Owing to this condition, the
environment becomes homogenous, visually cluttered, and less legible for general navigation.
Most of these public institutions require general visitors to navigate the environment, which
reduces the environmental efficiency due to the disorientation of the navigators. Public
university campuses, hospitals, malls and travelling terminals are the most common examples

Table 1.1 Environmental features of complex university settings

of such environments.

Sr. Features
1. Campuses have a large cluster of buildings, unlike hospitals
2. Complex spatial planning due to fused intersections & pathways
3. Fused facilities for students, visitors & staff
4. Many Cross-cultural students and visitors every semester
5. New and unfamiliar environment for newcomers
6. Varied information signage understanding due to individual differences
7. Visual absence of spatial information due to visual clutter
8. Limited visual access
9. Spatial anxiety and stress
10. Crowd influence

4
 This research has considered the complex university environmental settings for developing
a theoretical framework for the efficient wayfinding information system. The public sector
campuses located in the heart of metropolitan cities have been transmuted into complex
environments because of repeated structural extensions within a limited space. A cluster of
high-rise buildings has been constructed to answer this issue while producing a minor
disturbance to the official operations. These university campuses are also less legible due to
their fused nature of facilities, irregular structures, fused intersections, fused pathways, visual
complexity, and limited visual access, as depicted in Table 1.1. To overcome the mentioned
issues of human navigation, several aids have been designed to aid the navigator in wayfinding.
These aids include maps, signage, landmarks. However, several studies as mentioned in the
literature review have mentioned cultural and individual-related issues like gender, age, spatial
capability. They are affecting the information gathering from these wayfinding aids. With the
advent of technological advancements, many digital and interactive mobile wayfinding
information has been designed to inform the navigator about the location, direction, and routes.

Figure 1.1 Differences of static & digital information content

5
 The two systems, i.e., static and mobile wayfinding information systems, have been studied
and found inefficient individually to provide the requisite environmental information,
especially if the navigator is new to the environment. The said information systems often used
static and digital information content to facilitate the navigators. Both information contents
have potential benefits and shortcomings in terms of displaying the information, user
understanding and operational resources. A brief comparison has been drawn in Figure 1.1
from the literature review performed in the thesis. This research has focused on investigating
the necessary information required by the navigators while performing the different wayfinding

Figure 1.2 Information syntheses

tasks.
Different cultural and individual factors have also been investigated to study human
wayfinding behaviour and wayfinding preferences. This study also investigated the navigators’
information obtaining behaviour from the static and mobile wayfinding aiding systems. This
study aimed to develop a theoretical framework for wayfinding information designers to design
efficient wayfinding systems for complex institutional environments. This framework will help
the designers reduce public disorientation events and enhance environmental efficiency by
saving the navigator’s professional time and cognitive efforts. Many public institutions like
hospitals or university campuses situated in dense urban areas have limited space.
To accommodate the requisite facilities, the institutions are required to build multi-storey
structures with multi-level access to the facilities. These complex-built environments are
challenging to navigate for new and unfamiliar visitors due to insufficient information retrieval

6
from wayfinding aids. During indoor wayfinding, digital wayfinding information through
mobile devices with built-in GPS trackers has signal issues and requires heavy resources in
alternative options. This research has investigated the factors instrumental in delivering
adequate wayfinding information through a static and digital medium. Also, this research tried
to identify the necessary parameters for the potential synthesizing of digital and static
wayfinding information.

RESEARCH PLAN

For performing the research on the said topic, a comprehensive research plan has been
developed with the identified key stages. The key stages have consisted of the three phases as
identified in Figure 1.3 i.e. Phase 1: Barriers identification, Phase 2: Barriers Assessment and
Phase 3: Framework Development. Phase 1 deals with the literature related to analysing and
mitigating the wayfinding problems in complex environments like public educational
institutions located in city centres. The second phase has been proposed related to the user
wayfinding behaviour along with the influence of environmental information and individual
differences. The final phase has been related to the framework development for user behaviour
and their information requirement while performing the wayfinding tasks.
The overall study plan has been incorporated in Figure 1.3, along with the details of each
study in the mentioned schematic diagram. The said research has been planned as mixed-
method exploratory research to investigate the potential parameters for improving the current
wayfinding systems, especially in complex environments. The start of the research has been
constituted an intense and detailed literature review. The literature review has been performed
for the types of wayfinding information systems, the requisite metrics, and technological
advancements in aiding the wayfinding tasks. A detailed literature review has been performed
and concerned research material published from 1990 to 2019 has been included to formulise
the further exploratory investigations.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study is informed by the following research questions:
Research Question 1: How do cultural and individual differences affect the acquiring of
wayfinding information?

7
Research Question 1.1: What are the problems in obtaining the wayfinding information?
Research Question 1.2: What is the user’s behaviour for the search of wayfinding information?
Research Question 1.3: What is the user’s perception about the accuracy of obtained
wayfinding information?
Research Question 2: What is the user’s preference regarding static wayfinding information?
Research Question 3: What is the user’s preference regarding the style and volume of
information?
Research Question 4: How do users’ access and perceive the digital app-based wayfinding
information for complex environments?
Research Question 5: What are the parameters necessary for efficiently synthesizing the static
and digital wayfinding information?

8
 Figure 1.3 Research Plan

Study 1 was designed while performing the online survey through a structured
questionnaire to investigate the fundamental wayfinding problems and peculiar wayfinding
9
behaviour while navigating the complex institutional environment. As a case study, a complex
university setting has been selected to investigate navigators' problems and behavioural
differences. The questions have been asked in a structured manner from the participants of two
different cultural groups, i.e., Pakistan and Hong Kong. The study investigated common
problems and behavioural differences while performing wayfinding tasks in complex
environmental settings. Owing to this finding, further study has been planned to investigate the
user preferences regarding the wayfinding information.
Study 2 has been designed to investigate the information system preferences by the
navigators. The information systems have been developed based on several parameters
including the information medium, design, type, and volume necessary to deliver the relevant
information to the navigators. In the said study, twelve wayfinding information options have
been designed to be presented to the navigators, investigating their preferences. Participants
from both cultures, i.e., Individualists and collectivists have participated in the said
investigation representing HK and PAK. The results have presented the cultural and individual
differences in the design preferences for the wayfinding information. Both studies have
enunciated the individual related differences in understanding and acquiring the wayfinding
information. Based on the current findings, a need to redesign the wayfinding information
system has been raised for complex institutional settings.
Study 3 has been delineated to investigate the users’ interaction with the mobile information
sources and their navigation pattern for finding and acquiring the information. Specific
parameters and preferences have been identified by using qualitative research methods. The
user information preferences for digital wayfinding applications have been investigated. This
study elaborated the pattern of users’ digital information retrieval from a digital mobile device
like smartphones. Study 4 has been designed to investigate the current practices of acquiring
the wayfinding information from environmental information sources and specially designed
wayfinding aids, including but not limited to signage and purposely designed mobile devices.
The objective of this study was to investigate the wayfinding practices and behaviour currently
practised by the navigators using the above-mentioned information sources. A synthesis of
information has been observed by the navigators using static and mobile information sources.
However, no consideration has been found for both systems to be integrated into a cohesive
and singular information source to guide the navigators.

10
 After having thoughtful insights from all the studies, a comprehensive framework has been
presented for the information syntheses of static and digital wayfinding information systems to
be considered in complex institutional settings. The presented framework is expected to be
equally significant in all the complex institutional settings having less space while offering
several facilities. After acquiring the syntheses practices, a study has been performed while
taking some of the recommended design suggestions to validate the findings of the presented
information design framework. This information design framework for synthesizing the static
and mobile information systems will help designers understand the user information
requirements, preferences, and behavioural patterns to access and understand the wayfinding
information from purposely designed environmental information sources. This framework will
also help the information and environmental designers to design the respective environmental
aids in a more holistic approach to provide the users updated and accurate context-aware
information.
After proposing the framework for synthesising the wayfinding information in complex
environments, a validation study has been conducted to validate the wayfinding information
requirements and their efficacy. This validation study has been conducted using a virtual reality
experiment by presenting the environmental settings in 360-degree pornographic. The
participants were invited for an experiment, and they were directed to perform wayfinding tasks
in an experimental setting using mentioned variables to test the efficiency of the proposed
wayfinding framework. The proposed framework has different wayfinding information
requirements and amounts to aid the wayfinding process and enhance users’ efficiency in a
complex and illegible environment. In addition to that, project limitations and future works
have also been delineated in further chapters to describe the significance and the potential of
the said research work.

11
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
A research article has been published from this chapter, Iftikhar, H., Shah, P., & Luximon,
Y. (2020) Human wayfinding behaviour and metrics in complex environments: a systematic
literature review, Architectural Science Review, DOI:10.1080/00038628.2020.1777386

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

This chapter presents an extensive literature review on wayfinding information, human

navigation behaviour, environmental quality, and legibility. The literature review also outlines
the individual related differences in acquiring, understanding, and preferring the wayfinding
information from external sources.

WAYFINDING INTRODUCTION

Wayfinding plays an integral part in daily life, from commuting within the city to walking
to the desired destinations every day. It has been a matter of great difficulty while roaming in
the large developments (Scurlock and Wise, 1985) as the buildings and spatial context become
more complicated. The primary purpose of this activity has been defined as to find the
optimized route for reaching the destination by taking the aid from environmental indicators
and estimating the factors of distance and survey knowledge (Siegel and White, 1975; Cheung,
2006). The acquired survey knowledge using the cartographic or environmental aids may
strongly depend on the user’s familiarity with a particular environment (Holscher et al., 2006).
In addition to the environmental familiarity, wayfinding tasks may also have some potential
influencing factors depending upon the types of wayfinding segregations. A study (Allen,
1999) has described the three significant segregations of wayfinding involving exploratory
navigation, travelling to a known location and travelling to an unknown location.
Moreover, the study has also described various wayfinding tasks, including roaming
between landmarks, path integration. Few wayfinding tasks are well defined and researched,
e.g., path integration (Loomis et al., 1993), while some are a bit imprecise, like cognitive
mapping and schematic tasks (Kitchin, 1994). Cognitive mapping and path searching strategies
have been influential in affecting wayfinding abilities. It has been suggested to examine one’s
decision making and problem-solving abilities for wayfinding problems to evaluate the

12
wayfinding performance for real-time applications (Trulove, Sprague and Colony, 2000;
Rodrigues, Coelho and Tavares, 2018). Wayfinding performance and behaviour have contained
several influential factors based on the human interaction with the surrounding environment.
Several significant elements taken from the existing literature have been further discussed.

COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS
The terminology of complex environments has been considered quite relevant to those
spatial environments in which spaces are not well defined for navigation. Complex
environments are reflected as those environments where navigational, spatial or geometric cues
are unclear and confusing (Stankiewicz and Kalia, 2007). Most indoor and outdoor systems of
spatial surroundings can be referred to as this kind of setup, including public spaces, city
centres, health care settings and educational institutions. Wayfinding in these complex
environmental settings can lead people to disorientation which has further linked to stress and
frustration(Chang, 2013). Spatial design features have been of critical importance in the
legibility of complex environments, and they have also proven to be crucial in the user’s
wellbeing (Arthur and Passini, 1992).
Wayfinding research at university campuses or hospitals has gained the interest of several
researchers due to its complex nature and excessive roaming within environmental settings.
Several studies (Emo et al., 2014; Meneghetti et al., 2017; Afrooz, White and Parolin, 2018)
have used university settings as the experimental environment for the research on wayfinding
performance and behaviours. University settings have several new students and visitors each
year, having a negligible level of environmental familiarity. The spatial aids are not helpful
enough to demonstrate the peculiar naming and locations of different facilities; this leads to the
disorientation of visitors and students and caused professional time losses, stress, frustration,
and the disturbance of scheduled timing. The wayfinding research based on complex city
settings cannot be directly applied to the complex institutional settings, although they both
share the same socio-economic and environmental structure (Torres-Sospedra et al., 2015).
City setups have the structure of roads, walking paths, clear landmarks, and different cues
to guide the user, whereas, in the complex institutional setup, almost the entire outdoor is
walkable and accessible, causing confusion for directed wayfinding and exploration.
Concerning the complex institutional settings situated in the centre of the densely populated

13
urban areas, several factors may enhance the complexity of its environment. Absence of
discrete boundaries (Cheung, 2006), complex layout planning (Hidayetoglu, Yildirim and
Cagatay, 2010), lack of efficient environmental cues (Dogu and Erkip, 2000), diffused
walkable paths, shared social spaces, heavy concentration/traffic of people, visual richness,
complexity in gaining familiarity and lack of functional space hierarchies can be considered as
the influential factors reducing the legibility of institutional environment.

WAYFINDING METRICS
The effectiveness of wayfinding design solutions along with the wayfinding performance
can be evaluated with the help of wayfinding metrics. A three-level metric for wayfinding
evaluation in virtual environments has been developed (Ruddle and Lessels, 2006). The first
level has been defined as task performance measured based on time, distance, and the count of
errors. The other level has been described as evaluating human behaviour based on time
classification, error classification, the path followed and observations. The third level has been
styled as a rationale, involving a questionnaire, think-aloud protocol and interviews. Various
studies have been performed to evaluate the human wayfinding performance based on task
performing criteria. These studies have been studied by measuring the time taken for task
completion (Zhai et al., 1999; Bowman, Johnson and Hodges, 2001), travel distance in
reaching the destination, and the count of errors made while performing the wayfinding tasks
(Ruddle and Jones, 2001).
Furthermore, the wayfinding behaviour has also been studied based on the time and error
classification (Bowman, Johnson and Hodges, 2001) and by observing and path following
metrics to evaluate the behaviour qualitatively (Darken and Sibert, 1996). According to the
mentioned vital metrics, wayfinding behaviour has been further studied to justify individual
actions. These justifications for selective behaviour have also been studied through post-
experiment questionnaires and think-aloud protocols (Murray et al., 2000).

SPACE SYNTAX
In the interior spaces, wayfinding metrics and tasks could vary depending upon the
building’s interior spatial structures and visibility range of potential ways to roam around. The
combination of methodologies used for wayfinding evaluation of interior spaces has been
reflected as space syntax (Hoeven and Nes, 2014). This methodology has been observed to

14
improve the overall usability of a building and to simplify the wayfinding tasks. Space syntax
is the set of methodologies and theories used to quantify and interpret a building’s spatial
features (Hillier, Hanson and Graham, 1987). This concept has been comprised of three critical
methodologies consisting of convex spaces, isovist fields and axial lines (Hoeven and Nes,
2014). The first methodology (convex space) has been defined as all those points joined to all
other points within a space without crossing the space boundary (Hillier, 1988), while isovist
is the user's personal view in a spatial environment with a specific perspective (Benedikt,
1979).
Moreover, axial lines have been defined as the longest possible sightline within building
structures or interior spaces (Hoeven and Nes, 2014). By applying these concepts, the
assessment of interior spatial structures can be formulated for increasing environmental
legibility. Spatial structures can further have a substantial role in the evaluation of human
wayfinding behaviour and cognitive strategies. Although the metrics for wayfinding may seem
to be excluded from the described methodologies of space syntax (Ratti, 2004), the concept of
axial lines have a vital insight into the metrics of wayfinding (Turner, 2007; Jiang and Liu,
2009). A study (Holscher, Brosamle and Vrachliotis, 2006) has been conducted using space
syntax to show the influence of environmental familiarity on navigators’ cognitive strategies
in a complex building structure. However, another study (Davies and Peebles, 2010) has
discussed the possible barriers in opting for the space syntax for orientation performance in
three-dimensional spatial layout because it relies on two-dimensional schematics. Also, the
space syntax methodologies cannot evaluate the impacts of spatial forms, decision point actions
and effectiveness of signage in real-time wayfinding behaviours (Tzeng and Huang, 2009).

ENVIRONMENTAL FAMILIARITY
The familiarity of the wayfinding environment has been considered quite significant in the
wayfinding tasks, performance and navigator’s behaviours in both real and virtual
environmental settings. Finding the way in a known setting can be reflected as searching for a
new location in an already known environment (Wiener, Büchner and Hölscher, 2009). Human
actions and behaviours can be very different in known surroundings than when the environment
is not familiar enough. A study (Garling, Book and Lindenberg, 1986) has suggested identical
findings by repeating the wayfinding experiment with different levels of environmental

15
familiarity. Users may differ in approaches in an unfamiliar environment while instigating the
information gathering, interpretation, destinations, choice of routes, cognitive strategies and
environmental cues (Newell, 1980; MacEachren, 1991). The environmental familiarity allowed
the users to deduce the gathered information in a relaxed and flexible way with different views
(Sholl, Kenny and DellaPorta, 2006; Iachini, Ruggiero and Ruotolo, 2009; Marchette et al.,
2011), and with the confidence of not getting lost.
Similar interpretations have been derived from multiple studies (Evans et al., 1980;
Garling, 1989) that people who already know the environmental settings rely greatly on
memory for information retrieval, cognition and previous mental mapping of the environment
rather than on the provided spatial information. Memory nodes and information retrieval from
long-term memory have been influential in wayfinding planning and defining route strategies.
Also, these actions of spatial planning can further be optimized with the repeated exposure of
the environment (Garling et al., 1981). Familiarity influences the real-time wayfinding
environment, but it also significantly influences environmental cues like signage. A study
(Tang, Wu and Lin, 2009) on signage has suggested that people have a different response in
virtual wayfinding experiments in which a difference of signage facility was present. They
showed better performance in the presence of familiar signages and deciphered the
interpretation of signages comfortably. Also, few studies (Leonard, Verster and Coetzee, 2014;
Rodrigues, Coelho and Tavares, 2018) has suggested that standardizations and consistency of
spatial cues can play a significant role in enhancing spatial comprehension.

VISUAL-SPATIAL FACTORS

Several spatial factors affecting wayfinding performance and behaviour, spatial lights and
colours, have been considered among the mentioned factors. In evaluating wayfinding
performance and behaviour, lights and colours being part of the surrounding environment can
considerably affect the participants’ cognitive decision and strategy building. In outdoor
environments, the effects of daylight and night alter the psychological presence of spatial
factors like landmarks, signages, path intersections and axial lines. Therefore, it affects the
behaviour and cognitive strategies during the navigational experiments in the indoors and
outdoors complex environmental settings (Rousek and Hallbeck, 2011; Basri and Sulaiman,
2013). The human cognitive approach and psychological behaviour may have been varied with

16
the surrounding lights, spatial colours, and usage in environmental cues. The impacts of lights
and colours have been previously explored using multiple experimental setups with diverse
influences, including participants’ psychological state, customers’ shopping behaviour and
consumer attractiveness of the spatial settings (Stone, 2003; Yildirim and Akalin-Baskaya,
2007). Lights and colours, along with the variation of intensity and temperature, also tend to
direct the participants in a particular direction during the spatial navigation; in addition to that,
a change in mood can also be achieved by using the appropriate aggregate of all of the factors
in combination or separately (Manav and Küçükdogu, 2006; Hidayetoglu, Yildirim and Akalin,
2012).

VISUAL CLUTTER
The visual aspects of the wayfinding information play an essential role in delivering spatial
information to the navigators. Visual clutter may be defined as the visual obstruction in noticing
the wayfinding information. It can be a direct obstruction like viewing angles or points of
placements. In addition to that, it can be due to the visual overload in the environment due to
landmarks, buildings and advertised information. Multiple studies (Ozel, 2001; Akizuki et al.,
2010) have investigated and mentioned factors affecting the visibility of wayfinding
information and suggested that environmental visual clutter strongly affects the wayfinding
information visibility for the users. It is also recommended by requisite authorities
(‘Department of Health’, 2005) to avoid the placement of wayfinding information in a visually
cluttered environment; this decreases the users’ attention and affects the users’ understanding
of the information.

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS

Wayfinding research has been conducted in different scenarios and has been applied in
varied environmental settings to assess the efficiency of a suggested method. The perception
of intuitive human responses concerning wayfinding behaviour has influenced designing the
interior and exterior surroundings. Healthcare settings have been considered most appropriate
for studies as these spaces are complex, and there is a time constraint to prevent unaffordable
time loss. The standardization of spatial cues has helped people impeccably find their way in
an unfamiliar environment (Gakopoulos, 2009; Rousek and Hallbeck, 2011; Lee et al., 2014).

17
Correspondingly, studies (Olmstead, 1999; Foster and Afzalnia, 2005) have tried to standardize
the spatial cues, specifically symbols and pictograms, to improve the user experience inside the
spatial envelope. This area of standardization has been an important parameter in understanding
individual behaviour varied because of users’ individual and cultural differences (Carrillo et
al., 2014; Romera, 2015). However, by providing training, the meaning can be learned and
taught (Cowgill, Bolek and Design, 2003). Moreover, adequate studies (White, 2010; Barclay
and Scott, 2012; Serfass, 2012; Polger and Stempler, 2014) has explored the spatial behaviour
inside libraries in conjunction with other spatial settings. Prior studies in this area were majorly
comprised of studies conducted in public indoor environments due to its potential limitations
in terms of human visibility range (axial lines) and spatial cues (landmarks, path specification
and interconnection density).

INDIVIDUAL RELATED DIFFERENCES

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Culture is an inherently diverse and essential element in defining the human wayfinding
behaviour because of the differed understanding and demonstration of spatial cues (signages
and pictograms) across different cultures (Tijus et al., 2007; Karimi, 2015). Several researchers
have always been ambitious to investigate the cross-cultural impacts and influences in various
fields of psychology, design and healthcare (Asghar, Torrens and Harland, 2018). Culture and
human cognition were relative and essential issues in the field of cross-cultural psychology
(Berry and Dasen, 1974), and therefore, many definitions have been coined for its description.
A study (Cole et al., 1971) described that cultural differences and human cognition are paired
behaviour for different situations and environmental setups. Cultural differences can also affect
the cognitive behaviour for the abstraction and understanding of the provided meaning (Asghar,
Torrens and Harland, 2019); this infers that the potential possibilities of cognitive strategies for
responding to the same situation may be defined as a cultural difference.
Cognitive strategies can define an individual’s manner of perception, memory, and
information delivery regarding a particular set of situations (Dornëy, 2005). This finding has
been considered valid for multiple studies with little change by describing cognitive behaviour
as the preferred way of reacting to the inherited one (Dasen, 2018). These cognitive strategies
influence the decision-making skills of an individual in various aspects. During wayfinding

18
tasks, there are multiple decision points for providing directions to the destination. The whole
behaviour of wayfinding can be different based on the difference in decision-making strategies.
Moreover, the varied interpretation and meaning of spatial cues due to cultural and individual
differences may have a substantial impact on the cognitive strategies (Foster and Afzalnia,
2005). The significant influence of cultural background has already been proven on the
interpretative strategies, meaning conception, cognitive decisions, and comprehension of
spatial cues.

GENDER DIFFERENCES
Gender-related differences in human wayfinding behaviour, performance and information
preferences have been investigated in the wayfinding literature for several environmental and
mental conditions. For several environmental conditions, gender differences have been found
in wayfinding performance and ascribed behaviour. A study (Lawton and Kallai, 2002)
investigated gender-related differences in developing and implementing the wayfinding
strategies and found that men preferred the global reference points whereas women preferred
strategy-based information. For location identification, men outperformed women in several
studies (Lawton, Charleston and Zieles, 1996; Lawton and Morrin, 1999) where the direction
of unseen landmarks needed to be identified. The gender-related differences in orientation
strategy and preferences while performing the wayfinding tasks have also been instrumental in
multiple studies (Munroe and Munroe, 1997; Waller, Hunt and Knapp, 1998; Edwards, 2000)
across different cultures. However, a study (Sandstrom, Kaufman and Huettel, 1998) found no
gender differences in wayfinding performance. This type of individual difference in
wayfinding behaviour is quite challenging to understand due to multiple confounding factors,
including but not limited to the environmental conditions, personal skill level, spatial ability,
and self-efficiency in problem-solving.

SPATIAL ABILITIES
Individual related differences also include one’s ability to freely understand the spatial
layout and understand the environmental information to search the desired destination. Spatial
abilities may involve visuospatial abilities, understanding the wayfinding information, building
better wayfinding strategies, route planning and location identification. Visuospatial ability can
be defined as building up spatial information while understanding and processing the

19
wayfinding information (Linn and Petersen, 1986; Yang, Conners and Merrill, 2014). Spatial
abilities also involve understanding the wayfinding information through signage, landmarks,
pathways, or any preferred information source. It also involves the cognitive ability to use and
understand environmental information sources (Simon et al., 1992). Spatial ability has been
different in different individuals based on their gender, education, past experiences, spatial
familiarity, and cognitive ability. Multiple studies (Lawton and Kallai, 2002; Chang, 2013;
Vandenberg et al., 2016) have investigated the wayfinding performance and behaviour in
different spatial settings and found it influential in describing the behaviour and efficiency
wayfinding tasks.

OTHER FACTORS
Individual related differences also include age as an influential factor for wayfinding
studies. Human cognitive abilities are going to change and improved with age (Devlin, 2014).
Owing to this, the wayfinding and spatial abilities can be higher with the increased age (Davis,
Therrien and West, 2009; Taillade et al., 2013). However, the age gaps which are influential
in wayfinding studies are debatable. Multiple studies have been performed to explore the age-
related influences in wayfinding performance and behaviour; however, fewer studies have been
focused on investigating the adequate age gaps. Age gaps from 2-5 years can be influential in
studies where the study sample consists of young adults. Whereas, in older adults, the age gap
can be increased to 10-15 years to be compelling enough.
In addition to that, the level of education and profession can also influence the wayfinding
behaviour and performance. A study (Dogu and Erkip, 2000) has stated that education and
profession are among the factors. Multiple studies (Peters, Chisholm and Laeng, 1995; His,
Linn and Bell, 1997; Sorby and Baartmans, 2000) have suggested that the visual and spatial
skills can be higher in the participants from an engineering background as well as all technical
professions, this could be due to the regular practice of problem-solving exercises which is an
essential part of their profession.

WAYFINDING TECHNOLOGIES

Many confounding factors have accompanied wayfinding experiments in a real-time

environment for evaluating behaviours. These factors may include diversion of visual and

20
cognitive attention, path and route association, outdoor lights with reflections, crowd
movements, people interactions, change of weather conditions. It is quite challenging to
achieve complete control over the studying variables in a real-time wayfinding experiment.
Previous studies (Morganti, Carassa and Geminiani, 2007; Vilar, Rebelo and Noriega, 2014)
have suggested that virtual computer environments can be considered an effective alternative
for real-time wayfinding experiments as the researcher can have the required control over all
of these confounding factors. Virtual environments in computer simulations have been used in
research for spatial navigation for the last two decades. Multiple studies have used virtual
environments on a computer screen like desktop virtual reality (DVR) (Omer and Goldblatt,
2007) and Augmented reality (AR) systems (Hedley, 2008; Lonergan and Hedley, 2014).

VIRTUAL REALITY
With the advent of technology, the possibility of fully immersive virtual environments has
been developed for further investigation in wayfinding. Head-mounted displays (HMD’s) have
been used to display the fully immersive virtual environment by allowing the user to have a
360-degree view of the experiment. A study (Niehorster, Li and Lappe, 2017) has used the
equipment (HTC VIVE) in conjunction with the steam VR positioning system for wayfinding
research. Multiple studies (Meng and Zhang, 2014; Young et al., 2014) have been conducted
in computer simulations with different variations of HMD’s for the exploration and evaluation
of indoor and outdoor wayfinding. For assessing the emergency scenarios, virtual environments
can be used, as emergencies are quite complicated to conceive, control and perform in a real-
time environment. Multiple mass egress models for indoor wayfinding research have been
proposed under fire, earthquake, and other emergency scenarios. For experiments, these
emergencies can only be produced in the virtual environment due to potential safety hazards.
Virtual reality has been proved a reliable technological aid for spatial navigation research;
however, it also has potential limitations, including virtual reality motion sickness and a
dichotomous sense of presence in the simulated and real world.

AUGMENTED REALITY
Augmented reality is a mixture of virtual graphics and real environments. This fusion can
be achieved by adding the virtual 3d models and graphical information by overlaying the real
environmental setups. This combination can be visualised on mobile devices like cell phones

21
and portable head-mounted glasses. Augmented reality can be quite valuable in eliminating
wayfinding problems, specifically in complex environments. A study (Barfield and Caudell,
2001) has used the see-through display, which allows the projection of computer graphics onto
the real world.
Similarly (Kim et al., 2015) has tried to implement an augmented reality wayfinding system
in complex environments. This technology has immense technical benefits in mitigating the
wayfinding problems; however, it comes with a very high cost and technology expenditures.
Augmented reality displays can contribute to assisting the individual wayfinding tasks, but for
the crowd, the environmental information still needs to be delivered through static information
medium, e.g., signage. As Mollerup agrees:
“It is a safe prediction that we will not dump the traditional wayshowing media including
signage in a foreseeable future. Some designers will work on improved user interfaces of digital
devices, and some (most) will work on environments that assist unplugged wayfinders
directly.” (Mollerup, 2014)

MOBILE DEVICES
With the use of an inbuilt GPS tracker, mobile gadgets such as smartphones, PDA’s, digital
assistants, tablets, smartwatches, and smart glasses can also deliver context-aware information
based on the location. The GPS tracker is efficient to provide information during outdoor
navigation by utilizing well-identified roads, sidewalks, and infrastructure. Research (Devlin,
2014) evaluated the influences of smart devices in outdoor wayfinding and discovered that they
help in displaying accurate directions. However, due to the partial or entire lack of GPS signals,
the scenario is slightly different for indoor navigation. Researchers (Willis, 2005; Song, 2006;
Chumkamon, Tuvaphanthaphiphat and Keeratiwintakorn, 2008) have created unique beacon
systems that use radio frequency identification (RFID) technique to direct smart devices during
indoor navigation. The methodology was unique, but it was still highly personalized and
resource-intensive compared to conventional navigational information systems. Mobile
devices rely on several factors to provide effective wayfinding information. These factors
include:
• A working mobile device with enough power level
• Require signals of GPS, RFID, WIFI or other wireless beacons

22
 • Time consuming & personalised information
• Require digital literacy
• Demands constant device attention
• Demands high cognitive efforts in case of map-based information
• Demands high-cost infrastructure in case of augmented reality-based information
• Require efficient and accessible digital interfaces
Wayfinding metrics for spatial navigations may vary for the pedestrian navigators in
complex environments due to the potential variations in spatial structures and clues. Several
studies have been done based on different real-time environmental settings to explore human
navigation behaviours. In real-time wayfinding experiments, many confounding factors can
influence or alter the experimental findings. In the presence of influencing factors like crowd
influence, spatial familiarity, route association, people interactions, and user’s differences,
likely, the outcomes from this research may not depict the actual behaviour.

WAYFINDING INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Several external information sources have been influential in delivering environmental
information to the wayfinders. These sources are including the wayfinding signage (Chambers
and Bowman, 2011), landmarks (Rechel, Buchan and McKee, 2009), maps (He, Ishikawa and
Takemiya, 2014), kiosks (Delvin and Bernstein, 1997) and mobile wayfinding applications
(Vandenberg et al., 2016). The information sources provide a variety of information using
static and digital resources. Static resources are sturdier and more permanent; however, the
digital resources are easily upgradeable and can accommodate the large volume of wayfinding
information (Jeffrey, 2017).
With the advent of technological advancements, the number of adults having affordable
portable smart devices is gradually getting increased around the globe (Devlin, 2014). A new
normal has been perceived that the smartphone is meant to be with the users, every time of the
day. Due to such behaviour, most everyday tasks have shifted from the physical paradigm to
the virtual one, especially wayfinding (Rodriguez-Sanchez et al., 2014). Wayfinding
applications on mobile devices are built on digital platforms to deliver the requisite information
on the go efficiently and can enhance wayfinding performance (Ishikawa et al., 2008;
Vandenberg et al., 2016). Most of the wayfinding applications have been developed on the
23
Android and IOS platforms to facilitate the target audience. These applications used GPS
signals and other location-based services to locate the navigator’s real-time position in a spatial
environment (Kaasinen, 2003; Török et al., 2018). The mobile devices having wayfinding
applications can be considered a personal wayfinding assistant (Reilly et al., 2009), and it has
several advantages over the static and fixed environmental information sources such as signage
and wayfinding kiosks.
Wayfinding tasks require detailed knowledge about the spatial environment and the
offering facilities. If the environment serves the purpose of a public institution, then these tasks
possess critical importance (Passini, 1996). Most public institutions have designed the spatial
layouts to facilitate wayfinding; however, these layouts become complex by building new
structures for the extension in facilities and require a post-occupancy evaluation [POE]
(McGrath and Horton, 2011; Oyelola, 2014). These complex layouts need regularly updated
wayfinding information sources to effectively counter the environmental complexity (Carlson
et al., 2010). The design of information sources is critical as it needs to acquire the users’
attention and deliver the requisite message (Lawton and Kallai, 2002; Liu, 2015; Sadek, 2015).

STATIC WAYFINDING INFORMATION

Wayfinding information systems are facilitating the wayfinding needs through static
mediums like signage, interactive kiosks and information maps. Static information systems like
signage and printed maps are proved to be an excellent aid for navigators for wayfinding in the
built environment (He, Ishikawa and Takemiya, 2014). However, certain aspects need to be
considered before designing the information and deciding the location of placements. Signage
and other environmental information, if not effectively designed and thoughtfully placed, then
the ability to acquire the wayfinding information is affected (Rechel, Buchan and McKee,
2009; Sadek, 2015). Due to this, navigators need to rely on memorising the route or actively
exploring the space to find the destination.
The information design of signage tends to minimise an individual’s confusion and
frustration during the wayfinding tasks (Carpman and Grant, 1993). There are four significant
types of signage based on information content, i.e., direction, identification, information and
regulatory signage (Shohamy and Gorter, 2008). The directional signage is majorly placed in
the outdoor environments and the large indoor environments with directional arrows. The

24
 Figure 2.1 Directional, information, identification and regulatory signage in HK
polytechnic university

signage placed on the intersection points to direct the navigator in the respective direction. In
comparison, the identification signage describes the name of a building, location or facility
(Tzeng and Huang, 2009). A study (Larson and Quam, 2010) has suggested that the directional
and identification signage are an integral part of any indoor environment to make it legible for
wayfinding. The wayfinding signage is effective in delivering the information; however, self-
location identification is very crucial with the provided information. For that reason, content-
aware signage introduced the concept of filtered and necessary wayfinding information to
avoid confusion from information clutter. A study (Sykes, Pentland and Nardi, 2015) has
suggested using context-aware digital signage, which can deliver the wayfinding information
based on its location. Although both environments require different cognitive abilities and
wayfinding strategies of users (Vilar, Rebelo and Noriega, 2014), signage and maps proved an
efficient indoor and outdoor wayfinding system.
Wayfinding kiosks have several benefits over other static wayfinding aids. These can
display diversified information including 2D, semi 3D and complete 3D maps. Most of the
wayfinding kiosks have programmed search engines for instantly finding the required
information. In addition to that, they can provide a complete 3d floor plan, users’ current
position, orientation, real-time walkthrough etc. The information on digital wayfinding kiosks
can be provided in multi-lingual mediums along with the customised user interfaces, which can
be very effective in delivering the wayfinding information to a larger volume of users.
Wayfinding kiosks can be served for digital advertisement as well when not in use by the
navigators. However, the access and ease of use are quite limited due to its static nature in the

25
environment. Users need to search for such information kiosks to gain environmental
information. The wayfinding kiosk placed in K-11 Musea in Hong Kong as depicted in Figure
2.2 serve its purpose quite well as used by several navigators throughout the day.

Figure 2.2 Wayfinding kiosk at K-11 musea Hong Kong

Static wayfinding aids are quite a in use due to several reasons. These aids are meant for a
larger audience and provide a context-aware information due to their placement in the
environment. In addition to that, these information sources are effective, durable and low in
maintenance, due to which they are quite in use. In public stations and airports, the static
information sources also include the information displays informing arrival and departure times
as well as the transport schedules. These information displays often direct the navigators for
their desired location along with the schedule information. As presented in Figure 2.3, the
information regarding flight gates and estimated walking distance has been presented in the
display. The navigators can plan their journey according to the advised time displayed on the
information panels. These information displays work hand in hand with the regular static
wayfinding signage for efficiently delivering the environmental information. The said
information display informs the navigators about boarding gates, estimated time to reach there
and informs that which wayfinding information one needs to follow. The wayfinding

26
requirements of a certain environment depends on the type and complexity of the environment.
Which further suggests the type of wayfinding information as well as the optimum volume of
that information.

Figure 2.3 Information and wayfinding display at Heathrow airport London

MOBILE WAYFINDING INFORMATION

With the advent of technological advancements in mobile location tracking, many other
solutions have emerged for indoor and outdoor wayfinding problems. Smartphones and hand-
held devices are amongst those technology dependant digital solutions. The smartphones and
digital devices use the GPS (Global Positioning System) based location identification system
to locate the navigator’s current position and direct them via digital wayfinding information.
The efficiency of the system varies depending upon the GPS signal strength and the speed of
internet data. Mobile devices aid the wayfinding process, but they are not the ultimate solution
to all the wayfinding problems (Vandenberg et al., 2016). The complete shifting of the
wayfinding system from static to digital information medium is not feasible. Both information
systems have potential benefits and deficiencies on their own. In combination with other
systems of wayfinding information, mobile devices are proving an excellent asset for
wayfinding research (Devlin, 2014). However, mobile devices require a significant dependence
on the internet or any position identification system, i.e., GPS or indoor beacons. The GPS
location identification system is quite efficient and effective in outdoor environments with
simple layout settings (Mollerup, 2014; Iftikhar, Asghar and Luximon, 2020b). However, GPS

27
is not efficient enough to provide real-time location and directional information for the complex
outdoor and indoor settings.
Several beacon-based techniques have been suggested to overcome this issue using
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, RFID (Radio Frequency Identification). For enhanced and effective
wayfinding information in indoor navigation, a study (Chumkamon, Tuvaphanthaphiphat and
Keeratiwintakorn, 2008) has designed the RFID based beacon system for real-time guidance.
The system identifies the RFID tags scattered on multiple positions throughout the layout to
display the concerned information. Another study (Legge et al., 2013) has designed and
recommended a digital sign system (DSS) that provides directional wayfinding information
using the handheld tag reading device. Different signs or digital tags contain relative location-
based information to guide the navigator for the destination.

DIGITAL WAYFINDING INFORMATION

The digital information sources can and cannot be portable; however, they can contain a
substantial volume and variety of wayfinding information compared to the printed or painted
ones. Therefore, the digital information has been presented in multilayers, requiring the user’s
cognitive effort for content navigation. This extensive volume of information requires a
thoughtful design of content for the intuitive user experience. The intuitive user experience and
usefulness are essential attributes for accepting the new technology (Yi and Hwang, 2003;
McFall, 2005; Park, 2009). The information in wayfinding applications has been presented in
single or multiple level interface designs depending upon the user requirements and preferences
(Lemoncello, Sohlberg and Fickas, 2010; Vainio, 2011). With the development of mobile
technologies, wayfinding applications have emerged as a new and reliable solution to
wayfinding problems by efficiently delivering the required information.
In mobile applications, certain limitations have been instrumental in delivering adequate
wayfinding information. Due to the portable nature of mobile devices, screen sizes are needed
to be small and pocket-sized. This size range (from 4.5” diagonally to 6.5”) is viable for mobile
devices, leaving limited room for displaying information content. Therefore, information
designers have devised techniques based on information layering for displaying the entire
content. The information can be presented in a single layer or multiple layers depending upon
the content.

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 SINGLE/MULTIPLE-LAYER INFORMATION
In mobile applications, the information content has been presented to the users using
the hierarchal structure. Unlike static wayfinding information, digital devices can save and
recall a large volume of wayfinding information per the user’s demand. For the representation
of information content on mobile devices, multiple layers of information have been used to
deliver the necessary content. The multiple layers are necessary to use due to the smaller screen
sizes and a large volume of information. Displaying the large volume of information on a single
layer can cause information overload due to less negative design space, hence requiring a
significant cognitive effort (Adipat, Zhang and Zhou, 2011). A study (Brewster, 2002) has
mentioned that the presentation can be better and more accessible for understanding if
presented at multiple levels. Through multiple levels, the user can easily navigate throughout
the entire desired content with ease; however, it also depends upon the user’s navigation
patterns and context of application usage. In the hierarchal structure, the information should be
designed based on user preferences and the context of use. A study (Ayob, Hussin and Dahlan,
2009) has described the user’s context of usage as a significant factor for designing intuitive
navigation for the information content of any mobile application. This intuitive navigation
pattern can also be influenced by several factors including but not limited to the cognitive
approach, cognitive abilities, and memory capacity.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

The navigation pattern and layer’s accessibility in a mobile wayfinding application are
quite dependent on the user’s short-term memory. While using the digital wayfinding
application, information has been presented in many layers that occupy the space as events in
short-term memory. This memory can store a limited number of events for a shorter duration
of time (Cowan, 2008; Lokka and Coltekin, 2019) with a limit of five to seven events/chunks
at a time (Simon, 1974; Cowan, 2001). The accessibility to information layers during the
navigation of the wayfinding application can be affected by this human limitation. Therefore,
a limited number of information layers can be memorised during navigation and will be
approached again if the number of accessed information layers increases. Owing to this
behaviour, a maximum number of approachable information layers for digital wayfinding

29
content should be explored to efficiently design and deliver the required wayfinding
information.

TYPES OF NAVIGATION STYLES

The navigation styles in the mobile application usually depend upon the types of
information content, i.e., graphical or textual. A menu-oriented design has been involved and
considered a typical navigation approach in most mobile applications (Garrett, 2010). Although
navigation styles in mobile applications are quite inspired by web navigation, the exact
adaptation of these styles into mobile applications would be troublesome due to many factors
(Petrovčič et al., 2017). A global shift from feature phones to smartphones has changed user
interactions due to the different input methods for respective devices. Smartphones are
consisting of a touch screen input method requiring a touch-friendly user interface and
information content design. Multiple studies (Tidwell, Brewer and Valencia-Brooks, 2010;
Neil, 2014; Li and Luximon, 2020) have mentioned the most widely used navigation patterns
in touch screen smartphone applications. These patterns consist of menu orientation and
content orientation design patterns. The menu-oriented patterns include tab, side drawer and
springboard styles, whereas the content-oriented patterns include lists, gallery/grids and card
styles (Li and Luximon, 2020). Most of the wayfinding applications have majorly used both
navigation styles due to mixed information content, i.e., graphical and textual.

TYPES OF INFORMATION CONTENT

In wayfinding applications, various information content has been included related to
the user’s wayfinding needs. There are two major information content categories necessary for
performing wayfinding tasks. The first category is related to the allocentric wayfinding
information, and the second category is related to environmental information. The allocentric
information includes the navigator’s current position, tentative route plan on the map,
directions for navigation and orientation. The allocentric information is reasonably necessary
for a navigator to understand the current position and orientation in a spatial environment. A
route plan is necessary for alleviating the wayfinding problems and enhancing task
performance.
The second type of information in a wayfinding application is related to the spatial
environment. This information includes the signage (Weisman, 1985), landmarks, dedicated

30
pathways (Vandenberg et al., 2016), intersections, building information, building internals,
facilities (Iftikhar, Asghar and Luximon, 2020b), emergency exits and transports. This
information content is necessary to explore the whole environment and build up the cognitive
maps for independent navigation while experiencing the environment. The environmental
information helps plan the route as well as perform the whole wayfinding task. Most of the
wayfinding applications have been providing this information by using the global positioning
system (GPS) requiring internet service for continuous data transfer to obtain context-aware
information. Some wayfinding applications have incorporated micro level information of their
respective institutes. While other applications like google maps etc. have only macro level
information consisting of highways, roads for navigation at the city’s scale. The localised
wayfinding applications are more suitable and preferred for institutional wayfinding like
universities, hospitals, airports, and shopping malls for an enriched experience of offered
facilities.

WAYFINDING INFORMATION MODELS

The literature also identified several theoretical frameworks to facilitate the wayfinding
information requirements; however, these theoretical models answer very particular
information requirements as well as for the specific spatial environment. The wayfinding
models presented in several studies (Gopal and Smith, 1990; Timpf et al., 1992; Chen and Kay
M. Stanney, 1999; Li, 2006; J. C. Xia et al., 2008; Giannopoulos et al., 2014) have defined the
wayfinding information requirements along with the user understanding. The first model
(Gopal and Smith, 1990) discussed the cognitive processes of the wayfinders in an urban
environment discussing the memory requirement and behaviour. In addition to that, the model
presented (Timpf et al., 1992) discussed a significant level of information and planning
abstraction on the road wayfinding. (Chen and Kay M. Stanney, 1999) presented a very
comprehensive theoretical model for wayfinding information requirements in virtual
environments. This model discussed users’ objectives, motives, behaviour decision makings
while performing the virtual wayfinding activity. In another study (J. C. Xia et al., 2008) the
presented model discussed the cognitive maps and their differentiation within users. Whereas
the model presented by (Giannopoulos et al., 2014) only identified the wayfinding decision
model based on the three-staged concepts for decision making during the wayfinding activity.

31
However, none of the discussed models has identified the complex public institutions and their
navigators as a prime source of investigation. The described theoretical models have been
influential in identifying the required research gap.

LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY

Wayfinding activity depends upon several factors including but not limited to the
environmental factors, personal abilities and the types of wayfinding information being used
to facilitate the navigators. Environmental factors include spatial complexity, environmental
legibility and visual clutter. The environmental factors can enhance the user’s ability of
wayfinding if designed systematically; however, these factors are not solely responsible for
efficient wayfinding. In addition to that, personal abilities/differences also affect the
wayfinding activity like cultural differences, gender differences, spatial abilities and age
differences. Most importantly the wayfinding information design, volume and type can greatly
affect the user’s information understanding as suggested by the literature discussed above. In
today’s indoor and outdoor environments, the type of wayfinding information greatly changes
based on the type of technology they are using to provide the necessary information. The two
major types like static and mobile wayfinding information use digital and printed mediums to
facilitate the navigators for wayfinding activity. Figure 1.1 described the fundamental
differences between these two information systems which majorly describe their limitations in
providing the necessary wayfinding information. In addition to that, Table 1.1 suggests the
specialised wayfinding information requirements for spatially complex public institutions.
Based on the studies covered in the literature review, it has been quite evident that these two
information systems are facilitating two different kinds of environments and somehow work in
isolation.
The literature related to wayfinding systems and design in complex environments suggests
the need to investigate the user-related defences in the wayfinding design preferences and the
ascribed behaviour. Previous studies also suggested that the wayfinding system design is
majorly dependent on the users who are using it. This indicates the fact that users’ current
behaviour and practices are very important in understanding the designed information for
effortless navigation. With the advent of technology, mobile wayfinding information systems
are also influential in guiding the users for wayfinding problems in addition to the regular static

32
wayfinding information system. However, these two systems are working in isolation as
identified by the previous literature. The said research gap has been visually presented in Figure
1.2 in detail. This thesis addresses the identified research gap and develops a theoretical
framework for mitigating the wayfinding issues.
The studies presented in the literature review suggested several pros and cons of the static
and mobile wayfinding information including user understanding and perceiving the
wayfinding information. For synthesising the wayfinding information sources, it is necessary
to understand the modern user’s wayfinding information requirement in spatially complex
environments. And how users perceive and understand that wayfinding information based on
their cultural and individual differences. For that reason, several research questions have been
identified in chapter 1 necessary to understand the modern user’s wayfinding information
requirement and ascribed behaviour.
In the next chapter, a detailed study plan has been delineated to address the current
objectives of this thesis along with a detailed methodology for conducting the said research.

33
 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

This chapter describes the methodology of this thesis in detail. It discusses the rationale
behind the research design and methodology adopted. It also provides details about various
methods employed, the reasons behind their selection, and how they were executed. Further,
the chapter summarizes the techniques used for the data analysis.

MIXED-METHOD APPROACH

As suggested by the prospective research questions, this research study relied on more
exploratory and explanatory research approaches. This study was conducted inductively to
define the additional dimensions in current navigation and wayfinding theories based on
specific metrics; this is to investigate human navigation behaviour and knowledge as it relates
to cultural factors. This research was done using a mixed-method approach. This study requires
a thorough examination of navigational information and user behaviour considering various
individual-related differences. These differences may include cultural differences, spatial
ability, spatial familiarity, gender, age, and education. Mixed method research has many types
regarding the combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. “The Exploratory
Design” was preferred for this research (Greene, Caracelli and Graham, 1989) as wayfinding
behavioural research requires in-depth exploration and explanation. In exploratory design
research, the researcher investigates the issue using qualitative approaches and then uses
quantitative methods to develop the survey instrument and generalize the findings based on the
information gained (Tashiro, 2002). The research approach suited the potential research
questions but will also aid in a thorough grasp of the subject.

METHODOLOGIES OF PRECEDING STUDIES

As previously stated in the literature, significant research has already been conducted on
human navigation behaviour and attributed cognitive processes. There are several research
techniques available based on the collected data and identified study objectives. Most of the

34
existing research has been based solely on quantitative or quantitative methods respectively.
The exploratory and explanatory research techniques were used in most earlier investigations
(Hashim, Alkaabi and Bharwani, 2014). The exploratory research approach was used in this
study to investigate the cultural influences on the wayfinding system design for a hospital.
Multiple studies were carried out to investigate prospective hospital user behaviour and signage
qualities (Greenroyd et al., 2018). Similarly, a deductive technique was used to investigate the
quality of complex environmental navigation (Walford et al., 2011).
Several studies have investigated different factors linked to wayfinding in the complex
space and explained certain elements like spatial recognition and human wayfinding behaviour
(Raubal, 2001; Nilsson, 2009). Several studies relied solely on qualitative data to answer their
queries, whilst others relied on quantitative assessments (Teng et al., 1994). Qualitative
research methodologies have greatly aided in eliciting the actual core of human navigation
behaviour. Many researchers have used triangulation strategies in their study to confirm their
data's conclusions. Several studies have highlighted the significance of triangulation (Hickman,
2008). As a result, researchers used data and method triangulation for evaluating and validating
the studies. A researcher (Oyelola, 2014) also utilized data and method triangulation. To
investigate the study questions, she relied on qualitative data.
In recent studies on wayfinding and navigation, mixed-method research is emerging as an
effective methodology. In the field of navigation and wayfinding, researchers frequently
employed specific standard mixed-method research methods. Explanatory, exploratory,
embedding and contemporary research approaches are some examples of mixed-method
research. Each technique combines qualitative and quantitative data gathering, analysis, and
retrieval.

PROPOSED RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

The proposed methodology for the current study has been developed based on comparing
preceding techniques used to investigate the wayfinding studies. The mixed-method research
methodology has been considered appropriate for exploring the wayfinding behaviour along
with the ethnographic studies. A comprehensive comparison has been detailed out as a reason
of choice for the opted methodological approach.

35
 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
The complex university environment has been chosen for the proposed research based on
its suitability as a complex navigable environment with diffused pathways and complex
wayfinding. Participants were selected based on their ethnicity, age, and level of environmental
familiarity. A preliminary survey questionnaire was distributed to university visitors who were
only partially familiar with the campus and freshly enrolled students. The interviews
are reliable (Hickman, 2008); however, survey questions offer other benefits. Questionnaires
need less contact time, are less expensive, reach a considerable number of individuals, and are
simple to administer compared to interviews, which require significant time and individual
attention. Data from a survey questionnaire would be more unbiased, concentrated, precise,
and easier to manage in the early stages of research than data from interviews. The
questionnaire will inquire about their most recent experiences of disorientation as well as the
probable explanations. The survey questionnaire contains semi-structured questions (having
close-ended and open-ended questions). The number of questions in the survey questionnaire
would be reduced since it is simpler for participants to answer fewer questions (Deutskens et
al., 2004) and much necessary to retain the participant’s interest. The semi-structured survey
questionnaire will improve comprehension of the navigation of the complex institutional
environment and the users' perspectives on it. Secondary questions have focused on the
function of signage in disorientation (misleading information) as well as the role of colour
coding and pictograms. The preliminary results assisted the researchers in developing the next
step of research methodology, which is an exploratory and controlled experiment in the actual
and virtual environments, respectively.
In addition to the survey questionnaire, participant observation and video analysis can also
be used as a methodology to strengthen and triangulate the findings. However, in participant
observation and video analysis, there are several complicating variables. These elements
include crowd impressions, other potential distracting variables (light, sound, glares), and user
familiarity with the place. These variables can change the information requested by the study
questions. As a result, an experimental design in a controlled context is required, emphasising
the users' cross-cultural impact on retrieving signage information. During the lab experiment,
factors or variables may be easily controlled to validate the results. The research would
concentrate on the information conveyed through colour coding and pictograms. There may be

36
some differences between the actual world and the lab setting due to several factors, which
may affect the outcomes of the VR experiment (Vandenberg et al., 2016). However, this may
be accomplished in the lab by utilizing completely immersive VR technologies like head-
mounted displays to provide the participant with a complete sense of presence in the
wayfinding experiment.

REAL ENVIRONMENT EXPERIMENT

The findings from the initial exploratory studies require further investigation as they may
contain some findings which differ from the actual user behaviour. The questionnaire study
explored their preferences and potential behaviour of wayfinding; however, the actual
behaviour during wayfinding tasks can be different. Therefore, it is also necessary to conduct
an experimental study that should explore the users’ current practices regarding obtaining and
understanding the wayfinding information from different environmental resources. In addition
to that, several factors like spatial layout, environmental features, visual clutter, and crowd
influence can also be influential in affecting user behaviour. Due to that reason, a significant
need has been observed for a real environment-based experiment for further exploration of the
users’ wayfinding information preferences and behaviour.
Owing to this, an experiment has also been designed in the real environment for
investigating the current practices of wayfinding information gathering and syntheses. In this
experiment design, participants have been observed real-time and using the first-person view
video recording to have an in-depth understanding of their potential wayfinding behaviour. The
first-person view was considered a necessary tool to record their head movement and the
direction of viewing. For this reason, multiple data recording tools have been used, including
a head-mounted camera. Participants were also directed to use the think-aloud protocol to
investigate and understand their thinking process. The details of the said experiment design
have been delineated in the following chapters.
After conducting the studies, a thorough understanding has been formed regarding the
wayfinding processes and information requirements to complete the tasks efficiently. The
findings from the current studies and the previous literature have been put together, and a
comprehensive theoretical framework for wayfinding has been proposed. The proposed
framework has been presented as an iterative cycle of information gathering, processing and

37
wayfinding actions. A detailed explanation of the model has been presented in the requisite
chapter. After proposing the theoretical framework, a need of validating some of the
components have been observed. Owing to this, a validation study has been designed using the
virtual environment in a controlled lab facility. The details of the experiment have been
presented in the validation study chapter of this thesis.

VALIDATION EXPERIMENT
There are several reasons why the lab experiment was chosen as a viable technique of
validation during the exploratory mixed method design research. This project's experiment
necessitates strict control over confounding factors such as crowd conditions, light glares,
situational and environmental familiarity, and spatial association. Because of this, a lab
experiment would have been preferable to a field experiment. There are several advantages to
doing a lab experiment over a field experiment (Kagel & Roth, 2015). Due to the controlled
lab setting, lab studies provide a high level of control over confounding factors; however, field
studies do not control the variables. Various real-world uncertainties might skew the results.
During the lab environment, the convenience of setting up signage props and route information
displays and the convenience of altering experimental settings may be observed. If used on a
real-world scale and conditions, this factor may be highly problematic. Causality is easily
created since factors rely heavily on variables. There are fewer ethical difficulties because each
participant is dealt with one at a time, and the remaining arrangements are in virtual reality.
Because of the excellent control over confounding factors, lab experiments can be necessary
for this project. The study variables can be easily analysed and validated in lab experimental
settings, and they have a high degree of reliability. The experimental setting, including
participants, study variables, and instrumental measures, may be controlled entirely.
The participants were chosen based on various criteria, including culture, spatial ability,
and spatial familiarity. Several studies have recruited cross-cultural participants based on their
language, their countries, and their permanent residence. Few studies have looked at
geographical placement to describe culture (Ertan & Eker, 2000). The chosen participants were
invited to the controlled lab facility and asked to complete the information required form.
Following that, about an hour-long experiment was launched, preceded by a five-minute
training session in the virtual world. The participants were asked through a questionnaire

38
regarding the potential difficulties in using the desktop-based VR systems and navigating the
VE. If the participants show no sign of problems, they could proceed further and complete the
rest of the experiment. In addition to that, participants have also been asked to report the Santa
Barbara Sense of Direction scale to measure their spatial ability (Hegarty et al., 2006). Spatial
ability has been instrumental in investigating the participant’s ability to identify the location
and orientation in the real environment.

PROPOSED DATA ANALYSIS

The data analysis for the mixed-method study can qualitatively predict the quantitative
findings. The data analysis for the first part of the survey questionnaire conduction comprised
of many statistical tests. Because the survey questionnaire was created semi-structurally, the
data analysis section included both qualitative and quantitative data and methodology. Based
on the data type, Chi-Square, Mann Whitney U test, Pearson Coefficient of Correlation, and
Kendall Tau's tests were utilized for the structured components. The Shapiro-Wilks Test in
SPSS software was used to assess the normality of the collected data. Due to the various
variables, two-way ANOVA and the Kruskal-Wallis Test were performed based on the
received data due to the type of variables. For a more in-depth understanding, the qualitative
part of the questionnaire was evaluated using Content Analysis and Pattern Matching. A study
has (Seidel, 1998) used the three-staged approach to building a suitable tool for acquiring
qualitative information. For data mining and classification, this paradigm includes the
Noticing, Collecting, and Thinking stages. These stages can be applied to the intriguing items
described in the question's open-ended sections for code generation and theme creation. In the
following chapters, the exact procedures used for data analysis for each investigation are
provided in-depth.

LIMITATIONS
Predetermined and specific criteria do not constrain this study's methodology. It is more of
a creative effort to put the sequences together and derive a linkage between the said topics.
This research methodology only includes the one proposed to carry out the research mentioned
in the topic. Because this research was exploratory, it necessitated a qualitative examination of
human behaviour in complicated wayfinding tasks. Especially when the textual information is
hard to comprehend (in the local language). The qualitative study has some limitations in

39
generalizability (Digital course materials: A case study of the Apple iPad in the academic
environment (Verdine, 2011). This is because of confounding variables in data collecting,
which causes inconsistency in data analysis (Elo and Kyngäs, 2008). The data organizing and
abstraction processes in a qualitative investigation take a long time (Bowen, 2006). As a result,
the sample size should be maintained limited. Hence the mixed-method approach of
exploratory design has been proposed. This strategy offers several advantages in terms of
subjective generalization, data mining, and so on. The methodology is implemented in phases
using this strategy. This study method has several limitations as well. Because the study
procedure is lengthy, individuals may be uninterested in participating in the following stage.
Because this is exploratory research, more validation studies cannot be planned before the
original studies are completed. To explore the issue mentioned above, a systematic study design
method is required.

CHAPTER 4: STUDY 1 – CULTURAL AND INDIVIDUAL-

RELATED INFLUENCES ON HUMAN WAYFINDING
BEHAVIOUR
A research article has been published from this study, Iftikhar, H., Asghar, S., & Luximon,
Y. (2020). The efficacy of campus wayfinding signage: a comparative study from Hong Kong
and Pakistan. Facilities. DOI:10.1108/F-04-2020-0035

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

In this chapter, research question 1 along with the subsequent research questions have been
investigated.

Research Question 1: How do cultural and individual differences affect the acquiring of
wayfinding information?
Research Question 1.1: What are the problems in obtaining the wayfinding information?
Research Question 1.2: What is the user’s behaviour for the search of wayfinding information?

40
Research Question 1.3: What is the user’s perception about the accuracy of obtained
wayfinding information?

The requisite research questions have been concerned with the issues related to the cultural
and individual differences in obtaining the wayfinding information from designed wayfinding
aids in the environment. In addition to that, the investigation explored the user behaviour and
perception regarding the provided wayfinding information, especially in complex institutional
environments. Complex environments contain a scarcity of visual information, making
navigating difficult, especially for first-time visitors. The environmental legibility of university
campuses in central metropolitan locations having large structures and complex spatial settings
is low. International students and guests from various cultural backgrounds who visit these
complex spatial areas feel lost while navigating them. The objectives of this research were to
investigate the individual-related and cultural impacts that influence wayfinding behaviour. A
questionnaire was used to perform an online campus navigation survey with 170 university
students and visitors from Hong Kong and Pakistan. A five-point bipolar Likert scale was used
to analyse user behaviour with questions divided into navigational issues and ascribed
behaviour. Culture has a significant effect on decision-making and navigational behaviour,
according to our findings. The study found that culture is more important than age, gender,
spatial familiarity and education in driving decisions. Age and geographic familiarity were also
significant factors influencing respondents' opinions, with age and
geographic familiarity being key factors.
This study has been conducted through an online survey by the participants of Hong Kong
and Pakistan. The selected sample have been selected based on the various cultural dimensions.
For investigating the cultural influences on wayfinding behaviour, Pakistan and Hong Kong
sample groups have been selected as convenience sampling and due to their distinctive cultures.
Hong Kong and Pakistan can be labelled as individualistic and collectivists respectively based
on their distinctive cultural behaviour. Although some cultural model do not distinguish a lot
between these two cultures based on individual and collectivist nature (Hofstede, 2001).
However, in some of the cultural models (Hall, 1985; Hall and Mildred, 1990) the difference
in cultures can be described as high context and low context cultures. In the high context
cultures, there are many contextual elements that can be seen as unwritten rules which may

41
cause misunderstanding for the people who are not from the similar cultures. In addition to
that, the individualist cultures tend to be more independent and try to avoid the unnecessary
help from others. Whereas collectivists cultures are quite dependent on each other in terms of
daily tasks and activities. This particular behaviour influences their approach towards getting
the environmental information for wayfinding tasks.
Another dimension which is different in Hong Kong and Pakistani culture is the uncertainty
avoidance (Shah and Amjad, 2011). The people from Pakistan are outward directed and
believed that the future is out of their control unlike the people from Hong Kong (Hodgetts et
al., 2006). Due to this believe, the performance of daily life tasks is more driven on the basis
of surrounding environment rather than focusing on the initial aim. For this reason, during
wayfinding the uncertainty avoidance can play an important role for describing their actions.
While performing the wayfinding tasks, the initial aim and search for the required
environmental information is very necessary for efficient completion of the task. Owing to this,
an exploratory study for the behavioural differences between these two cultures was planned.
Such cultural studies haven’t been performed before between these two cultures stating its
importance and need for improving the institutional wayfinding. Being considered as a multi-
cultural environment, educational institutions in Hong Kong require in-depth understanding of
the wayfinding behavioural differences. In this study, several questions based on the
wayfinding problems and behaviours have been asked from the participants from Hong Kong
and Pakistan.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A five-point bipolar scale (strongly disagree as 1 to strongly agree as 5) have been used to
record the participants’ responses. The participants were mostly students or visitors of
university campuses in Pakistan and Hong Kong. The university in Pakistan has a dedicated
area of 60 hectares for its campus with more than 100 buildings consisting of academic
departments, student hostels, libraries and other facilities. The spatial settings of the campus
can be considered as a mixture of the grid- and radio-centric layout planning. This university
campus serves around 15,000 students, more than 1,000 faculty members and around 3,000
employees. 8% of the total students are international students from various regions around the
globe. The international students mostly belong to the Middle East regions, Africa and central

42
Asia. While the university in Hong Kong has a dedicated campus area equivalent to 10 hectares
with more than 25 high-rise buildings, the campus has irregular spatial planning because of the
number of planned extensions. This campus serves around 25,000 local and 1,000 international
students. Many of the international students are from Europe, Africa, South America and
Southeast Asia. The campus settings also accommodate approximately 5,500 staff members.
Both universities have complex spatial layouts involving fused facilities for students/staff,
indistinguishable pathways and multi-level building access with compromised visual access to
the wayfinding information. The participants were invited to access the survey and record their
responses through Google Forms. Ethical approval (APPENDIX I) was obtained from the
requisite authorities. The protocol was followed and consent was obtained by the participants
for recording personal and demographic information.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
The online questionnaire was designed to collect information from participants based on
the four key information categories shown in Table 4.1. The first segment included questions
on personal and demographic information required for cultural group identification (Furman et
al., 2014; Dasen, 2018; Gagnon et al., 2018) along with the groups based on individual
differences. To differentiate cultural groupings, respondents were asked about their country of
origin, country of current residence, and native language.

Table 4.1 Questionnaire design

Information category Questions

Demographic/Personal information
Gender
Age
Level of education
Country of origin/residence
Native language
International exposure
Environmental Familiarity (EF)
Nature of campus visit
Visiting frequency
Location Identification
Environmental Familiarity level
Wayfinding Problems (WP)
Difficulty Q1. In the beginning, campus wayfinding was difficult.

43
 Information category Questions
Q2. In the beginning, I was disoriented on campus.
Q3. I always find my way through signage.
Information Q6. Signage information is easy to understand.
Comprehension Q7. Campus signs are misleading sometimes.
Q8. Campus signs are difficult to read.
Q10. Campus planning is very complex.
Q12. Signage is noticeable on campus.
Q17. I have seen many disoriented visitors.
Information Q22. I always tell directions through signage.
Design Q24. Signage should be simple and minimal.
Q25. Signage information should be detailed.
Q26. Signage design should represent the institute.
Wayfinding Behaviour (WB)
Information Q4. I always look for wayfinding signage.
Gathering Q5. For wayfinding, I had to memorize the locations.
Q 9. I ask directions from a passer-by.
Q11. Can find a destination without signage.
Q13. Signage information is only for a freshman.
Q14. Familiar with campus planning.
Q15. Prefer verbal directions for wayfinding.
Q16. Spatially quite familiar.
Information Q18. People use mobile devices for wayfinding.
Preferences Q19. Signage is easy for wayfinding than the cell phone.
Q20. I usually tell directions to new visitors.
Q21. The campus is too complex.
Q23. Signage should follow the university theme.
Q27. Colour coded info. Should be available.
Q28. Dual language signage is confusing.
Q29. Signage should always have pictograms.
Q30. Pictograms/symbols are easy to understand.

Furthermore, a section of the questions focused on any foreign exposure gained from living
abroad since this might alter replies dependent on indigenous culture. The participant's
navigational behaviour, cognitive spatial knowledge, and overall performance are influenced
by their familiarity with the surrounding circumstances (Hegarty et al., 2002; Nori and
Piccardi, 2010). As a result, questions in the second section focused on the participant's
cognitive familiarity with the campus's environmental settings. The impression was formed by
inquiring about the nature and frequency of campus visits and landmark familiarity from the
navigator. Participants were asked to self-report their level of environmental familiarity based

44
on the information obtained. Their responses were recorded using a five-point reporting scale
(not familiar as 1 to very familiar as 5). As a result, the groups were divided into two major
categories: participants with limited familiarity (1 to 3) and participants with high familiarity
(4 to 5).
The third section of the questionnaire included questions on identifying navigational issues
(Bowman, Johnson and Hodges, 2001; Ruddle and Jones, 2001) during campus navigation.
Whether the problem was retrieving information from external cues or comprehending spatial
layouts. The questions were asked in a random order so order to elicit a natural response from
the subject. The third section of the questionnaire, consisting of 13 questions, was aimed to
collect information on the identification of navigators’ wayfinding challenges. As mentioned
in Table 4.1 the wayfinding problems have been further segregated into three categories i.e.
difficulty in complex environments, information comprehension and information design. The
questions have been formalised based on the previous literature.
The final section of the questionnaire, consisting of the remaining 17 items, was aimed to
study the navigator's likely behaviour while facing problems with wayfinding. The broader
categories consisting of information gathering and information preferences aimed to further
investigate the user wayfinding behaviour. The constituents exploring the wayfinding
behaviour (Montello, 2001; Hegarty et al., 2006) was made up of the environmental
wayfinding information sources, one's interpretation and preferences of the information, and
the actions taken after obtaining the data.

DATA COLLECTION
The survey was conducted on students and general navigators from reputable universities
in Hong Kong and Pakistan. Both universities are well recognized in their respective regions,
attracting students and tourists from across the country. The respondents are an ideal sample
since they come from different parts of the country and have shared cultural values. In all, 203
people from various Pakistan and Hong Kong areas with diverse cultural backgrounds took
part in the campus wayfinding investigational research. Among the 203 participants, 170 were
chosen based on the inclusion criteria of cultural groups from Hong Kong and Pakistan.
Respondents were either freshmen or occasional visitors to the university campus with a
medium or low degree of environmental familiarity. Although considerable navigational

45
information is provided in multilingual mediums, i.e. (Urdu-English for Pakistan, Cantonese
English for Hong Kong), English was chosen as the survey language since it was equally
comprehensible in both campuses. To reduce confounding variables for cultural homogeneity
while preserving distinctive individual differences, responses were obtained from individuals
with very little international or cross-cultural exposure. Furthermore, the education level was
maintained from below undergraduate to postgraduate level and beyond, ranging from 18 to 37
years.

DATA ANALYSIS
Responses were collected using Google Forms online services, followed by a screening
procedure based on information completeness. Participants from Hong Kong and mainland
China were classified as the same cultural group. Respondents from countries other than Hong
Kong, mainland China, and Pakistan were omitted from the questionnaire analysis for cross-
cultural comparison. The filtered data was imported into Microsoft Excel 2016 for preliminary
descriptive statistics before being processed for statistical analysis using SPSS software.
Following that, the data was imported into the SPSS program for additional analysis and
normality testing. The Shapiro-Wilk test revealed that the data for analysis was not normally
distributed. As a result, the non-parametric test was used depending on the size of the
independent groups. Because the data was obtained in a five-point bipolar Likert scale, it was
classified as ordinal scale data. To link two distinct groupings, the Mann-Whitney U test
(Nachar, 2008) has been applied.
Furthermore, the use of the Kruskal-Wallis test has been examined for the comparison of
more than two independent groups (Corder and Foreman, 2009). The tests listed above were
used to look at group variations in wayfinding behaviour, issues, and cognitive strategy
development. Independent sample groups were developed based on cultural differences
(country of origin) and individual characteristics (gender, age, level of education and level of
environmental familiarity).
During the multiple comparison, Bonferroni’s correction has been applied to reduce the
type 1 error. For this reason, all of the questions have been segregated into the sub categories.
The most common approach of dividing the significance value by number of analyses have
been applied. For the all the segments, the corrected significance values are 0.016, 0.008, 0.012,

46
0.006 and 0.006 respectively. However, most of the significant values were below the corrected
range which makes the analysis more rigorous in nature.

RESULTS

An inclusion criterion was created for the questionnaire analysis based on the participant's
demographic information and completion of the survey form. A total of 170 questionnaires
(83.74 %) were deemed suitable for inclusion in further study.

Table 4.2 Participants summary

Hong Kong Pakistan Total

Gender
Female 51 41 92
Male 42 36 78
Total 93 77 170
Age Group
18-22 31 38 69
23-27 42 28 70
28-37 20 11 31
Total 93 77 170
Education Level
Undergraduate 35 50 85
Postgraduate & above 58 27 85
Total 93 77 170
Environmental Familiarity Level
Low 48 19 67
High 45 58 103
Total 93 77 170

GENERAL DEMOGRAPHICS
The preliminary descriptive data revealed that Hong Kong received somewhat more
answers (55 %) than participants from Pakistan (45 %). Furthermore, a very comparable ratio
was seen for the gender of participants, with females at 55 % and males at 45 %. The
participants' ages were inquired about since age is considered an influential factor in
wayfinding behaviour (Davis, Therrien and West, 2009; Lin, Cao and Li, 2019). As shown in
Table 4.2, the respondents were further divided into age groups ranging from 18 to 37 years
old, with a five-year gap in between. Due to the decreased number of participants and the need
to preserve the reliability of the results, the final two age categories from 28 to 37 years have

47
 been merged. Most participants in all groups (82%) were between the ages of 18 and 27, while
the rest (18%) were between the ages of 28 and 37. In terms of education, half of the total
participants were undergraduates, with the remaining half having a postgraduate or higher
education level. Most of the participants were students (92 %). However, just a tiny percentage
of participants (8%) were general visitors to the Hong Kong and Pakistani universities.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
As shown in Table 4.1, the questionnaire had thirty questions about wayfinding behaviour
and issues. A non-parametric test (Mann Whitney U test) was considered appropriate for
analysing both cultural groups (Hong Kong and Pakistan). Several inconsistent responses to
wayfinding have been documented in both cultural groups. The total of twelve questions was
substantially different (p <0.05), with most of them relating to wayfinding signage and its
information. To identify navigation issues, contrasting answers on access and comprehension
of environmental information for directed wayfinding tasks on campus have been recorded.
In comparison to the individuals from Pakistan, the participants from Hong Kong had far
greater difficulty in obtaining and interpreting the navigational information provided by signs.
There might be several reasons for this, including the visual complexity of the information,
placement, and a lack of understanding of symbols and pictograms. The higher mean of Q6
(3.52) and significant value (p = 0.032) of Pakistani participants compared to the Hong Kong
group regarding the easy interpretation of information can be linked to the former group's
greater degree of environmental legibility. For the participants of Hong Kong, people were
more confused in looking for environmental information for wayfinding. They also find it less
useful for navigation inside the complex institutional campus. The reliance on the provided
information was also weak in the respondents from Hong Kong. The likely reasons for this
difficulty may be recognized since the spatial layout of the university in Hong Kong is much
more complicated than that of the institution in Pakistan.

Table 4.3 Cross-cultural comparison of groups

Q HONG KONG PAKISTAN

Question Description p-value
no. Min Max Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Wayfinding Problems
Difficulty
1 Campus wayfinding was difficult in starting. 1 5 3.33 1.27 3.69 1.22 0.074
2 In the beginning, I was disoriented on campus. 1 5 3.26 1.14 3.29 1.22 0.805

48
 Q HONG KONG PAKISTAN
Question Description p-value
no. Min Max Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
3 I always find my way through signage. 1 5 3.31 1.30 3.32 1.23 0.999
Information Comprehension
6 Signage information is easy to understand. 1 5 3.18 0.95 3.52 1.21 0.032*
7 Campus signs are misleading sometimes. 1 5 3.01 1.07 2.87 1.18 0.565
8 Campus signs are difficult to read. 1 5 2.72 1.06 2.77 1.07 0.749
10 Campus planning is very complex. 1 5 2.94 1.05 2.86 1.14 0.586
12 Signage is noticeable on campus. 1 5 3.23 1.01 3.26 1.14 0.904
17 I have seen many disoriented visitors. 1 5 3.23 1.21 3.23 1.06 0.883
Information Design
22 I always tell directions through signage. 1 5 2.91 1.07 2.90 1.12 0.883
24 Signage should be simple and minimal. 1 5 3.43 1.33 3.99 1.19 0.004**
25 Signage information should be detailed. 1 5 3.15 1.09 3.26 1.23 0.558
26 Signage design should represent the institute. 1 5 3.15 1.13 3.73 1.08 0.002**
Wayfinding Behaviour
Information Gathering
4 Signage information is helpful. 1 5 3.24 1.12 3.09 1.33 0.473
5 Need to memorise the locations. 1 5 3.32 1.10 3.61 1.16 0.079
9 I ask directions from a passer-by. 1 5 2.85 1.15 3.45 1.31 0.001**
11 Can find a destination without signage. 1 5 3.25 1.32 3.83 1.33 0.003**
13 Signage information is only for a freshman. 1 5 2.83 1.19 3.27 1.25 0.019*
14 Familiar with campus planning. 1 5 2.90 1.19 3.51 1.31 0.002**
15 Prefer verbal directions for wayfinding. 1 5 2.81 1.24 3.06 1.14 0.159
16 Spatially quite familiar. 1 5 2.99 1.25 3.65 1.14 0.001**
Information Preference
18 People use mobile devices for wayfinding. 1 5 3.02 1.11 2.97 1.14 0.880
19 Signage is easy for wayfinding than a cell phone. 1 5 3.02 1.15 3.35 1.09 0.055
20 I usually tell directions to new visitors. 1 5 3.01 1.06 3.79 1.07 0.000**
21 The campus is too complex. 1 5 2.82 1.17 2.97 1.28 0.440
23 Signage should follow the university theme. 1 5 3.14 1.14 3.19 1.23 0.760
27 Colour coded information Should be available. 1 5 3.42 1.17 3.77 1.11 0.058
28 Dual language signages are confusing. 1 5 2.70 1.23 3.14 1.16 0.020*
29 Signage should always have pictograms. 1 5 3.25 1.11 3.68 1.11 0.013*
30 Pictograms/symbols are easy to understand. 1 5 3.24 1.14 3.78 1.22 0.002**
*p < 0.05 for Mann-Whitney U Test **Significant value after Bonferroni’s correction
Multi-story building structures with scattered and less concentrated visual access have
resulted in a low level of legibility in the environment. The individuals from Pakistan thought
it was easier to get information from environmental cues than the individuals from Hong Kong.
Both institutions make use of standardized wayfinding signage that includes bilingual
information.
As shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.1, Pakistani participants recognized the number of
details as an issue in information visibility, access, and understanding, but Hong Kong

49
participants did not (p = 0.004). Respondents from Pakistan prefer bilingual signage with
graphical information over those from Hong Kong. The difference in opinions was significant
for Q28, Q29, and Q30, with p values of 0.020, 0.013, and 0.002.
Another difference in navigational behaviour between the two cultural groups is the
reliance on verbal information when asking for directions. Despite signage information,
Pakistanis felt more at ease and depended on verbal guidance more than the other cultural
group. When compared to Hong Kong, social engagement is stronger in Pakistani society.
Because of a lack of social contacts, people in Hong Kong are more hesitant to ask for
directions and instead try to handle their wayfinding issues independently, as shown by the
mean comparison of Q9 (Hong Kong, 2.85; Pakistan, 3.45) having the p = 0.001.

5.5

5.0

4.5
Questionnaire results

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Question numbers

Hong Kong Pakistan

Figure 4.1 Simple statistics of cultural groups

This self-reliance behaviour is relatively common in individualistic societies with low

context (Hall and Mildred, 1990), whereas the other group is considered a collectivist society.
In contrast to a study (Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov, 2010) and the cultural model depicted
by the mentioned author, our study has enunciated high cultural differences between Hong
Kong and Pakistan. As per our findings and study (Wong, 2001), the participants from Hong
Kong showed the behaviour which is quite close to the individualistic society in contrast with

50
 the cultural model presented by hofstede insights (Hofstede, 2022). In a comparative
investigation, the nomenclature of this segregation (individualistic and collectivist society) was
also shown to be operative (Asghar, Torrens and Harland, 2019). Comparing the Mean values
of both cultural groups also revealed that Pakistani participants have a far greater level of
environmental familiarity due to adequate environmental knowledge via information signage
and verbal guidance. The other cultural group is relatively comfortable giving directions,
socially contributing to lessening wayfinding challenges.
As a result, the necessity for wayfinding signage is critical for Hong Kong participants, as
they cannot recognize and memorize the chosen locations inside the campus due to the
complicated spatial layout and the scattered and multi-story building accesses. These findings
are evident when comparing the mean and standard deviation of Q13 and Q14, respectively.
The cultural differences in wayfinding behaviour were seen in the results. Both groups differ
in their understanding of the information and their perceptions of the campus's physical
environment.

ENVIRONMENTAL FAMILIARITY
The familiarity with the environment played an impacting role in this study, validating the
prior studies (Benthorn and Frantzich, 1999; Chang, 2013) established on similar findings. The
participants were divided into two groups for this study, one with a high degree of familiarity
with the environment and the other with a low degree of familiarity with the environment.
Participants were asked to identify several locations on their campus. They have been assigned
to the appropriate group for further study based on the information provided. A low degree of
environmental familiarity was observed in 39 percent of individuals, whereas a higher degree
of familiarity was identified in 61 percent.

Table 4.4 Comparison of Environmental Familiarity (EF) level

Q HONG KONG PAKISTAN

Question Description p-value
no. Min Max Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Wayfinding Problems
Difficulty
1 Campus wayfinding was difficult in starting. 1 5 3.33 1.27 3.69 1.22 0.074
2 In the beginning, I was disoriented on campus. 1 5 3.26 1.14 3.29 1.22 0.805
3 I always find my way through signage. 1 5 3.31 1.30 3.32 1.23 0.999
Information Comprehension
6 Signage information is easy to understand. 1 5 3.06 0.94 3.51 1.15 0.000**

51
 Q HONG KONG PAKISTAN
Question Description p-value
no. Min Max Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
7 Campus signs are misleading sometimes. 1 5 3.01 1.12 2.90 1.12 0.332
8 Campus signs are difficult to read. 1 5 2.75 1.09 2.74 1.05 0.436
10 Campus planning is very complex. 1 5 2.97 1.09 2.85 1.10 0.504
12 Signage is noticeable on campus. 1 5 3.18 1.04 3.28 1.09 0.673
17 I have seen many disoriented visitors. 1 5 2.97 1.09 3.40 1.15 0.012*
Information Design
22 I always tell directions through signage. 1 5 2.82 1.07 2.96 1.10 0.814
24 Signage should be simple and minimal. 1 5 3.43 1.32 3.84 1.26 0.012**
25 Signage information should be detailed. 1 5 3.00 1.13 3.33 1.16 0.029*
26 Signage design should represent the institute. 1 5 3.15 1.13 3.58 1.12 0.104
Wayfinding Behaviour
Information Gathering
4 Signage information is helpful. 1 5 3.27 1.08 3.11 1.30 0.520
5 Need to memorise the locations. 1 5 3.36 1.16 3.51 1.12 0.198
9 I ask directions from a passer-by. 1 5 2.90 1.21 3.27 1.28 0.137
11 Can find a destination without signage. 1 5 3.06 1.31 3.81 1.31 0.000**
13 Signage information is only for a freshman. 1 5 2.66 1.15 3.27 1.23 0.007**
14 Familiar with campus planning. 1 5 2.67 1.20 3.50 1.23 0.000**
15 Prefer verbal directions for wayfinding. 1 5 2.63 1.23 3.12 1.15 0.009*
16 Spatially quite familiar. 1 5 2.72 1.14 3.66 1.17 0.000**
Information Preference
18 People use mobile devices for wayfinding. 1 5 2.96 1.15 3.03 1.11 0.994
19 Signage is easy for wayfinding than a cell phone. 1 5 2.78 1.04 3.43 1.12 0.000**
20 I usually tell directions to new visitors. 1 5 2.94 1.07 3.64 1.08 0.000**
21 The campus is too complex. 1 5 2.94 1.27 2.85 1.19 0.270
23 Signage should follow the university theme. 1 5 3.03 1.18 3.25 1.17 0.559
27 Colour coded information Should be available. 1 5 3.37 1.17 3.71 1.13 0.080
28 Dual language signages are confusing. 1 5 2.78 1.17 2.98 1.24 0.653
29 Signage should always have pictograms. 1 5 3.13 1.14 3.64 1.07 0.002**
30 Pictograms/symbols are easy to understand. 1 5 3.19 1.21 3.67 1.17 0.008*
*p < 0.05 for Mann-Whitney U Test **Significant value after Bonferroni’s correction

The participants from Hong Kong were having a low level of familiarity compared to
participants from Pakistan, having 51% and 25%, respectively. 75% of the participants from
Pakistan were placed in the category of high familiarity compared to Hong Kong participants
that are 49%. The segregation of groups identified the more excellent value of environmental
legibility in the institution situated in Pakistan than in Hong Kong. This inference is made
because most respondents (92%) of this survey are current students of the respective institution
in Pakistan and Hong Kong.

52
 The Mann Whitney U test was used for statistical analysis to analyse answers based on the
level of environmental familiarity since the groups were taken as two independent samples.
Statistical analysis enunciated some interesting insights regarding the impact and influences of
environmental familiarity on wayfinding behaviour and human perception concerning
information gathering. As shown in Table 4.4, many statistically significant answers have been
collected regarding environmental information comprehension. The difference in mean values
of Q6 (Low, 3.06; High, 3.51) with p = 0.000 has shown that individuals with low spatial
familiarity had difficulty interpreting environmental information. This issue significantly
influences their ability to comprehend the spatial environment, reducing their confidence in
locating the desired destination. As a result, as the mean values of responses Q11 revealed,
participants from both groups must rely on information cues for directed navigation tasks,
i.e. (Low, 3.06; High, 3.81). This result contradicts the research (MacEachren, 1992) that found
that environmental information is only helpful for freshmen and newcomers to the institution.
If the environmental settings are quite complex with a low level of environmental legibility,
people need to rely more on the information cues than their memory and cognition. The
reliability of memory for identifying a destination can only be instrumental once a certain level
of familiarity is achieved, as found in the previous studies (Evans and Pezdek, 1980; Garling
and Golledge, 1989). Despite their lack of environmental knowledge, the participants prefer
not to ask for directions verbally when it comes to guided navigation. Participants with a high
level of Environmental Familiarity, on the other hand, are more comfortable creating social
contact and inquiring about an unknown destination from a passer-by. Participants have
responded favourably to the existence of navigation challenges on their respective campuses,
despite being familiar with the setting. These results might also indicate that the lack of
differentiating spatial features and landmarks makes it harder to memorize the spatial
environment. As a result, although having a substantial difference in behaviour with a
competitive group (p = 0.000), the group with high EF did not respond significantly in favour
of thoroughly understanding and memorizing the surroundings as reflected by their mean
values for Q16 (Low EF, 2.72; high EF, 3.66).
Being a source of information, mobile devices also proved to be influential in providing
wayfinding directions, especially for participants with low EF. Participants with low EF found
it difficult to comprehend their directions on mobile devices, including interactive maps and

53
YAH (you are here) maps. Due to the availability of relevant cognitive mapping and memory
nodes, individuals with high EF may easily interpret the information on these devices, as
demonstrated by the p = 0.000 for Q19.

5.5

5.0

4.5
Questionnaire results

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Question numbers

Low Familiarity High Familiarity
Figure 4.2 Simple statistics of Environment Familiarity (EF) level

In terms of the data, there have been inconsistencies in the minimal and detailed
information on environmental wayfinding cues, as illustrated in Figure 4.2, particularly in the
last questions, i.e., Q30. The low EF participants preferred detailed information presence
(multilingual, pictograms, and symbols), whereas the other group supported limited
information presence on environmental cues. Participants reported significant variations in the
volume of information for Q24, Q29, and Q30, with p-values of 0.017, 0.002, and 0.008,
respectively. Individuals with a high EF preferred graphical information (pictograms and
symbols) because it is regarded as simple to understand. On the other hand, the other group
preferred extensive information in the form of multilingual signage and graphical information.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
In the demographic section, the respondents were asked about their gender to explore and
validate the findings of previous studies. The Man Whitney U test was used for the group based
on these two independent samples, and it was divided into two groups based on gender

54
 segregation. Table 4.5 and Figure 4.3 show some of the significant inconsistencies that were
investigated.
The survey discovered that female respondents had thought about concerns related to
navigation on the university campus. The information on the signage was confusing and
difficult to understand, making it difficult for them to find information about their destination.
On the other hand, Males have had fewer issues with campus navigation; yet, they have found
environmental information to be challenging to comprehend. Significant p-values (0.020,
0.002, and 0.017) have been observed concerning the issues mentioned above.

Table 4.5 Comparison of gender

Q HONG KONG PAKISTAN

Question Description p-value
no. Min Max Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Wayfinding Problems
Difficulty
1 Campus wayfinding was difficult in starting. 1 5 3.19 1.31 3.75 1.15 0.016**
2 In the beginning, I was disoriented on campus. 1 5 3.04 1.16 3.47 1.16 0.064
3 I always find my way through signage. 1 5 3.24 1.22 3.38 1.31 0.535
Information Comprehension
6 Signage information is easy to understand. 1 5 3.38 1.11 3.29 1.07 0.194
7 Campus signs are misleading sometimes. 1 5 2.73 1.10 3.13 1.11 0.002**
8 Campus signs are difficult to read. 1 5 2.62 1.06 2.85 1.06 0.017*
10 Campus planning is very complex. 1 5 2.78 1.18 3.00 1.01 0.134
12 Signage is noticeable on campus. 1 5 3.24 1.10 3.24 1.05 0.807
17 I have seen many disoriented visitors. 1 5 3.13 1.19 3.32 1.10 0.425
Information Design
22 I always tell directions through signage. 1 5 2.91 1.16 2.90 1.03 0.437
24 Signage should be simple and minimal. 1 5 3.60 1.34 3.75 1.25 0.335
25 Signage information should be detailed. 1 5 3.22 1.20 3.18 1.12 0.690
26 Signage design should represent the institute. 1 5 3.33 1.12 3.48 1.16 0.482
Wayfinding Behaviour
Information Gathering
4 Signage information is helpful. 1 5 3.17 1.13 3.17 1.29 0.687
5 Need to memorise the locations. 1 5 3.40 1.10 3.50 1.17 0.213
9 I ask directions from a passer-by. 1 5 2.78 1.19 3.41 1.25 0.001**
11 Can find a destination without signage. 1 5 3.28 1.41 3.71 1.28 0.045*
13 Signage information is only for a freshman. 1 5 2.99 1.26 3.07 1.21 0.418
14 Familiar with campus planning. 1 5 3.04 1.28 3.29 1.27 0.147
15 Prefer verbal directions for wayfinding. 1 5 2.88 1.23 2.96 1.19 0.801
16 Spatially quite familiar. 1 5 3.12 1.26 3.43 1.22 0.089
Information Preference
18 People use mobile devices for wayfinding. 1 5 2.87 1.12 3.11 1.11 0.312
19 Signage is easy for wayfinding than a cell phone. 1 5 2.99 1.18 3.33 1.07 0.245

55
 Q HONG KONG PAKISTAN
Question Description p-value
no. Min Max Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
20 I usually tell directions to new visitors. 1 5 3.15 1.15 3.54 1.08 0.046*
21 The campus is too complex. 1 5 2.90 1.21 2.88 1.23 0.826
23 Signage should follow the university theme. 1 5 3.21 1.26 3.13 1.10 0.532
27 Colour coded information Should be available. 1 5 3.49 1.22 3.65 1.09 0.857
28 Dual language signages are confusing. 1 5 2.82 1.21 2.97 1.22 0.583
29 Signage should always have pictograms. 1 5 3.37 1.13 3.50 1.12 0.302
30 Pictograms/symbols are easy to understand. 1 5 3.41 1.28 3.54 1.13 0.350
*p < 0.05 for Mann-Whitney U Test **Significant value after Bonferroni’s correction

According to our findings, females are more socially engaged than males when asking and
giving directions to passers-by. This behaviour has developed a strong sense of environmental
knowledge in them, due to which they feel quite confident in finding out their respective
destination without relying on environmental information. We can speculate from the findings
that women tend to find their way through memory recall instead of putting the load on their
cognition by getting wayfinding information from signage. Other than these interesting
insights, no significant difference in behaviour has been recorded for the rest of the wayfinding
questions.

56
 The collected data was divided into four age groups with a five-year gap between them to
investigate further the effects of age differences on wayfinding behaviour, ranging from 18 to
37 years. The final two groups (28-32, 33-37) were combined with preserving the statistical
analysis' credibility due to the reduced number of participants. The first two categories
constitute most of the responses, with 40% and 41%, respectively.

5.5

5.0

4.5
Questionnaire results

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Question numbers

Male Female

Figure 4.3 Simple statistics of gender

The Kruskal Wallis test was chosen to analyse this non-parametric ordinal data since three
independent samples were in this group (Corder and Foreman, 2009). According to the survey
results, there were no significant discrepancies in campus navigation behaviour among
respondents of various ages. The finding was considered quite contrasting to the studies (Head
and Isom, 2010), where age substantially impacted cognitive behaviour and spatial memory.
The narrower age gap (5 years) between the age groups is most likely the cause of this finding.
Prior studies (Davis and Therrien, 2012; Hidayetoglu, Yildirim and Akalin, 2012) have
indicated the age-related differences in wayfinding behaviour; however, the age groups were
distant from each other, e.g. children and older adults.
Aside from age differences, another variable that influenced the outcome was the
educational background. The information obtained was divided into two categories:

57
undergraduates and postgraduates and above. Both categories have almost the same number of
participants. The Man Whitney U test was chosen for statistical analysis since there were two
independent group samples. In most of the questions on wayfinding behaviour, the effect of
education has not been significant enough. Some insights, on the other hand, may delve deeper
into their behaviour.
Compared to the first group, the higher education group has shown a substantial interest in
seeking out wayfinding information in the spatial environment while considering spatial
planning complicated. The p-values for both questions on information searching and complex
spatial planning were 0.007 and 0.012, respectively, in the two groups. The findings for the
remaining questions did not indicate any significant results.
As per our study, we can infer from this finding that the level of education might not be
that influential in wayfinding behaviour. Alternatively, else we can assume that the level of
education was not distinctive enough to influence the wayfinding skills. Similar research can
be performed in the complex university environment with a more significant difference in
education amongst the participants for future studies. Regarding the complex environment of
university settings, the expected visitors may or may not have much difference in education
that can further challenge the need for such research.

CORRELATION ANALYSIS
The gathered data was analysed for correlation using Kendall tau's correlation test, as
shown in Table 4.6, for further study. The correlation test revealed some interesting information
on institutional wayfinding based on users’ behaviour, perception, and preferences.
Wayfinding signage has been a cause of concern for the responders since it may be misleading
at times. The signage is difficult to see and comprehend, identified as the primary source of
misinformation. The strong correlation coefficient for Q7 and Q8 (0.598) indicates that when
the environmental settings and layout planning are complicated, signage legibility suffers. The
correlation coefficient of Q10 (0.401) with Q8, where the relationship is related to spatial
complexity, supports this conclusion.
The location of signage and the interaction of visitors with it has also been proven to have
a strong relationship. We may conclude from this that signage placement and visibility are
unlikely to be the source of campus disorientation. People tend to use other sources of

58
environmental knowledge, such as mobile phones, due to the insufficiency of available
information on signage, as expressed by respondents in the correlation between Q17 and Q12,
Q18 and Q12, where people tend to use other sources of environmental knowledge, such as
mobile phones.
However, due to the absence of correlation between the map and the real environment,
mobile devices are insufficiently useful for wayfinders. Individuals also ask passers-by for
directions to gather environmental knowledge and feel confident enough to give instructions
once they have a suitable degree of information. This conclusion was drawn from the
correlations of Q20 with Q9, Q11, Q14, Q15, Q16, Q17, and Q19, which further indicated the
navigators' professional time loss and the inadequate information delivery of campus signage.
The participants indicated that the information design on signage should be consistent and
relevant with the institution theme along with the specific and thorough information. Because
the standardised designs for campus wayfinding signage may not accomplish their fundamental
purpose, colour coding the relevant information may be more beneficial. If the signage is
designed according to the amount of environmental complexity, the institution's main colour,
including primary and helpful information using pictograms and symbols, should be more
legible.

59
 Table 4.6 Kendall tau’s correlation test

Sr. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
1 1.000
2 0.610**
3 0.369** 0.325**
4 0.207** 0.270** 0.507**
5 0.312** 0.268** 0.142* 0.165**
6 0.174** 0.097 0.273** 0.321** 0.163**
7 0.275** 0.299** 0.299** 0.254** 0.233** -0.037
8 0.248** 0.277** 0.160** 0.093 0.271** -0.142* 0.598**
9 0.282** 0.279** 0.195** 0.098 0.187** 0.136* 0.263** 0.257**
10 0.290** 0.328** 0.177** 0.154** 0.272** -0.017 0.379** 0.401** 0.273**
11 0.333** 0.268** 0.081 0.025 0.315** 0.272** 0.093 0.081 0.329** 0.134*
12 0.153** 0.126* 0.243** 0.319** 0.172** 0.413** 0.117* -0.029 0.109 0.066 0.280**
13 0.171** 0.085 0.042 0.036 0.201** 0.177** 0.066 0.109 0.189** 0.102 0.351** 0.208**
14 0.130* 0.100 -0.104 -0.095 0.226** 0.172** 0.078 0.181** 0.294** 0.085 0.476** 0.163** 0.504**
15 0.096 0.038 -0.029 0.042 0.144* 0.143* 0.055 0.071 0.346** 0.123* 0.251** 0.177** 0.148** 0.265**
16 0.141* 0.068 -0.033 -0.060 0.281** 0.222** 0.012 0.060 0.178** 0.018 0.459** 0.208** 0.440** 0.559** 0.233**
17 0.206** 0.128* 0.244** 0.273** 0.296** 0.199** 0.244** 0.163** 0.160** 0.167** 0.261** 0.354** 0.261** 0.169** 0.207** 0.260**
18 0.162** 0.096 0.225** 0.215** 0.222** 0.152** 0.275** 0.212** 0.123* 0.240** 0.139* 0.326** 0.194** 0.154** 0.133* 0.113 0.412**
19 0.185** 0.140* 0.142* 0.157** 0.152** 0.247** 0.208** 0.169** 0.157** 0.190** 0.264** 0.269** 0.230** 0.231** 0.152** 0.257** 0.277** 0.322**
20 0.274** 0.218** 0.054 0.017 0.239** 0.168** 0.188** 0.175** 0.411** 0.258** 0.452** 0.185** 0.289** 0.357** 0.316** 0.402** 0.328** 0.222** 0.390**
21 0.331** 0.302** 0.252** 0.198** 0.110 0.028 0.289** 0.256** 0.229** 0.391** 0.081 0.155** 0.114* 0.088 0.130* -0.039 0.162** 0.344** 0.168** 0.174**
22 0.127* 0.136* 0.262** 0.290** 0.026 0.169** 0.202** 0.158** 0.119* 0.170** 0.077 0.366** 0.225** 0.104 0.155** 0.083 0.228** 0.326** 0.331** 0.146* 0.259**
23 0.147* 0.119* 0.117* 0.158** 0.149** 0.182** 0.163** 0.150** 0.099 0.149* 0.193** 0.207** 0.207** 0.270** 0.108 0.226** 0.244** 0.295** 0.297** 0.232** 0.268** 0.259**
24 0.298** 0.134* 0.214** 0.199** 0.293** 0.253** 0.130* 0.134* 0.246** 0.150** 0.360** 0.226** 0.349** 0.293** 0.228** 0.336** 0.251** 0.238** 0.265** 0.364** 0.187** 0.183** 0.305**
25 0.186** 0.185** 0.159** 0.287** 0.224** 0.255** 0.158** 0.142* 0.137* 0.165** 0.291** 0.272** 0.258** 0.265** 0.243** 0.282** 0.305** 0.264** 0.326** 0.225** 0.175** 0.219** 0.439** 0.420**
26 0.249** 0.119* 0.117* 0.144* 0.264** 0.215** 0.191** 0.156** 0.165** 0.130* 0.267** 0.231** 0.301** 0.327** 0.203** 0.355** 0.320** 0.349** 0.239** 0.362** 0.199** 0.213** 0.474** 0.490** 0.397**
27 0.220** 0.160** 0.216** 0.215** 0.317** 0.223** 0.246** 0.210** 0.202** 0.171** 0.334** 0.269** 0.281** 0.325** 0.221** 0.351** 0.332** 0.324** 0.309** 0.366** 0.236** 0.203** 0.387** 0.545** 0.377** 0.479**
28 0.128* 0.072 0.076 0.072 0.052 0.207** 0.168** 0.105 0.143* 0.128* 0.177** 0.212** 0.269** 0.252** 0.122* 0.104 0.103 0.209** 0.257** 0.246** 0.298** 0.222** 0.338** 0.173** 0.228** 0.271** 0.157**
29 0.246** 0.173** 0.217** 0.309** 0.270** 0.208** 0.258** 0.203** 0.274** 0.222** 0.301** 0.246** 0.240** 0.277** 0.254** 0.262** 0.325** 0.300** 0.323** 0.350** 0.277** 0.180** 0.284** 0.472** 0.311** 0.393** 0.536** 0.257**
30 0.242** 0.170** 0.180** 0.241** 0.223** 0.166** 0.254** 0.185** 0.281** 0.206** 0.285** 0.159** 0.285** 0.293** 0.260** 0.242** 0.282** 0.227** 0.295** 0.359** 0.300** 0.136* 0.238** 0.530** 0.312** 0.357** 0.492** 0.251** 0.724** 1.000

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

60
 DISCUSSION & FINDINGS

The conducted mixed-method study concerning the wayfinding behaviour in complex

environmental settings has provided interesting findings as directed by research question 1 with
subsequent research questions. Two different cultural groups were selected to analyse cultural and
complex environmental impacts on human cognition. The selected groups were rarely selected in
the previous studies for such kind of research. The participants from Hong Kong and Pakistan have
been inducted into the research due to their respective differences in cultural backgrounds, as the
culture can be defined based on nationalities (Bluszcz and Quan, 2016). The participants from
Hong Kong can be considered as an individualistic society due to the strong influence of British
ruling until the late nineties.
On the other hand, the respondents from Pakistan are from a collectivist society as they have a
strong culture of social relationships (Asghar, Torrens and Harland, 2019). The two cultural groups
were analysed to explore the cultural influences on wayfinding behaviour, especially when the
environment is complex in layout and planning. University settings from both countries have been
chosen due to the higher capacity of attracting new students and visitors every year, raising the
issues in wayfinding. For the respective study, a questionnaire has been developed based on the
five-point bipolar scale to record the responses from concerned participants. The questions were
based on experiencing different wayfinding problems and ascribed behaviour.
Interesting insights on the nature of the wayfinding challenge regarding information gathering,
understanding, and information dependence for directed wayfinding tasks have been gathered for
the cultural aspects. Participants from collectivist societies encountered some navigational issues
on campus, but they attempted to overcome this by relying on their social interactions for verbal
wayfinding information. In keeping with the earlier study, social interactions were found to impact
wayfinding behaviour and performance (Hund, Schmettow and Noordzij, 2012). The group
mentioned above preferred simple and easy to understand information sources. On the other hand,
individualistic cultures rely more on themselves for obtaining and deciphering information due to
a reluctance to engage in social relations. As a result, environmental familiarity is challenging to
achieve, necessitating specific spatial layout information. The probable cause of this behavioural
61
difference can be uncertainty avoidance as mentioned by hofstede insights. The participants from
Hong Kong preferred the information gathering while maintaining the initial aim of the wayfinding
task. Whereas, the participants from Pakistan relied more on the information gathered by the
passer-by and producing less focus on finding the required information by themselves.
Despite the cultural difference, most participants have identified the complex spatial planning
responsible for wayfinding problems. The participants have been segregated into two groups based
on their level of environmental familiarity from this exploration. The results have reflected that
environmental familiarity, even in complex settings, can heavily affect the wayfinding behaviour
as appeared in the previous studies (Sholl, Kenny and DellaPorta, 2006; Li and Klippel, 2012).
Participants with a low level of environmental knowledge had a difficult time getting around the
campus. Because of the low level of knowledge in their heads, the group must rely on signage
information rather than memorizing spatial features such as landmarks or path integration. While
having difficulty comprehending the information, the group has experienced increased frustration,
time loss, and confusion. Like the study (Cheung, 2006), the campus environment has been
characterized as hard to get familiar with and legible due to reduced exposure to the surrounding
environment, complicated spatial planning, and diffused spaces.
The participants were separated by gender for further investigation of wayfinding behaviour
due to individual differences. Gender differences have already been highlighted as a potentially
relevant element in prior research (Gagnon et al., 2018). Females had more difficulty finding their
way about campus in this study due to a lack of understanding of signage information. To address
the issue mentioned above, female participants relied more on verbal directions than on designated
cues to obtain information. By considering the environmental information misleading, a significant
gender difference was observed for Q7 (p = 0.002). Males, on the other hand, outperformed
females in the understanding of signage information. As a result, they had fewer difficulties finding
their way around than females. According to the literature, the age difference has been
acknowledged as another variable affecting individual differences. To assess the differences in
behaviour, the participants were divided into four age groups. There were no apparent differences
in behaviour across the age groups in this investigation. The shorter age difference between the

62
groups may have contributed to this observation. In previous research (Taillade et al., 2013; Lee
et al., 2014), the age gaps between the participants were more significant enough (> 15 years) to
identify the difference. The age gap selected for this study was kept minimum due to the average
age of the university student and visitor. The average age for university students lies between 18
years to 25 years. For the individual differences, the next factor of influence considered was the
level of education (Morley and Cobbett, 1997). The participants were grouped into two groups
based on their provided education level. For this individual difference, the results were quite like
the previous factor. No significant insights into the wayfinding behaviour were observed for the
difference in the level of education, possibly due to the minute influence of such difference.
Certain limitations identified in the study above that restricts the generalizability of the current
findings. There were many university students in the sample population, but there was a lot fewer
ordinary visitor. The findings can apply to newcomers to the mentioned places, although the results
may have some limitations for general tourists. Furthermore, different navigational behaviour
might be confounded by spatial planning and layout. Both institutions are located in the highly
populated central regions of the city; but, due to the presence of high-rise structures and multilevel
access to the buildings and their facilities, the spatial layout of the university in Hong Kong is
regarded as more complex. Another issue is that the university in Hong Kong has a larger
crowd than the institution in Pakistan. As a result of this, navigational behaviour may be
compromised, as visual access and comprehension of information may be hindered. Further
research will utilize fully immersive computer simulations to examine the navigator's natural
behaviour during wayfinding to minimize confusing variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The primary objective was to explore the effects of cultural and individual-related differences
in navigation behaviour among university campus navigators to eliminate wayfinding issues. The
goal was to identify probable causes for wayfinding issues and reasons of disorientation during
navigation inside the university campus while treating it as a complex environment. Furthermore,
the finding has the potential to improve the efficiency of campus navigation for newcomers and

63
general visitors, reducing time losses, self-disorientation, and frustration. Because this is an
exploratory study, specific factors for wayfinding issues were defined in the literature review and
provided before the survey was conducted. Complex spatial planning, cultural differences, level
of environmental familiarity, gender, age, and level of education were all found as influential
factors. Cultural differences have been found as a crucial element in the various cultures'
wayfinding behaviour.
Two groups were developed for the mentioned exploration because the participants from Hong
Kong and Pakistan came from distinct cultures. Several cross-cultural differences in the gathering
of environmental information, signage implications, and environmental familiarity have been
observed. Despite being familiar with the environment, the participants from Hong Kong relied
more on spatial information provided by signage than the other cultural groups. As they were
classified as collectivists, the Pakistani participants deciphered environmental knowledge through
verbal communication as well as signage information. Wayfinding behaviour is significantly
influenced by spatial familiarity. However, no significant findings have been found for age or
education level. Participants who were familiar with the environment relied on their cognitive
memory for navigation rather than signage information.
Furthermore, it has been discovered that when the spatial layout is more complicated, it is more
difficult for participants to memorize the entire environment. A consistent signage design with
suitable colour coding is essential for the complex university setting while yet distinguishing out
enough from the surroundings. An effective signage system should be established based on
culturally consistent pictograms and symbols to direct navigators to their desired path.
Furthermore, the gender difference had a minor impact on the behaviour. Potential limitations to
the generalizability of the findings mentioned above are explored in the next section. Certain
factors, including but not limited to spatial layout complexity, crowd effect, and environmental
information via signage, are confounding in wayfinding research. By limiting the aspects
mentioned above, it is suggested that future research be conducted utilizing immersive virtual
worlds and computer simulations to build the framework for effective signage, culturally
consistent pictograms, and symbols.

64
 In the next chapter, another study has been planned to investigate the users’ design preferences
and visual understanding of the signage and its provided information. The current study has
suggested a significant influence of individual-related differences including culture, gender and
level of familiarity with the environment. This further suggests that a detailed investigation is
required to understand the role of visual elements of wayfinding design and how users perceived
the information from static sources like signage, maps and wayfinding kiosks. The next study
investigated user preferences through an online study from more than 160 participants.

65
 CHAPTER 5: STUDY 2 - SIGNAGE DESIGN PREFERENCE
& VISUAL UNDERSTANDING
A research article has been published from this study, Iftikhar, H., Asghar, S., & Luximon, Y.
(2020). A Cross-Cultural Investigation of Design and Visual Preference of Signage Information
from Hong Kong and Pakistan, The Journal of Navigation, 0:0 1–19,
DOI:10.1017/S0373463320000521

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

Research questions 2 and 3 have been designed to investigate the user preferences regarding
static wayfinding information.

Research Question 2: What is the user’s preference regarding static wayfinding information?
Research Question 3: What is the user’s preference regarding the style and volume of
information?

In addition to that, how users perceive the design and volume of information in the static
wayfinding aids. As previous studies indicated significant cultural and individual-related
differences in wayfinding behaviour. This divergence in behaviour may be influenced by the
varied perception and preference of wayfinding aids. Therefore, another study has been planned
to explore the potential influencing factors for the said behaviour. This chapter presents the signage
design preferences and visual understanding of the wayfinding information based on the data
collected by the participants from Hong Kong and Pakistan. This research suggests that more
cross-cultural research into aspects of signage design and visual perception is needed to identify
potential barriers to culturally consistent university signage.

INTRODUCTION

Wayfinding has always been a valuable medium for communicating environmental

information, and signage design has always been critical. Several elements, including the design
of information signage and its perception, influence wayfinding behaviour in complex institutional

66
environments. Depending on cultural and individual differences, visual perceptions and
preferences of information design in wayfinding signage vary. This study aimed to see how
cultural and individual differences affected people's visual perceptions and preferences for
wayfinding signage and its elements. Participants from Hong Kong and Pakistan responded to an
online questionnaire about their design preferences and visual perceptions of university
wayfinding signage. Questions were asked on design consistency, information colour coding, and
information volume. In total, 170 university students and visitors from the respective countries
took part in the exploratory research. The statistical findings revealed significant cross-cultural
differences in signage graphics preference and perception and information volume.

METHOD

The purpose of the research was to look at the cultural and individual implications on
perception and preference in wayfinding signage design on a large university campus. Participants
from Hong Kong and Pakistan performed an internet-based questionnaire as part of this project. A
total of 170 students and visitors to the university campus took part in the survey and provided
their opinions on wayfinding signage. The visuals of signage design have been designed and
utilized to explore the user's perceptions and preferences depending on the required research
variables. The questions on design preferences were asked by presenting four design visual
options, followed by a question on the explanation for choice. The collected data were statistically
analysed to see if there was a relationship between cultural and individual differences in preference
and comprehension of wayfinding design. Before collecting data, ethical permission (APPENDIX
I) was sought from the relevant institutions, and the necessary protocol was followed according to
the specified recommendations.

QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
Table 5.1 Participant information in questionnaire construction

Information category Questions

Demographic information

67
 Place of birth
Place of residence
Native language
Personal information
Gender
Age
Literacy level

The purpose of this internet-based questionnaire is to acquire cross-cultural and individual-

related information from participants. The demographic/personal information of the participants
and their signage preferences were used to develop the questionnaire. The participants were
questioned about demographics and personal information in the first segment (Table 5.1), as was
done in previous research (Joy, Yien and Chen, 2016; Trisnawati and Sriwarno, 2018), in order to
designate them as a specific group. To identify the participants as a distinct cultural group,
questions regarding their birthplace, residence, and native language were asked. Based on the
above-mentioned answers, participants were divided into two cultural groups: Hong Kong-China,
and Pakistan. Participants in the Hong Kong (China) group have said that they were born and
raised in Mainland China or Hong Kong and that their native languages were Cantonese or
Mandarin. Participants who chose Pakistan as their birth and home country and Urdu as their first
language were placed in the Pakistan group. The participants were also questioned about their
gender, literacy level, and age to study individual differences in campus signage preferences.
Three questions on signage graphics are included in the next section of the online
questionnaire, which explores the user's preference, suitability, and understanding of the signage
design and content. The questions were created with design consistency, information colour
coding, and the total volume of information in mind. As shown in Figure 5.1, the first signage
question was designed to look at the role of consistency in wayfinding design and users'
preferences for environmental information while on campus. The question was created to
examine the potential effects of design inconsistency on user preference, as shown in earlier
research (Rooke et al., 2009; Leonard, Verster and Coetzee, 2014), where design consistency and
standardisation were advised for improving wayfinding efficiency.

68
 Figure 5.1 Signage design consistency

The four designs of signage in the first question (Figure 5.1) have been designed, each of
which has an identical set of navigation information but differs in colour on the top plate. The first
colour choice was chosen to match the institution's colour scheme, while the other three were
chosen to match the signage colours found on various university campuses in Hong Kong and
Pakistan. Various universities in Pakistan and Hong Kong have been searched and common
colours have been added as the remaining three options. The participants were asked which colour
signage would be appropriate for use at the institution, with the official colour specified in the
institution logo.

69
 The second question (Figure 5.2) investigated the impacts and effectiveness of colour coding
in providing wayfinding information to the relevant people. The user's perception, attentiveness,
and identification of necessary knowledge are all influenced by the colour-coded information. A
study (Tzeng and Wang, 2011) investigated the effects of the factors mentioned above on human
wayfinding performance, particularly in university libraries with large volumes of spatial
information. The information was easier to read and recognize by the navigators; hence, the
findings significantly impacted wayfinding performance.

Figure 5.2 Colour coding in signage

On the contrary, the study (Delvin and Bernstein, 1997) has found that the use of colour coding
in maps has little influence on wayfinding performance. To answer this question, four information
graphics were created, as illustrated in Figure 5.2, ranging from greyscale or mono-colour coding
to multi-colour coding for wayfinding information. All the design options have a similar level of
information highlights but with a difference in the number of colours while coding. The maximum
number of colours have been kept to three to avoid visual clutter. The respondents were surveyed
on their preferences for the colour coding of signage to be installed on the university campus.

70
 The third question (Figure 5.3) included four different types of signage graphics with varying
information volumes due to the use of dual language and symbolic representation. Previous studies
(Scialfa et al., 2008; Joy, Yien and Chen, 2016) have advised reducing the number of words to
provide more accurate and compelling information. Increased negative spaces for breathing space
in design were also proposed to grab the user's attention and boost comprehension. Four signage
designs with varying combinations of language and pictograms have been produced to investigate
this user behaviour: dual language, single language, single language-pictogram, and dual
language-pictogram.

Figure 5.3 Signage information volume

Options 3 and 4 have been produced in combination with the icons for the requisite facility. In
the previous studies (Chi and Dewi, 2014; Chi et al., 2019) such combined icon styles have been
investigated and proved efficient in delivering the information. The textual information of facilities
is comprehensive and easy to understand. However, if this information is not visible, legible or
readable then it has no advantage over icons and symbols (Sanders and McCormick, 1993). The
participants were asked how easy it was for them to grasp the signage information that was being
placed on a university campus because the amount of information detail varies when employing

71
dual language and wayfinding pictograms. While the university campus's spatial layout is
complex, much environmental information is necessary for efficient navigation.

DATA COLLECTION PROCESS

Participants from Hong Kong and Pakistan were invited to complete an online questionnaire
for data collection. The invited respondents mainly were university students and visitors who were
contacted using the Google Forms online tool to collect information. Reputable university
campuses in Hong Kong and Pakistan have been chosen for this purpose because they attract
students and visitors from various cultural backgrounds. The investigational research of signage
design understanding and preference included a total of 200 participants. Inclusion criteria for this
study were set based on the critical cultural categories and response fulfilment. One hundred
seventy replies were chosen for data collection after meeting the inclusion criteria for relevant
cultural groups from Hong Kong and Pakistan. Students from the respective university, as well as
visitors to the campus, were the primary respondents. The questionnaire was completed in English,
which is widely spoken and understood in both regions.

DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS

The collected information was organised into Hong Kong and Pakistan's respective
independent cultural groups to conduct the data analysis. Participants born in Mainland China were
also placed in the same category as those who were born in Hong Kong. The participants were
divided into three groups depending on their age, gender, and literacy level to investigate
individual differences. Table 8 lays out the categorisation in full. Following the necessary
categorization, the data was imported into Microsoft Excel for descriptive analysis, followed by
statistical analysis with SPSS software.
Participants obtained the relevant knowledge by using various visual options such as signage
images and open-ended explanation questions. Pearson's Chi-square test was chosen since the
participants were divided into independent groups based on cultural and individual differences
(McHugh, 2013). With the aid of detecting the sequential pattern methodology, the data mining
methodology was used to categorise the findings into meaningful classes (Friedman, 1998). The

72
tests stated above were used to investigate the expected cultural differences in visual perception,
understanding, and preference in university wayfinding design.

RESULTS

The preliminary descriptive revealed that each group had enough participants to complete the
statistical analysis due to cultural and individual differences. Following the application of the
original inclusion criteria, about 170 (84%) replies were chosen to be included in the research. The
first descriptive information in Table 8 has also resulted in a reasonable distribution of participants
among both cultural groups.

INITIAL DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

A wide distribution of individuals belonging to the independent sample group may be seen in
the summary of general demographics. The response rate of Hong Kong participants was greater
than that of Pakistani participants, with 55 percent and 45 percent, respectively. Furthermore, a
similar proportion was found for the group depending on gender, with females accounting for
roughly 54 percent and men accounting for roughly 46 percent. The participants' ages were also
divided into four groups, ranging from 18 to 37 years old, with a five-year gap between each group
for further investigation of individual differences. The gathered data revealed that the fourth group
of 33-37 years had fewer members than the third group of 28-32 years; therefore, the group was
combined with the third group of 28-32 years to maintain an appropriate range in the individual
group for statistical analysis, as shown in Table 5.2. Because the respondents were mostly
university students, the first two age groups (18-22 years, 23-27 years) accounted for most of the
participants (81 percent). The literacy level was the other quantitative element when it came to
signage perception. The participants were asked about their current educational level, and based
on the information gathered, two groups were formed: (below undergraduate) and (postgraduate
and above). Each of the two groups mentioned above has an equal number of participants (85)
each. Following the broad classification, the data was loaded into SPSS to identify further research
variables related to signage design perception.

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 Table 5.2 Summary of general demographics

Frequency Percentage
Cultural group
Hong Kong (China) 93 55 %
Pakistan 77 45 %
Gender
Male 78 46 %
Female 92 54 %
Age Group
18-22 69 40 %
23-27 70 41 %
28-37 31 19 %
Literacy Level
Undergraduate 85 50 %
Postgraduate & above 85 50 %
Total
170 100 %
The responses were gathered based on the user's preference and knowledge in the second part
of the online questionnaire, which included questions on the design of signage information. As
shown in Table 5.3, the most comprehensive choice for signage design consistency has been given
to design option 1 with 61 percent, followed by option 2 with 22 percent. The second question
addressed users' preferences for wayfinding information colour coding, and users preferred design
option 4 with 59 percent of responses, followed by option 2 with 24 percent. The responses to the
question on signage information volume were dispersed, with 47 percent, 36.5 percent, and 13.5
percent for options 4, 3, and 1, respectively. Table 5.3 contains a full breakdown of the replies
from the participants about design preferences. Every question about design preferences featured
a follow-up question on the participant's reason for their choice. Because the explanatory questions
were open-ended, the data was gathered and processed by recognising sequential patterns. In
addition, the whole set of responses has been categorised based on the patterns identified in Table
5.4.

Table 5.3 Summary of questions responses

Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4

Question 1 (Signage design consistency)

74
 Frequency 104 37 16 13
Percentage 61% 22% 9.5% 7.5%
Question 2 (Colour coding in signage design)
Frequency 6 41 23 100
Percentage 3.5% 24% 13.5% 59%
Question 3 (Signage information volume)
Frequency 23 5 62 80
Percentage 13.5% 3% 36.5% 47%

Table 5.4 Summary of questions explanation responses

Question 1 explanation (Signage design consistency)

Attractive Colour Matches Quick
Colour Logo Understanding
Frequency 84 80 6
Percentage 50% 47% 3%
Question 2 explanation (Colour coding in signage design)
Ample Attractive Quick Less Colour
Information colour Understanding Colours Coding
Frequency 29 3 9 32 97

Percentage 17% 2% 5% 19% 57%

Question 3 explanation (Signage information volume)

Ample Dual Quick
Pictograms
Information Language Understanding
Frequency 28 82 22 38
Percentage 17% 48% 13% 22%

CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON
The data was organised based on the cultural backgrounds of the participants to investigate
cross-cultural differences in signage comprehension. Many Hong Kong respondents (69, 13) chose
the first and second options in the questions on design consistency, respectively. The reasoning for
the choices was made with the university's attractiveness and the university's official colour in
consideration. The participants from Pakistan, on the other hand, displayed a fragmented attitude
to signage selection. As shown in Tables 5.5 and 5.6, thirty-five, twenty-four, and
fourteen Pakistani participants selected the first, second, and third alternatives, respectively.

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 Table 5.5 Summary of cultural differences in design selection

Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4

Q1 (Signage design consistency)
Hong Kong 69 13 2 9
Pakistan 35 24 14 4
Q2 (Colour coding in signage design)
Hong Kong 4 33 8 48
Pakistan 2 8 15 52
Q3 (Signage information volume)
Hong Kong 20 2 14 57
Pakistan 3 3 48 23

Table 5.6 Summary of cultural differences in questions’ explanation

Question 1 explanation (Signage design consistency)

Colour Attractive Quick
Matches Logo Colour Understanding
Hong Kong 51 38 4
Pakistan 29 46 2
Question 2 explanation (Colour coding in signage design)
Ample Attractive Quick Colour Less
Information Colour Understanding Coding Colour
Hong Kong 28 3 3 46 13
Pakistan 1 0 6 51 19
Question 3 explanation (Signage information volume)

Dual Quick
Ample info. Pictograms
Language Understanding
Hong Kong 9 62 11 11
Pakistan 19 20 11 27
The Pakistani participants chose the requisite selections because they preferred colour
attractiveness more than colour matching quality with the university's official theme. The chi-
square test was used to analyse the correlation between the responses of both cultural groups
statistically. For questions on signage design consistency, there was a significant relationship
between the two cultural groups, χ2 (3, 170) = 24.016, p = 0.000. Whereas the explanation for the
respective choice have also a significant relation, χ2 (2, 170) = 6.026, p = 0.049.

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 The respondents have differing opinions on the second question based on the colour-coded
information on signage due to cultural influences. Option 4 with multi-coloured information
coding was preferred by many participants from both groups, followed by option 3 for Pakistani
participants and option 2 for Hong Kong participants. Pakistani participants preferred the
single colour information coding after multi-colour, choosing a monochromatic style with
different shades and tints of the same colour. On the other hand, respondents from Hong Kong
preferred the greyscale design option with a single colour that was monotone.

Table 5.7 Summary of cultural differences in questions’ explanation

Q1 Q1 exp Q2 Q2 exp Q3 Q3 exp

χ2 24.016 6.026 16.844 29.274 44.751 30.586
* * * * *
p 0.000 0.049 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000*
Φ 0.376 0.188 0.315 0.415 0.513 0.424
*
p < 0.05 for Pearson chi square test

The use of colour-coded signage design options has been proven to have a significant
relationship between both cultural groups, χ2 (3, 170) = 16.844, p = 0.001. Because of the
differences in design choices, there has been a substantial variation in the explanations provided
for the various choices, χ2 (4, 170) = 29.274, p = 0.000. The high value of phi (0.415) in Table 5.7
has also demonstrated the significance of the relationship amongst both cultural groups. The third
group of design options was created with the amount or volume of information required for
navigational tasks in mind. The first two design choices in this collection were based on the
information provided by two different languages.

77
 Furthermore, the other two design options were created by combining the consideration of
70
65 Hong Kong Pakistan
60
NUMBER OF RESPONSES

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Q1.1
 Q1.2
 Q1.3
 Q1.4
 Q2.1
 Q2.2
 Q2.3
 Q2.4
 Q3.1
 Q3.2
 Q3.3
 Q3.4
 Q1exp1
 Q1exp2
 Q1exp3
 Q2exp1
 Q2exp2
 Q2exp3
 Q2exp4
 Q2exp5
 Q3exp1
 Q3exp2
 Q3exp3
 Q3exp4
SIGNAGE QUESTIONS

Figure 5.4 Simple statistics of cross-cultural comparison

linguistic and symbolic information. Figure 5.4 depicts the cross-cultural variations in the
perception of signage design using a simple statistical comparison. The fourth option was
selected by Hong Kong participants, followed by the first and third options. The information
offered by the dual language was of more concern to the Hong Kong participants. On the other
hand, pictograms were the primary explanation given by Pakistani participants, followed by the
availability of dual language.
Several Pakistani participants indicated enough information as another reason for choosing
design option 3. A significant association between the two above-mentioned cultural groups for
the choice of signage design was discovered using Pearson's chi-square test, χ2 (3, 170) = 44.751,
p = 0.000. The high value of phi (0.513) also demonstrates the strength of the association between
Hong Kong and Pakistani respondents. Furthermore, when examining the explanations for these
responses, a significant association between both participatory groups was discovered, χ2 (3, 170)
= 30.586, p = 0.000.

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 INDIVIDUAL INFLUENCES
Individual differences in the perception of wayfinding signage design were explored using the
online questionnaire, which inquired respondents about gender, age, and education level. Two
groups were constructed based on the gender of the participants to identify gender-related
differences in signage perception. The chi-square test was used to evaluate the relationship
between males and females (Table 5.8). For this study, there was no significant association
between males and females when it came to analysing the perception of university signage design.

Table 5.8 Statistical analysis of gender differences

Q1 Q1 exp. Q2 Q2 exp. Q3 Q3 exp.

χ2 3.169 0.897 5.904 4.922 1.563 2.032
p 0.366 0.639 0.116 0.295 0.668 0.566
Φ 0.137 0.073 0.186 0.170 0.096 0.109

Table 5.9 Statistical analysis of age differences

Q1 Q1 exp. Q2 Q2 exp. Q3 Q3 exp.

2
χ 5.707 2.793 7.356 7.515 4.630 6.395
p 0.457 0.593 0.289 0.482 0.592 0.380
Φ 0.183 0.128 0.208 0.210 0.165 0.194

In addition, this study was necessary to investigate the age-related differences in signage
perception that had previously been discovered in the literature. For statistical analysis to study
the association between the three age groups mentioned, the obtained information has been
organised into the three age groups specified in Table 5.2. According to the chi-square test, there
is no significant association between the age groups (Table 5.9). Regardless of the respondents'
age groups, the wayfinding signage was perceived. Because the participants were either university
students or university campus visitors, there were fewer age differences in this study. Since the
difference in age groups is so small, it has been assumed that such a slight variation will not affect
how people perceive signage design.

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 As a result, the respondents have been divided into groups depending on their indicated
educational level. Participants in the first category had an education level of undergraduate or less,
while those in the second category had an education level of postgraduate or above. The Chi-
square test was used to see if there was a significant correlation between the two groups. Except
for the question about explaining the information volume, there were no statistically significant
correlations between both education level groups (Table 5.10), χ2 (3, 170) = 10.208, p = 0.017.
Because of the presence of simplicity, dual language, and pictograms, participants with an
undergraduate and below favoured the signage design options 3 and 4 for question 3. Participants
with a higher education level, such as postgraduate and above, prefer the alternatives because of
the ease of comprehension provided by the dual language. We may extrapolate from this data that
people with a higher level of education prefer textual information over pictograms and information
density in the design of wayfinding signage.

Table 5.10 Statistical analysis of literacy level

Q1 Q1 exp. Q2 Q2 exp. Q3 Q3 exp.

χ2 4.233 0.915 6.646 6.454 5.855 10.208
p 0.237 0.633 0.084 0.168 0.119 0.017*
Φ 0.158 0.073 0.198 0.195 0.186 0.245
*
p < 0.05 for Pearson chi square test
Similarly, in the comparison for question 2, where different information colour coding levels
were provided, participants with higher education prefer less presence of colour-coded
information. In contrast, the other group prefers colour-coded designs because they are more
attracted to the signage's colourful designs. Although the proposed relationship is not statistically
significant, the slightly higher phi value (0.198) reflects this understanding, χ2 (3, 170) = 6.646, p
= 0.084. The insights mentioned above were also described in the respondents' explanation
response for the relevant selections. The individuals with lower education levels indicated colour
coding as a pivotal role in their decision, whereas those with higher education levels reported other
factors such as the presence of less colour and a large amount of information.

CORRELATION ANALYSIS

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 In addition to the correlation between cultural and individual differences, spearman's
correlation analysis was used to investigate a correlation between the questions in the information
collected. Other than the previously mentioned correlations in Table 5.2, the respective study
yielded some intriguing insights based on the individual's preferences and perceptions. Between
the Q1 and Q1exp is illustrating the choice of signage design and its related explanations, a
statistically significant link has been identified and displayed in Table 5.11. The participants
preferred design option one over design option two because of the colour matching with the
institution theme rather than the attractiveness of the colour. Participants who selected design
option 2 in question 1, on the other hand, indicated why they think the attractive colour should be
used in the design of campus wayfinding signage. Similarly, respondents who opted for the
university theme-related signage design choice preferred design option four in question three
because it had comparatively more information. We can deduct from this study that if the
university signage design follows the signage design consistency, people will feel comfortable
reading and comprehending the large volume of wayfinding information.

Table 5.11 Spearman’s correlations

Q1 Q1exp Q2 Q2exp Q3 Q3exp

Q1 1.000
Q1exp. 0.376**
Q2 0.131 0.031
Q2exp. 0.016 0.008 0.209**
Q3 -0.193* -0.051 0.117 -0.004
Q3exp. 0.061 -0.081 -0.098 0.011 -0.129 1.000
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Subsequently, a statistically significant correlation has been found between Q2 and Q2exp.
Participants who chose design option 4 in Q2 mentioned colour coding as the primary reason for
their decision. The remaining design options in Q2 were, on the other hand, meticulously chosen
due to the usage of fewer colours. We may extrapolate that participants preferred colour coding
information but used fewer colours in information coding, especially when the signage design must
be placed in spatially complicated university settings.

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 DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS

Since it was exploratory, this study revealed a significant number of variations in the
perception and choice of university signage design due to cultural factors and individual
differences. Multiple studies (Hashim, Alkaabi and Bharwani, 2014; Troncoso, 2014; Ahmed,
2015) The purpose of the study was to compare the preferences of participants from Hong Kong
and Pakistan for signage design in order to understand the cultural impact on user perception.
Statistically, significant differences have been recorded for the preference of colour consistency in
the design of campus wayfinding signage. Studies (Hohmann, 2001; Leonard, Verster and
Coetzee, 2014). The proposed proposal was correct for the Hong Kong participants since they
chose colours that matched the university's theme and emblem. The signage graphics, in their
opinion, need not always match the overall institutional theme. Respondents from both cultural
groups supported using information colour coding, although they preferred using fewer colours.
Furthermore, Hong Kong participants preferred signage designs with grey and single colour
coding, whereas the other cultural group prefers the use of colour tints and shades rather than
several colours.
Additionally, significant variations in the amount and type of signage information have
been observed. Studies (Wilkinson et al., 1997; Mahmoud, 2015) have shown that visual
information can be comprehended better than pictograms/symbols since deciphering the
information needs much cognitive work. Our findings are compatible with the research mentioned
above for Hong Kong participants; however, Pakistani individuals comprehended information
better in the form of pictograms and symbols. The Hong Kong group prefers signage with a large
amount of detail, whereas the other cultural group wants essential and fundamental information.
The results also showed that Pakistani participants were less reliant on signs because they relied
on verbal navigational information from passers-by, as investigated in a previous study (Ahmed,
2015) done in a culturally comparable and neighbouring country (India). The substantial
differences in all of the questions indicated cultural diversity in signage design perceptions,
consistent with the prior study (Foster and Afzalnia, 2005).

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 The gender differences in choice and perception of wayfinding signage design were also
investigated in this study. According to the findings, there were no significant gender differences
in signage design consistency, colour coding, information kind, and knowledge volume. The
results are thought to be consistent with a recent study (Lee et al., 2014) that found no gender
differences in signage understanding or visual preference for information. Although previous
studies (De Goede and Postma, 2015; Hund, 2016) have been examined across various age groups
for future investigation, the preferences for signage design have been examined. There was no
statistically significant association between the different age groups regarding signage information
perception, as per the findings. Multiple studies (Head and Isom, 2010; Taillade et al., 2013) have
looked at how age affects wayfinding performance and is crucial in determining user behaviour.
The outcomes of our study, on the other hand, revealed no link between the age mentioned above
groups.
In addition, the association between education level and wayfinding signpost interpretation
and perception was investigated in this study. In the previous literature, a study (Joy, Yien and
Chen, 2016) has discovered a variation in consumer perception based on educational level. On the
contrary, the study (Dowse and Ehlers, 2003) investigated the association mentioned above and
discovered that the association was not statistically significant. Our research into signage choice
and perception discovered a significant association between the amount and kind of information
in the wayfinding signage design in question Q3exp. Participants with a lower literacy level
preferred a variety of types of information, including textual and symbolic references and minimal
and effective environmental knowledge. Participants with a higher literacy level, on the other hand,
favoured detailed textual information and the use of dual language. This might be further
interpreted as people with a higher educational level prefer detailed textual knowledge over the
use of symbolic and pictographic information.
In addition, spearman's correlation test was also used to explore the interrelationship of signage
questions to understand detailed user behaviour better. According to the correlation research, the
consistency in design for wayfinding signage influences the user's perception and comprehension.
The higher volume of information can be perceived better among users if the design and colour

83
consistency is maintained. Once a certain amount of design and colour familiarity has been
attained, it becomes less confusing for wayfinders when receiving environmental data. The
findings of this study were in accordance with the principle of signage design (Bao, 2004) in
complex university settings. Although colour coding of information on wayfinding signage helps
deliver wayfinding information, our research suggests that monochromatic colours be used instead.
They are perceived to be easier to comprehend, especially when the environment legibility is poor
and there is much distracting information.

CONCLUSIONS

Finding a destination in a complexly planned, multi-storey institutional setting is a challenging

task that needs a great deal of mental effort, environmental assistance, and route knowledge.
Wayfinding aids come in a variety of forms, from signage to landmarks. The preceding literature
has demonstrated the usefulness and reliance on signs for navigation information and the necessity
for easy and standardised comprehension. In this context, complexly built university campuses
need a significant amount of research, as these campuses draw a wide variety of visitors with
varying individual and cultural backgrounds. The focus of this research was to look at the
characteristics that might function as barriers to accessible and consistent comprehension and
perception. Research questions, 2 and 3 explored the user preferences and perceptions regarding
the design and volume of the wayfinding information. The disparity between collected signage
information and its perception has been identified as a primary driver in this inquiry.
Participants from Hong Kong preferred a signage design that was consistent with institutional
official colours and themes and textual information because it was found in earlier studies to be
less demanding on one's cognitive efforts. On the other hand, participants from Pakistan were
drawn in by the attractiveness of the signage design, colours, and symbolic content. The reason for
this behaviour might be due to the Pakistani participants' different wayfinding cultures. People are
increasingly drawn to verbal information, landmark identification, and symbolic information due
to the scarcity of functional signage design. As a result, individuals are no longer completely reliant
on signage information for environmental knowledge. Symbols have been shown to have a crucial

84
influence on both cultural groups' understanding and reliance on university wayfinding signage.
This conclusion holds true for individuals with different levels of education since symbolic or
pictographic information may entice users regardless of their educational background. Future
study on symbolic comprehension in complex environmental settings as well as wayfinding
knowledge is also recommended. The produced symbols may also be examined in a variety of
environmental contexts with varying levels of spatial complexity employing computer simulations
to reduce the effects of environmental complexity.
In the next chapter, users were investigated with their preferences for mobile wayfinding
information and how they approach this information. The study has been planned as mobile
wayfinding applications are getting popular in the recent past for aiding the navigators while
performing the wayfinding tasks. The current and previous studies explained the user preferences
related to the static wayfinding information sources and their effectiveness. In addition to that, the
mobile information sources are also aiding the wayfinding process but with certain limitations. It
was deemed necessary to investigate the user behaviour regarding the wayfinding applications
while performing the wayfinding tasks in complex environments. This will further elaborate the
interaction of wayfinding systems with the users, which will further help the researchers to
understand the said relationship.

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 CHAPTER 6: STUDY 3- INFORMATION CONTENT AND
DESIGN IN DIGITAL WAYFINDING APPLICATIONS

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER

In this chapter, research question 4 have been investigated related to the wayfinding
information obtained from digital mobile applications.

Research Question 4: How do users’ access and perceive the digital app-based wayfinding
information for complex environments?

Digital mobile applications have been influential in guiding the navigators while wayfinding
due to the presence of smartphones with everybody nowadays. The wayfinding mobile
applications have several factors including application interface, technical familiarity and
information design. This chapter presents the user preferences for the information content, type
and design of wayfinding information in the digital wayfinding application. This research aimed
to investigate user preferences regarding mobile information content while navigating in a
complex environment.

INTRODUCTION

Wayfinding applications on mobile devices are gradually becoming efficient in delivering

environmental information. These applications provide a variety of navigation information such
as location, orientation, route planning, spatial layout and provided facilities. The information is
presented in multiple layers that require a thoughtful design to deliver the information effectively,
especially in complex environments. This study explored the user preferences for information
content and design in wayfinding applications. A wayfinding experiment was conducted in a
complex university setting using the wayfinding application with a multi-layered information
design. Twelve participants have performed four wayfinding tasks using the purpose-built
wayfinding application. Data has been collected by mobile screen recording, pre- and post-

86
experiment interviews. Significant behavioural patterns have been observed for accessing the
information content, and user preferences have also been explored for the information design.
Accurate location pointer, written directions and five to six-layered information design have been
preferred for the mobile wayfinding information. Information for validation in the real
environment has been a significant factor during wayfinding tasks. A synthesis of wayfinding
information from digital and real-world sources has been suggested to improve the existing
wayfinding systems in complex institutional environments.

METHOD

The present study aimed to investigate the user’s preferences regarding the type of
information content and its design. Therefore, an experiment has been designed to perform specific
wayfinding tasks in a complex institutional environment using a purpose-built wayfinding
application. Data collection has been designed in three major segments. These segments constitute
pre-experiment interview, wayfinding experiment and post-experiment interview. The participants
have been inducted through convenience sampling from a reputed public sector university in Hong
Kong. The data has been recorded in the form of mobile screen recording and interview responses.
After the experiment, the recorded data has been qualitatively analysed considering the provided
research questions.

PARTICIPANTS
The participants have been invited to perform the wayfinding experiment from a reputed public
sector university situated in the heart of the Kowloon district of Hong Kong. The participants were
approached using a convenience sampling method. All the participants were students having an
acceptable level of smartphone literacy. The participants were aware of using mobile applications
using common application navigation patterns. An acceptable level of English understanding while
using the mobile application has also been considered before inducting the participants. Twelve
participants have participated in the said experiment consisting of 66.6% and 33.3% of male and
female participants, respectively. All the participants were partially aware of the environmental
settings and the offered facilities; however, they were not confident enough to find any place inside
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the university campus on their own. All the participants have completed the required wayfinding
tasks, and their actions have been recorded. Before the experiment, the consent of each participant
has been obtained for sharing the research findings on public forums. Ethical approval
(APPENDIX I) has been obtained for conducting the experiment. Precautionary measures,
including face masks and six feet distance, have also been adopted and maintained during the
experiment due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

DATA COLLECTION

For this study, participants’ responses and behavioural actions were required to understand the
user preferences for wayfinding applications. The participants were invited to the ergonomics
design lab for having a pre- and post-experiment interview. The interview was documented using
written documents.

PRE-EXPERIMENT INTERVIEW
The pre-experiment interview was designed in further three sections consisting of
participants’ demographic information, questions related to the smartphone familiarity &
dependency, followed by the third section related to the usage and dependency on the mobile
wayfinding information. The interview has been designed in a semi-structured way consisting of
open-ended questions for in-depth exploration of the ascribed behaviour as well as questions based
on the Likert scale for investigating personal preferences.

Table 6.1 Pre-experiment Interview questions

Sr. Questions
Demographic Question
Gender Age
Education Field of Study
Section 1: Questions related to smartphone familiarity and dependency
Q1 I always keep my mobile device with me.
Q2 I use wayfinding applications on my mobile device.
Q3 Wayfinding through a mobile device is easier than using signage.
Q4 I always use a wayfinding application in unfamiliar environments.

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 Sr. Questions
Q5 What mobile applications do you use for wayfinding?
Q6 Other than social media and games, what mobile applications do you use?
Q7 Do you find it easy to use a mobile device for daily tasks?
Section 2: Questions related to the use and dependency on mobile wayfinding information
Q8 I can find my way in complex environments without using mobile applications.
Q9 I always use mobile applications for wayfinding in complex environments.
Q10 Wayfinding through a mobile application is easy.
Q11 I do not need other information while using the wayfinding application.
Q12 I always get accurate wayfinding information through the application.
Q13 I always consider the ideal route planned by the application.
Q14 The map is very useful in wayfinding applications to understand your position.
Q15 Interactive maps should be there in wayfinding applications.
Q16 I prefer both textual and graphical information in wayfinding applications.
Q17 I prefer minimal information design in wayfinding applications.
Q18 I prefer the one-page detailed information design of wayfinding applications.
Q19 I prefer textual information more than symbolic information.
Q20 I prefer both (signage and wayfinding applications) to find my way in complex environments.
Data: The responses of this interview have been recorded in the form of written documents
and analysed further by using qualitative methods. The actual questions asked in the interview has
been presented in Table 1.

WAYFINDING EXPERIMENT
PROCEDURE

After having the initial interview regarding the participant’s existing perception of the
mobile wayfinding application and its provided information, a wayfinding experiment has been
performed. The participants were instructed to use the wayfinding application while performing
the wayfinding tasks in the actual environment. Participants have performed three wayfinding
tasks to find the unknown location inside the university campus using the wayfinding application
and other environmental information sources. The participants were introduced to the basic layout
and navigation pattern of the wayfinding application. They were also allowed to take their time
and practice a little more with the wayfinding application for interface familiarity. Once they were
familiar with the wayfinding application, they were directed to the starting point. After that, the
participants were asked to start the wayfinding task and search the required locations.

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 DATA

During the experiment, the data has been recorded in the form of the mobile screen and the
participant’s voice recording. The participants were also instructed to use the think-aloud protocol
(Kinsley, Schoonover and Spitler, 2016; Schrom-Feiertag, Settgast and Seer, 2017), which has
been instrumental in wayfinding and behaviour research.

INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The experiment has been performed in the complex spatial settings of a university campus.
The university campus has been situated in the heart of Hong Kong with multi-storey buildings
and interconnected facilities. The university campus has been designed with multiple wayfinding
aids and landmarks for memorising the spatial layout; however, the campus plan still requires
much effort to recall the cognitive map. During the experiment, the university campus was almost
empty of students due to the COVID-19 pandemic and a limited number of persons could walk
inside the campus.

MOBILE DEVICE

A smartphone has been provided to the participants with a pre-installed purpose-built

wayfinding application specially designed for the respective university campus. The provided
smartphone was enabled with GPS location along with the university provided Wi-Fi. The
provided smartphone was Samsung (C7) with an android (Orio) operating system having a 5.7”
AMOLED display. The brightness was kept at total capacity (422 nits) due to the outdoor
environment.

WAYFINDING APPLICATION & CODING

The wayfinding application has been purposely designed by the respective institution using the
list menu navigation as well as the springboard navigation style. The home screen has a fully
interactive map of the university campus along with two list menus and one springboard style
instruction menu. The list menus have been coded as “L1” and “L2”, whereas the springboard has

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been coded as “t”. The screenshots of the respective wayfinding application and the coding names
have been presented in Figure 6.1. The screenshots that have been labelled from “a” to “s” are sub
menus and information screens. The information screens have wayfinding information in different
forms ranging from the written directions to the reference images of the destination. The list menu
(L1) can be accessed from the top left corner of the home screen, whereas the list menu (L2) can
be reached at the lower right of the display. The question mark on the top right area of the home
display represents the springboard instruction menu.

NAVIGATION PATTERNS IN WAYFINDING APPLICATION

Figure 6.1 Coding of application menu

The information related to the institutional facilities, especially academic facilities, has been
on the first menu. The second menu contains information related to public facilities, including

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toilets, banks and transportation. The list menu “a” displays the search bar and results regarding
the user’s input. Where the “b” menu displays the tentative route to the desired location starting
from the user’s present position. The menu coded as “c” displays the information regarding the
reference images of the destination. These reference images can be rotated in three dimensions
allowing the users a full view of the desired location. The other menus display the written
directions along with the designated content based on the user’s navigation pattern.
A complete potential navigation pattern has been presented in Figure 6.2 as an information
wireframe. The information content has been displayed in multiple layers. The first layer of
information is the home screen with two lists and one springboard menu. The second and third
layers have been delineated in Figure 6.2 as list details and results, respectively.

POST-EXPERIMENT INTERVIEW

Figure 6.2 Navigation pattern of the wayfinding application

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 A post-experiment interview has been designed to gather in-depth information about the
users’ behaviour. During the experiment, specific behavioural patterns have been observed in
accessing the wayfinding information from the application. The questions asked in this interview
were majorly based on the user preferences regarding the type of wayfinding information content,
its design and placement within the application. The participants were inquired about their
experiences while using the application. The participants were also asked about their favourite
features and suggestions to improve the application’s effectiveness for delivering wayfinding
information. The details of the interview questions have been provided in Table 6.2.
Data: The post-experiment interview has been recorded in the form of written documents.
The responses from each participant have been carefully documented, along with a further
explanation. Some of the questions were based on open-ended type questions, whereas somewhere
open-ended. The participants were also inquired about their familiarity with the mobile wayfinding
information and the problems faced while using the application.

Table 6.2 Pre-experiment Interview questions

Section 3: Questions related to the preferences in mobile wayfinding application

Q21 What do you prefer (signage, mobile, augmented reality, landmark, pathways) & why?
Q22 Do you think that wayfinding information in the application is reliable and useful?
Q23 What are the problems while using mobile for wayfinding?
Q24 What are your favourite features in the wayfinding application and why?
Q25 Do you prefer colour coding in wayfinding information design & why?
Q26 Do you prefer the reference images with the wayfinding information & why?
Q27 What information do you think is missing in the wayfinding application & why?
Q28 What improvements do you think this application need?
Q29 Was this application useful?
Q30 I freely navigated and found my way with the application.
Q31 This application has all the information content needed for wayfinding.
Q32 Application information was easy to understand.
Q33 There was no difference in provided information with real-world settings.
Q34 The planned ideal route by the application was ideal and short.
Q35 It was easy to maintain a sense of direction while using the application.
Q36 I do not feel any frustration while using the wayfinding application.

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 DATA ANALYSIS

The collected data has been recorded in the form of videos and written documents. The
participant’s videos have been obtained through mobile screen recording where every action and
navigation pattern have been recorded. Whereas the handwritten documents have been prepared
using the participant’s responses from pre- and post-experiment interviews.
Likert Scale: For some of the questions in the pre- and post-experiment interview, the
Likert scale has been used to record the participant’s answers. A seven-point Likert scale has been
used in section 1 from Q1 to Q4, section 2 for all questions and section 3 from Q30 to Q36. This
scale has previously been used in a similar study (Li, Chen and Ni, 2013) to document their rating
of personal preferences and peculiar behaviour.
Content Analysis: The remaining questions in both interviews have been designed in the
form of explanatory questions to have a thorough exploration of the users’ preferences and
behaviour. The videos and remaining written data have been analysed and coded using the
qualitative technique of content analysis. The recorded data has been searched for themes and
patterns for navigation behaviour. The data was also coded for specific navigation patterns in the
mobile wayfinding application. The content analysis has been influential in exploring human
interaction with mobile applications, as practised in the previous study (Li and Luximon, 2020).
Type of Information Content: The information in the mobile application has been coded
concerning the type of information. Small alphabets from “a” to “s” have been used to identify the
different categories of information. The details of each alphabet and its relevant type of
information have been presented in Figure 6.2. Video recordings have been analysed, and a
complete navigation pattern has been recorded for each user. The pattern has been observed, and
the most used information content for wayfinding has been identified.
Layers of Information: The information has been designed in multiple layers in this mobile
wayfinding application to avoid the information overload on each layer. The home screen in the
application has been considered as the starting point for digital navigation. Both list menus L1, L2
and springboard instruction menu have been considered in layer one. The number of information

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layers will be considered accordingly as users navigate forward or backwards in the application.
Switching between two layers has also been considered as one additional layer of information.
Correlation Analysis: A correlation analysis has been applied to investigate the individual
differences in accessing and preferring the wayfinding information. Each participant’s data has
been carefully observed and analysed for correlation between participants. The analysis has also
been instrumental in investigating the difference in personal preferences for wayfinding
information based on gender, age, education and field of study.

RESULTS

The current study results presented some interesting insights regarding user behaviour,
preferences for mobile wayfinding information, and its content. In section 1 of the pre-experiment
interview, the participants were analysed for their familiarity/dependency level on mobile devices.
This analysis has been performed to investigate whether it can influence the participant’s
preferences for the wayfinding information content or not. The study indicated that all the
participants were highly dependent on their smartphones regarding daily connectivity,
entertainment, productivity and wayfinding. 83.3% of users use wayfinding applications on their
mobile devices as well as 91.7% of users always use wayfinding applications in an unfamiliar
environment. 25% of users think that wayfinding through mobile applications is very easy;
however, the remaining users perceived it moderately easy. All the participants have used famous
wayfinding applications before like Google maps, Gaode maps and Baidu maps. They have quite
a good idea of how these applications interact with the user. This analysis confirmed that all the
participants were on a similar level of digital literacy.
Section 2 of the interview was designed to investigate user behaviour regarding digital
wayfinding information. 58.3% of participants have reported that they cannot find their way in
complex environments without using the application. Complex environments are challenging to
construct a mental map, and because of that, a user needs continuous input of information from
different environmental sources. Many participants (83%) have mentioned the need for wayfinding
information from other sources as well to complete the wayfinding tasks. Participants also

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perceived the mobile wayfinding information accurate in open environments, while in the complex
environments, the provided information needs to be validated through other sources as well. For
non-complex environments, the participants preferred several types of information, i.e., route
planning, position pointer, orientation, interactive map, and reference images. They have also
mentioned signage as an information validator for most environments, especially for complex
ones.

TYPES OF INFORMATION CONTENT & USAGE

Figure 6.3 Information content accessed by the participants

During the experiment, the participants’ actions have been recorded with the help of mobile
screen recording. The mobile application has several types of information content designed to be
approached in single or multiple layers. This study intended to explore the types of information

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content which is significant and approachable by the participants. All the information content has
been presented in Figure 6.2 along with the possible navigation patterns. Whereas, in Figure 6.3,
the most accessed information content has been presented in colours depending upon the number
of times this information has been accessed. Participants have accessed the search bar feature in
the list menu 1 with the greatest number of times.
In comparison, some of the participants have accessed a similar feature through list menus
1.3, 1.4 and 1.5. These list menus presented similar information but with already displayed names
of the buildings and facilities. The participants using the search bar function have mentioned many
times the problem in typing the required keywords for the destination. So, they need to type the
requisite information more than one time to search the required destination through the search bar
function correctly.
The kind of information content and the number of times the participants have accessed it
have been presented in Figure 6.4. The location pointer of the participant’s location has been
accessed the highest number of times. The participants faced problems identifying their location
in real-world settings due to the validation of the provided information. Written directions have
also been accessed very frequently, followed by the search results and search bar. The search
results were quite different as the participant was typing different types of keywords for the
destinations. That is why they need to search for their required destination from several results.

LIST MENU & SEARCH BAR

The navigations patterns have been colour coded in three colours in Figure 6.3. The red
colour represents the most used, the pink colour represents the seldom used, and the grey colour
represented the unused navigation patterns. The participants have approached the search bar from
the list-menu one instead of using the already provided destination names. They find it difficult to
search for a destination by going through the whole menu than searching from the search bar. The
list menu two has majorly consisted of institutional facilities like banks, transportation. However,
the destinations assigned to the participants were mainly related to the academic and student-
related facilities that are why most of the participants did not approach list menu 2. In list menu

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two, the destinations have also been presented in the form destinations list, which would be
difficult for the participants to search as per the previous practice.

LOCATION POINTER, ROUTE & WITTEN DIRECTIONS

After searching the required destination from the provided list menu and search bar, the
participants have been directed towards the route planning screen where the wayfinding
application planned the ideal route. The route planning screen has the information regarding the
ideal route, participant’s position and some written directions. This information screen has been
coded as “b” in Figures 6.2 and 6.3. All the participants have tried to access and validate their
existing position in the real environment. However, owing to the complex environmental settings,
the wayfinding application was unable to track the GPS location accurately. Due to this reason,
participants need to access other information content like written directions coded as “d”. The
written directions were quite helpful if and only if they are aligned with the actual egocentric
orientation of the participant. The written directions were presented as egocentric directions;
however, environmental validation was necessary to self-orient the participants. The participants
have switched several times from “b” to “d” and vice versa only to synthesize both information
content with the environmental settings.

REFERENCE IMAGES

Reference images of the real-world environmental settings have also been presented as the fifth
layer of information in the respective wayfinding application. The purpose of these reference
images was to enable the respective user to identify the real-world settings by collating information
efficiently. However, in our study, participants did not rely on this type of environmental
validation. In the post-experiment interview, 50% of the participants who responded in favour of
reference images usage also mentioned several problems. These problems include the differences
in viewing angle between participants and the presented images in the application. Particularly the
environments where a significant amount of visual homogeneity is present, like the environment
in which this study has been conducted. Some participants have also mentioned that the provided

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images of some routes and destinations in the application were not updated. In the application, the
images were presented as a clear view of a building; however, the actual building was partially
covered with some advertisements of ongoing events in the real world. So, in these environments
where events are an essential part of the institutions like university campuses, it is quite hard to
maintain the visual similarity in actual and reference images.

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 STEPS OF INFORMATION

Figure 6.4 Steps of information & navigation pattern

The digital wayfinding information can store and display a large volume of information in
single or multiple information layers. The users can access these information layers through
different interactive menu types, causing an additional cognitive load to the users. In the usability

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of digital information content, disorientation during digital navigation is the most reported issue
by multiple studies (Mi et al., 2014; Wagner, Hassanein and Head, 2014; Gao et al., 2015). This
issue can alter the way user’s access information content. For this reason, our study has
investigated how many layers, users are accessing in obtaining the wayfinding information from
the application.

11
10
9
8
Number of layers accessed

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Participants

Average Task 1 Task 2 Task 3

Figure 6.5 Information layers access for multilayer information content

The wayfinding application used in this study has a 6-7 layered information content model for
each content starting from the home screen and onwards. Whereas switching from different layers
of content has also been considered as accessing an additional layer. The navigation patterns of
the participants have been delineated in Figure 6.4, and their accessed number of information
layers have been presented in Figure 6.5. The highest number of layers that have been accessed is
ten layers by the eleventh participant. On the contrary, the lowest number of layers is two, by the
first participant. The higher number shows that the provided information content is not enough for
the required task. On average, five to six layers has been approached by the participants for
obtaining wayfinding information. This indicates that the relevant and most necessary information

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content should be presented within the limit of five to the six-layered design of information to
complete a wayfinding task.

PREFERENCES FOR INFORMATION CONTENT & DESIGN

The participants have mentioned several preferences regarding the information content and its
design for a trouble-free wayfinding experience. These preferences have been recorded in the post-
experiment interview and encapsulated in the following part.

MOBILE DEVICE

Participants have preferred the wayfinding information through digital devices, primarily
through their smartphones. They have strong reliability on their smartphones due to extensive
usage throughout the day. Participants have also considered the other environmental sources
influential for wayfinding only in conjunction with the mobile application. They have suggested
the need to synthesise the environmental sources with wayfinding application for a complete and
synchronised wayfinding experience even in complex environments (university campuses) as well.

ACCURATE LOCATION POINTER

An accurate location pointer is very important for delivering context-aware information to

the wayfinders. The most preferred and accessed feature of the wayfinding application was the
accurate location pointer showing the participant’s location in the interactive map. The location
pointer was considered very useful; however, it was not functioning accurately due to the GPS
signal limitations in the complex environments. The accuracy in location and orientation is quite
necessary to make the self-location identification. Participants also suggested that if the location
would be accurate, they need to validate the provided information in the real environment. The
validation part is quite hard for the participants due to visual homogeneity in the institutional
environment.

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 WRITTEN DIRECTIONS

Written directions have also been accessed in conjunction with the location pointer. The
participants have faced difficulty in understanding the orientation related written directions. The
provided information was egocentric; however, the participants could not locate and orient
themselves by solely using this type of information. They recommended a synthesis of written
information with the existing real-time information sources of the environment.

INFORMATION COLOUR CODING

The participants have considered the importance of information colour coding with mixed
responses. Half of the participants think it is significant to quickly identify the necessary
information, whereas the remaining participants have considered it a complete distraction. In this
regard, a suggestion has been advised to include the option for switching colour coding on and off
in the application controlled by the respective user.

PERSONALIZED EXPERIENCE

Participants have also suggested an option for personalised information content due to previous
experience or behaviour. One of the suggestions was to include a Login/Logout feature to record
the user’s personal preferences for the future and display the required information as per the user’s
preferences. The participants have also suggested incorporating the building internals along with
the route and location information to experience complete wayfinding guidance.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
The recorded data has been analysed to investigate peculiar behaviour patterns concerning
the participant’s individual differences. No significant differences in the behaviour have been
observed based on their age and education. However, subtle behavioural patterns have been
observed based on gender. In our study, the females have accessed a greater number of layers
while using the wayfinding application. This notion can be observed in Figure 6.5 for sixth, eighth,
ninth and eleventh participants who are females. The participant numbers have also been colour-
coded (i.e., blue for males and pink for females) for a clear representation. The navigation pattern

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for female participants in Figure 6.5 shows that they have accessed a higher number of layers in
all three tasks than the male participants. During the post-experiment interview, female
participants have also mentioned the difficulty in validating the information obtained through the
application in the real environment. At the same time, male participants tried to validate through
signage and landmarks.

DISCUSSION

This study tried to investigate the user preferences for wayfinding information content and
its design, especially while using digital mobile wayfinding applications. The study was necessary
to understand the user behaviour for searching the wayfinding information presented in multi-
layered information content. In this investigation, certain types of wayfinding information content
have been presented to the participants through a purpose-built wayfinding application for
complex environments. The participants have preferred and accessed the information related to
their location concurrently while performing wayfinding tasks. In conjunction with that, they have
preferred the ego-centric written direction-based information as well to validate their location in
the real environment. It has been observed that there is a gap of information between the digital
environment in the application and the real environment. All the participants need to validate the
provided information through some external information sources in the real environment like
signage, pathways or landmarks. Even if they are too sure about their orientation and direction,
they still need to validate to confirm. The participants have mentioned this in the post-experiment
interview while suggesting improvements in the whole wayfinding information system. For this
reason, the synthesis of wayfinding information is quite necessary for the current digital
wayfinding systems, especially for complex environments. This finding is constant in relation to
the previous literature (Jeffrey, 2017), suggesting the information syntheses for different
wayfinding information sources.
The information types already used for location validation in the real environment, like
reference images and validation signage, are thought to be helpful for the participants. However,
in our study, participants have mentioned that reference images are not quite helpful in validating

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purposes as the institutional environment is visually changing continuously due to events
advertising and related stuff. Similarly, list menus provided in the wayfinding applications are not
quite useful due to several reasons. Participants have mentioned that they need to search the whole
list for their desired location, which takes time. Also, they need to identify the potential categories
in which their destination could be present. Instead of using the list menus, they have preferred the
global search bar that accepts the related keywords and searches the destination.
The provided wayfinding application has been designed in the 6-7 layered information
design for each content. For example, to find the location pointer, the participants need to explore
a minimum of 5-6 layers of information in the provided application. For other destinations or other
information content, the process needs to be repeated as described in navigation patterns in Figure
6.2. In our study, the participants have accessed the 2-3 layers for each content and collectively 5-
6 layers for each task. The participants have mentioned in the post-experiment interview that the
navigation in the application should be simple and have a maximum of two to three information
layers. After the experiment, the participant also mentioned forgetting the information they have
accessed before and where to access it. This notion can be expressed by the limited availability of
event spaces in human short-term memory. Therefore, participants were not able to access the
greater number of information layers than two to three layers for each information content, as
presented in Figure 6.5.
Information colour coding has been an effective technique in arranging the information for
the required visual order. It makes the content easier to understand and grasp the users’ attention.
However, in our study, half of the users have shown their preference in favour of the above
statement, while half of them consider this coding method as a complete visual distraction. The
participants have also mentioned that if colour doing is meant to create the visual hierarchy, use
light and less distracting colours. This will serve the purpose of understanding visual hierarchy
without distracting the others who do not. Another preferred arrangement of information content
is the Login and Logout feature for personalised wayfinding information. Instead of using and
displaying all the supported features by the wayfinding application, the personalised information
will allow the user’s preferred set of information. Personalised wayfinding information will allow

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the application to maintain the minimal layout with fewer information layers benefitting the
respective target users.
The individual differences based on education, gender, and age have been quite evident in
previous wayfinding studies for differences in performance, spatial and cognitive abilities. In our
study, slight differences have been recorded for males and females accessing the multi-layered
information content. The female participants have accessed a greater number of layers than the
male participants due to the difference in understanding the information. Also, they have faced
difficulties in validating mobile information in real environments. Both groups have not shown
any significant differences in their behaviour for the rest of the information content.

CONCLUSION

The wayfinding applications are the preferred form of environmental information for
contemporary wayfinders. These mobile applications are available on platforms like IOS and
android to target a mass audience. The complex institutional environments, where a high level of
visual homogeneity is present, is quite difficult to navigate, especially for newcomers and visitors.
For these environments, regular wayfinding aids like signage or landmarks are not enough. The
wayfinding applications have been designed to make the wayfinding experience more interactive,
communicative and personalised. However, some guidelines need to be considered while
designing the information content for these mobile applications. The most important feature is the
self-location and orientation on the interactive map of the respective institution. This type of
information should be accurate and accessible on the home screen. If the accuracy is dependent on
GPS location, then digital beacon-based systems should be devised to make the position and
orientation accurate. The accurate location can also be influential in providing context-aware
information throughout the campus while keeping it visually minimal.
The information content in the mobile application should be able to accommodate and
synthesise the real environment sources like the locations of information signage, landmarks and
famous intersections. A minimum number of information layers should be presented in the
wayfinding applications for intuitive user access. The validation process should also be explained

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in applications like the reference image showing a large identification sign or the written direction
instructing to look for an eagle-shaped landmark. The mobile wayfinding information is found
consistently useful without significant individual differences due to its dynamic nature. Therefore,
designing the syntheses of mobile wayfinding information with the wayfinding information
sources in the real environment is suggested. The syntheses of mobile and real environment
wayfinding information can reduce the technical limitations in developing culturally consistent,
accurate wayfinding information systems.
In the next chapter, the actual user behaviour has been investigated while experimenting in the
real-time environment. The current and the previous study mentioned significant individual
differences in the wayfinding behaviour and design preferences for wayfinding information
design. It was considered necessary to investigate users’ current practices in the real environment
for validating the findings from the current study. Also, previous studies described the importance
of mobile wayfinding information sources. It was considered necessary to investigate the current
user behaviour concerning the syntheses of the information sources. For this reason, the next study
has been planned to further explore the user behaviour regarding the information syntheses. The
design and behavioural preferences along with the actual behaviour for wayfinding will further
help in investigating the wayfinding issues in complex environments.

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 CHAPTER 7: STUDY 4 – WAYFINDING PREFERENCES AND
BEHAVIOUR IN COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS FOR THE
SYNTHESES OF WAYFINDING INFORMATION

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER

In this chapter, the actual user behaviour has been investigated as directed by the research
question 5.

Research Question 5: What are the parameters necessary for efficiently synthesizing the static
and digital wayfinding information?

The said investigation has been aimed to explore how users perform wayfinding tasks while
using digital mobile aids as well as static environmental aids. The users were provided with the
purposely designed wayfinding application and directed to perform the required wayfinding tasks
using their preferred sources of environmental information. This chapter investigates human
spatial behaviour, especially concerning synthesizing the wayfinding information from
environmental sources. The study has been conducted by using real-time on-campus experimental
settings with first-person video recording instruments while implementing the think-aloud
protocol.

INTRODUCTION

The efficient delivery of environmental information to wayfinders in complex environments is

an uphill battle for information designers. Wayfinding tasks can be quite strenuous and frustrating
in the visual absence of dedicated wayfinding cues. With the advent of digital information, the
inefficacy of static wayfinding information is anticipated. This empirical study aimed to explore
the wayfinding behaviour regarding the type, use and synthesis of wayfinding information in
complex environments. An experiment has been designed for the participants to perform
wayfinding tasks in a spatially complex university campus. The participants were instructed to use

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the think-aloud protocol during the experiment. The behaviour has been recorded using the head-
mounted video recorder (GoPro) and mobile phone display recorder, followed by an interview.
Twenty-four university students participated in this study to evaluate the wayfinding behaviour
qualitatively. Each participant performed three wayfinding tasks to locate the unknown
destinations inside the university campus using a purpose-built mobile wayfinding application.
The results demonstrated a few contrasting behavioural preferences in acquiring wayfinding
information. Most of the participants synthesised the static and mobile wayfinding information
sources, while some preferred only the static ones. Gender differences have also been found for
route planning and finding. The study recommends a need for a synthesised wayfinding system
utilizing the static and mobile wayfinding information for unfamiliar complex environments.

METHOD

PARTICIPANTS
For the in-depth investigation of users’ behaviour, this study recruited a group of university
students for performing wayfinding tasks. All the participants were required to be either new to
this university setting or unfamiliar with the testing locations. A total of twenty-four participants
have been selected based on the lowest familiarity level with the campus setting. 80% of the
participants were males, and the remaining 20% were females. Out of 24 participants, 13 were
from Hong Kong, whereas 11 participants were from Pakistan and India. The participants from
Hong Kong belong to the individualist culture, whereas Indian and Pakistani participants were
representing the collectivist culture (Iftikhar, Asghar and Luximon, 2020b). The gender groups
were imbalanced in numbers due to less availability of participants during the pandemic Covid-
19. The participant age ranges from 21 years to 32 years.
All the invited participants were having an undergraduate or above education level. All the
participants were asked to report the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (Hegarty et al., 2002).
This scale has been influential and suggested in previous wayfinding studies to measure the user’s
spatial ability. The participants were also inquired about their daily usage of smartphones in hours
per day for estimating their familiarity with smart devices. All the participants were having an

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adequate level of familiarity with the mobile user interface. This has been ensured by letting them
complete the basic user interface tasks. Ethical approval (APPENDIX I) from the respective
institutions have been obtained, and respective protocols were followed. All the participants have
completed the selected wayfinding tasks, and the data has been recorded accordingly.

EXPERIMENT DESIGN
The study has been planned in two sections. The first section involved a wayfinding experiment
in real-world settings using a purpose-built mobile wayfinding application. The participants need
to locate the unknown locations inside the university campus using the wayfinding information
systems and environmental cues. The mobile application would be served as a personal wayfinding
guiding device during the whole experiment. Furthermore, the second section consisted of a post-
experiment interview regarding the choices of behaviour and actions during wayfinding tasks.

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 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT SETTINGS

Figure 7.1 Campus Map

The experiment has been conducted on the campus of a reputed higher education institute
situated in the heart of Hong Kong city. Diffused nature of facilities with intricate spatial layouts,
this campus served as an ideal example of a complex environment. The selected campus has a total
area of approximately 0.1 square kilometres, with more than 27 high-rise buildings. Most of the
buildings, including intersections F, G, J, H, and E, have 9-10 storeys on average. At the same
time, the other buildings consisting of M, V, Z, W and Y have 12-15 storeys on average.

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 The campus buildings have multiple and interconnected entrances and floors. This campus
serves around 30,000 local and international students along with many visitors throughout the year.
This campus has compromised visual access to wayfinding aids and environmental cues for
navigators due to the cluster of buildings and other structures. The detailed spatial layout, along
with the nomenclature of buildings and structures, has been presented in Figure 7.1. The red
highlighted areas are the primary building structures, whereas the alphabets are representing the
interconnection of the buildings. Some of the alphabets are also representing the buildings
themselves, like M, V and VA, as depicted in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.2 3D aerial view of campus

All the remaining areas are walkable; however, there is one walkway that is covered with rain
shelter. There is also a difference in height level in the open areas of the drawn map as the top
view is only accommodating the topmost podium floor plan. The road or ground level is different
from the podium level (2nd floor from the ground floor). A three-dimensional delineation of the
campus setting has been presented in Figure 7.2 with the help of Google maps to show the
difference. The small bar on the right-hand bottom corner is representing the 20 m of viewing
scale. The campus has been equipped with static wayfinding aids in terms of signage, YAH (you

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are here) maps, pathways, intersections and landmarks. The free Wi-Fi facility has also been
provided with moderate to excellent strength of internet signals throughout the campus.

DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT SETTINGS

A purpose-built campus wayfinding application has also been provided to the participants as a
personal digital wayfinding system. The application was installed on a Samsung smartphone (C7)
with an android (Orio 8.0) operating system and was connected to the university provided free Wi-
Fi. The selected device has a 5.7” HD super AMOLED main display with a ratio of 16:9 and 386
PPI pixel density. An anti-glare screen protector has also been installed to prevent unnecessary
screen glare during the experiment. The wayfinding application has a minimal home page design
with a side and tab menu for interacting with the application, as depicted in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3 Wayfinding application (Tab menu, side bar menu, home page)

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 The application has all the information necessary for completing the assigned wayfinding
tasks. The wayfinding application interface has the following features: A dedicated search bar,
names of facilities (category wise), list of current events, notification settings, location-based
notifications, complete interactive campus map with real-time location pointer, reference images
of the destination, turn by turn written directions, ideal route planning and identification of user
accessibility information.

EXPERIMENT PROTOCOLS

Think Aloud: Think aloud protocol has been used during the experiment to record the
participants’ behavioural responses while performing the wayfinding tasks. The think-aloud
protocol has been influential in multiple studies related to wayfinding and user behaviour research
(Crampton, 1992; Baker et al., 2015; Kinsley, Schoonover and Spitler, 2016; Schrom-Feiertag,
Settgast and Seer, 2017). During the wayfinding tasks, navigators were directed to speak while
thinking and performing the wayfinding tasks. The participants’ voice and the mobile screen has
been recorded while performing all the assigned wayfinding tasks. This practice can be significant
in deciphering behavioural choices. The participants’ activities were categorised according to the
following components, i.e., information searching, planning, identifying real environment,
location identification, orientation identification.
GoPro Video Recording: The experiment required the navigator’s first-person view in a
complex environment for a better understanding of the actual problem faced by the participant.
The participants were directed to wear a head harness with GoPro (Hero 5, 4k 30 fps) to record
the first-person viewing experience. The benefits of using GoPro in acquiring the first-person view
have been instrumental in previous research studies. Multiple studies (Waters, Waite and
Frampton, 2014; Stevenson and Kohn, 2015; Thain, 2015; Kinsley, Schoonover and Spitler, 2016)
conducted by the social scientists have used the GoPro to observe the participant without distance
and disturbance.

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 Interview Design: After the experiment, the participants were invited to the design lab for a
semi-structured interview regarding the choice of actions during wayfinding tasks. The
participants were asked the questions regarding their behaviour with the following prompt:
1. Why did you stop at this point?
2. What type of problem were you facing in accessing and implementing wayfinding
information?
3. What type of information were you looking for?
4. What were the difficulties during this experiment?
5. How was your overall experience?
6. What are your suggestions for improving the wayfinding in complex environments?

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE

The participants were invited to the design lab to brief the experimental procedures and fill out
the consent form regarding video recording and personal data collection. The experiment has been
designed consisting of three wayfinding tasks. Fourteen locations inside the campus have been
presented to the participants based on the different academic and non-academic facilities offered
by the institution. All the provided destinations have consisted of more than five intersection points
along the route. The provided locations were grouped into three categories based on the provided
services provided in Table 7.1. All the locations have been assigned with their respective codes
for further data analysis. Four locations consisted of different academic departments, five locations
were related to the administration facilities provided by the institution and five more locations
were related to the student facilities. The participants need to select three completely unknown
locations from the provided categories, i.e., one from each category. They have been instructed to
access the wayfinding information from application, signage, landmarks or other environmental
cues whenever and wherever necessary. Before commencing the experiment, the participants were
briefed about the wayfinding application, and they were instructed to practice all the features.

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 Table 7.1 Locations for wayfinding tasks

Ideal completion time

Location codes Category
Experiment locations (LC) (ICT)
Dpt. of Biomedical Eng. DFL-1 4 min
Dpt. of Industrial & Systems Eng. DFL-2 Departmental 7 min
Dpt. of Rehabilitation Sciences DFL-3 facilities (DF) 4 min
Dpt. of Optometry DFL-4 4 min
Office of Centre Stars AFL-1 4 min
Educational Development Centre AFL-2 4 min
Administration
International Affairs Office AFL-3 4 min
facilities (AF)
Institute of Entrepreneurship AFL-4 4 min
Office of University Requirements AFL-5 4 min
Office of Undergraduate Studies SFL-1 4 min
Innovation & Technology Office SFL-2 7 min
Student facilities
W-kiosk Café SFL-3 4 min
(SF)
Dental Clinic SFL-4 4 min
Radiology Clinic SFL-5 7 min

DATA ANALYSIS
The data has been collected in the form of videos obtained from GoPro recording, mobile
device screen recording and interviews. For all the participants, around fifteen hours of video and
audio data have been obtained and have been organised in sequential order. The data were
transcribed and analysed using the content and activity analysis. Content analysis has been of great
significance for qualitative researchers when they need to examine the patterns and recurrence of
particular actions (Bell, Bryman and Harley, 2018). In our collected video recordings, the objective
was to explore the user behaviour and ascribed actions for information synthesis in wayfinding.
The analysis of particular actions may seem quite unchallenging; however, it requires hermeneutic
activities (Luckmann, 1981).

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 METRICS

The video data has been analysed for participants’ wayfinding performance and behaviour.
Specific activities and actions like information searching, information preferences and information
syntheses have been observed and recorded while users were performing the wayfinding tasks.
The data has been observed and coded by two researchers to ensure the reliability of the acquired
data of users’ behaviour. For observing the said behaviour, the following metrics have been
developed.
The difference between Ideal and Actual Time: The difference between a participant’s actual
completion and ideal time of wayfinding tasks has been assessed. The provided mobile application
has calculated the ideal completion time for completing the wayfinding task. In contrast, the
participant's actual completion time is the time taken to complete the task physically. The
differences in actual completion time (ACT) and ideal completion time (ICT) for reaching the
destination has been documented as a performance metric. The higher and lower time difference
has been regarded as the magnitude of a participant’s performance, respectively.
Ideal vs Participants’ routes: The ideal route (Figure 7.4) planned by the application has been
collated with the participant’s followed route (Figure 7.5) to gauge the participant’s dependence
on the provided information. The deviation from the ideal route has been documented and analysed
for exploring the potential motivations.
Behaviour at Stop Location Points: During the experiment, when the participant stopped
walking and looked for environmental information, these locations were marked as stop location
points. The number of stop locations has been documented during the whole experiment and
delineated as small dots in Figure 7.5. At the stop location points, the participants have been
observed for specific activities like searching for information sources, identifying the real
environment, their position and orientation.
Behaviour at the Decision Points: Along the route, the points have been marked as decision
points where two or more than two ways intersect. Behaviour on the decision points has been
recorded throughout the route assigned to the participant. Participants’ actions regarding the
information searching and decision making have been analysed on the mentioned decision points.

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 Information Syntheses of Environmental Sources: For investigating the environmental
information syntheses, four sources have been identified as the key elements such as signage,
landmarks, pathways/intersections and wayfinding applications. These sources of environmental
information have been considered influential during the experiment, and participants’ behaviour
was analysed. Single and multiple sources of environmental information have been used by the
participants and categorised accordingly after the content analysis of videos and post-experiment
interviews. This interview was semi-structured and have been used for further exploration of
participants’ behaviour.

RESULTS

WAYFINDING PERFORMANCE

Figure 7.4 Ideal routes

The participants have selected three unfamiliar locations from the provided locations in Table
7.1, i.e., one from each category. The provided wayfinding application has calculated the ideal
route with the ideal time to reach the destination. The ideal completion time (ICT) for every route
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has been presented in Table 7.1. 83.3% of participants have selected the locations near R, Q, S, T
and U intersections of the buildings as they were unfamiliar and challenging to remember
compared to the rest of the university campus. This area has congested spatial settings with limited
visual access to the wayfinding aids and environmental cues. The locations have been presented
to the participants as the name of the facility, as shown in Table 7.1. After selecting their respective
locations, the participants were directed to locate the destinations using digital information
(wayfinding app) and other environmental information sources (if required).

TASK INITIATION

The wayfinding application has planned the ideal route from their starting point to the selected
location using location pointers on the campus map, as depicted in Figure 7.4. Only 33.3 % of the
participants have considered the planned route, while the remaining participants have faced
difficulty identifying the information in real-world settings. The planned routes were quite ideal
in terms of distance and travel time. In Figure 7.4, the location number of the destination has also
been presented, i.e., ST415, here ST presents the location in between S & T intersection. The
information regarding the coding of facility names into the location numbers has also been
presented in the wayfinding application. However, unfamiliar participants were not able to identify
the location by using location pointers.

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 All the participants have started their route from the V building, as pointed out a starting point
in Figure 7.4. The participants have searched for the destination and planned their routes by using
the wayfinding application while standing on the podium floor of the V building. 83.3% of the
participants tried to memorise the route first and afterwards tried to identify the provided
information in real-world settings. After validating their location with the surrounding
environment, they started their journey to find the destination. 75% of the participants have faced
trouble in synchronizing their location on the map with their location in real-world settings. The
drawn routes in Figure 7.5 with thin red and green lines are representing the exact routes opted by
the participants individually. Whereas the small red dots are representing the stop locations by the
participants while performing wayfinding tasks. GoPro videos have shown that all participants
were trying to figure out their current locations within the environment. The location pointer in the
wayfinding application was quite misleading due to the limitation of GPS signals in a complex
environment.

Figure 7.5 All participant route

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 TASK COMPLETION TIME

The primary stop locations were identified near the sources of environmental information and
at the intersection points. The stop locations of the participants were concentrated near the
directional signage alongside the route as the participants needed more information than the
wayfinding application. The highest concentration can be seen at the starting point near the V
building, at the intersection beside R, and at the intersection points near S, T, Q, and U. The
participants have completed their wayfinding tasks longer than the ideal time for task completion.
The participants' wayfinding performance has been affected due to multiple reasons. The

All wayfinding tasks (Difference in ICT & ACT))

Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Average
07:40

06:43
Time Difference (minutes)

05:45

04:48

03:50

02:52

01:55

00:57

00:00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Participants

Figure 7.6 Comparison of wayfinding tasks completion time

campus layout was complex, and participants have less visual access to the wayfinding aids. That
is why all the participants have taken a long time to complete the tasks in comparison to the
calculated time by the application. The minimum difference in the overall ideal and actual
completion time of the participant is four minutes for the sixteenth participant, while the maximum

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difference is 13 minutes 30 seconds for the 8th participant. The average time difference between
the ideal (ICT) and actual completion time (ACT) has also been presented in Figure 7.6 for
individual tasks.
The graphical comparison has been drawn in Figure 7.6, where the highest peaks are for third,
sixth, eighth, ninth and fourteenth participants. All the participants have initially spent their time
planning the route and identifying their current location in real-world settings. Once they start
walking, the remaining time was spent on finding and validating the wayfinding information
through the application and other environmental cues. The higher concentration of stop locations
in Figure 7.5 near building intersections was due to the presence of the identification and
directional signage. The directional information through signage was not very helpful for the
participants due to multiple directions in a single-pointed way.
Most of the participants have complained about the less signage information and their
placement. The mobile application information was considered quite detailed; however, the major
problem was to validate the information in real-world settings. The conversion of position from
the interactive map to real-world settings was quite difficult due to the difference in viewing angles
of users. There was a feature of reference images of the destination with surroundings, but
participants did not find it helpful due to the extreme homogeneity of the physical environment.
Hence, the reference images were very identical to each other hence were not efficient enough
to guide the navigators effectively. The landmarks were present in the form of sculptures,
monuments and fountains; however, the participants found it difficult to memorise their positions
concerning the environment. The whole campus map was quite challenging to memorise and recall
during the wayfinding tasks by merely seeing it as an interactive map on the mobile device.

EFFICACY AND SYNTHESES OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION

SOURCES
SIGNAGE

The wayfinding information can be obtained in many ways, either through environmental cues
or through the designed wayfinding systems. The traditional or static wayfinding system cannot
serve the purpose efficiently in complex environmental settings (Iftikhar, Asghar and Luximon,

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2020a). In our investigation, it has been observed that the participants have opted for multiple
sources of wayfinding information. For the traditional wayfinding systems, including directional
and identification signage, the participants have relied more on the identification signage. As the
university campus has diffused walkways and paths, so the directional signage was not enough for
the participants. The directional signage can demonstrate a higher efficiency where the walkable
paths were identified, such as roads and pedestrians. Most of the participants have combined the
information from identification signage with the wayfinding application. The participants have
obtained the route knowledge through the application and validated it with the help of
identification signage or alphabets in this case. The alphabets of intersections and buildings have
been visibly placed outside the structure and served the purpose of identification.

LANDMARKS

Some of the participants have relied on landmarks related information. This university campus
has two to three very distinctive building structures, i.e., V and ST. These structures have relatively
unique architectural facades. A clock tower and some sculptures also have been placed near
building M and intersection J for providing ease in the wayfinding. Some of the participants have
described that this type of landmark information should be included and visible in the wayfinding
application. The participants have also suggested that instead of presenting a complete detailed
map, the minimal map with landmarks identification would serve the purpose better. One of the
participants has given the example that the clock tower should be highlighted near building M
instead of focusing on the building’s structure. Significantly this would help a lot where the
building’s façade and rest of the visual appearance look like the environment.

PATHWAYS AND INTERSECTIONS

The participants were quite confused and took a long-time near intersections and multiple
pathways, as depicted in Figure 7.5. The university campus had only one dedicated and well-
identified pathway for the navigators, which is covered. The rest of the space is open to walking;
therefore, participants did not consider it as an aid for environmental information. The points of
stop locations were quite concentrated near the intersection of the R and MN building (Figure 7.5).
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For most of the participants, the combination of static and mobile information was not enough to
direct them in the right direction. The intersections were considered the decision points during
wayfinding, whereas multiple locations had multiple intersections in this university campus.

WAYFINDING APPLICATIONS

The participants have considered the interactive map quite helpful in the wayfinding tasks only
if the location pointer tells the correct position and direction of the navigator. In our experiment,
the GPS signals were not accurate due to the congested presence of multi-floor buildings in a
smaller space. For additional information, the reference images of the destination have also been
added for the navigators. The participants did not find it accessible and reliable in completing the
wayfinding tasks. Participants have accessed the reference images of the destination along with
the 3d view; however, all of them could not be able to recognise the destination because of
environmental homogeneity. One of the participants has mentioned that the reference images had
only one perspective of a building which is quite challenging to identify. A three-dimensional view
would be a good option, but it should be intuitively accessible in the wayfinding application.
The campus buildings and intersections have been named alphabetically to serve as an
effective environmental cue. Seventy to eighty percent of the participants have synthesised this
information with the wayfinding application to perform the wayfinding tasks. The unfamiliar
participants have used this information on the map and tried to locate and plan the destination with
cardinal directions provided on the map. However, being identification signage, the alphabetical
nomenclature served only to validate the information. The participants have identified the
significant contribution of wayfinding signage as a guiding information system in conjunction with
digital information systems. The combination of these two information systems is much more
efficient in comparison to being working alone. The participants have also suggested to include
the layout information of building internals within the existing application. In addition to that, the
design of digital information should be kept minimal and intuitive.

GENDER DIFFERENCES

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 Critical differences in wayfinding performance have been observed between male and female
participants. During the experiments, the males have outperformed the female participants in
wayfinding performance consistent with the previous studies (Silverman et al., 2000; Malinowski
and Gillespie, 2001). In Figure 7.6, it has been significantly visible for the sixth, the eighth, ninth,
eleventh and fourteenth participants who are females. The eighth participant has spent the longest
time due to the confusion at the start of the experiment concerning the location pointer. The habit
of using a location pointer to validate one’s position rather than memorising the environmental
features take additional effort to understand the information as well. Due to this, the zig-zag route
of a female participant near intersection R and Q in Figure 7.5 was nowhere near the ideal route
of rehabilitation sciences (QT308). The complete reliance on the mobile wayfinding application
requires additional time and effort to process and validate the information. The respective
participant has considered directional signage useless, however, considered identification signage
is rather helpful.
Some of the participants with higher task completion times were partially familiar with the
campus environment; however, they considered all the wayfinding tasks pretty much complex in
these environmental settings. They took a long time to understand the wayfinding information
from the app, especially the information related to the alphabetic nomenclature of the intersections
and the buildings. Once the participants were confident to walk in the right direction, they only
consulted the information related to the pointer location.
During the experiment, the male participants have provided more focus on the multiple sources
of information provided by the wayfinding application. Male participants have consulted the route
direction, written directions, complete route plan and the alphabetical nomenclature of the
buildings. However, the female participants were more interested in the position pointer on the
interactive map and their relative direction. They considered the written directional information
and reference images quite difficult to understand and validate in real-world settings. The reference
images were difficult to validate in the real-time environment due to the difference of viewing
perspectives between the wayfinding application and the viewer. Based on their respective
behaviour, thirteen significant differences have been recorded and outlined. The female

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participants have often used four sources of wayfinding information consisting of alphabetic
nomenclature, position pointer, interactive map and identification signage. However, males have
preferred the combination of most of the provided wayfinding information to complete the tasks.
A detailed comparison between the gender differences in the syntheses of wayfinding information
has been presented in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2 Comparative analysis of gender differences in wayfinding information

syntheses

Sr. Types of actions

Moderately
1 Wayfinding task completion time Short Moderate Long Very long**
short*
Number of wayfinding information Mostly Mostly
2 Single Moderate Multiple*
sources single** multiple
Moderately
3 Route directions in the App. Not used Rarely used** Often used* Very often used
used
Moderately
4 Written directions in the App. Not used** Rarely used Often used Very often used
used*
Moderately
5 Alphabetic nomenclature Not used Rarely used Often used* Very often used**
used
Moderately
6 Position pointer in the App. Not used Rarely used Often used Very often used**
used*
Moderately
7 Interactive map in the App. Not used Rarely used Often used* Very often used**
used
Moderately
8 Reference images in the App. Not used** Rarely used Often used Very often used
used*
Moderately
9 Identification signage in real world Not used Rarely used Often used* Very often used**
used
Moderately
10 Direction signage in real world Not used** Rarely used* Often used Very often used
used
Not* Moderately
11 Dedicated pathway in the real world Rarely used Often used Very often used
used** used
Moderately
12 Landmarks in the real world Not used** Rarely used* Often used Very often used
used
Not* Moderately
13 Verbal directions from a passer-by Rarely used Often used Very often used
used** used
* Males
**Females

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 DIFFERENCES BASED ON SPATIAL ABILITIES
Spatial ability is the individual's ability to explore and remember a spatial setting with ease and

Total time difference SBSDS Linear (SBSDS)

16

14

12

10
Numbers 

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Participants

Figure 7.7 SBSDS vs Difference of total time

efficiently perform the wayfinding tasks. A study (Hegarty et al., 2002) has investigated the effects
of spatial ability on wayfinding performance and developed a scale to measure the individual’s
spatial ability through the sense of direction scale. The Santa Barbara sense of direction scale has
been used by multiple previous studies (Lin, Cao and Li, 2019) to measure the spatial ability of
the participants. In this study, all the invited participants have been asked to report their spatial
ability through this scale. This scale has been developed using a self-reported seven-point Likert
scale using 15 questions. After applying the respective coding mentioned in the scale, the
participants’ spatial ability has been calculated.

The spatial ability of the participants has been considered above average when the score
crosses the neutral value of 4.00. Out of 24 participants, thirteen were having a higher spatial
ability than the average individual. The spatial ability values and their relationship with the time
taken for performing the wayfinding tasks have been graphically presented in Figure 7.7. In Figure

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7.7, the greyed line represents the neutral value for spatial ability which is 4.0. Above this value,
all the participants were considered with the higher spatial ability. As a general observation, we
can see that those with spatial ability less than four generally take longer to complete the tasks and
vice versa. However, we have applied the relevant correlation tests amongst spatial ability scores
and the total time using SPSS software to investigate this effect. The correlation coefficient showed
a negative relationship (r=-0.375), stating an inverse relationship between the two parameters as
per our expectation. However, this correlation was not considered significant because of the
significance level (p > 0.05).

Table 7.3 Significant differences based on spatial ability in wayfinding behaviour

Sr. Questions H High Spatial Ability L Low Spatial Ability

1 Got accurate info through app 50% Agreed 70% Agreed
2 Prefer minimal info design in app 75% Agreed 50% Agreed
3 Prefer text over symbolic info 67% Agreed 40% Agreed
Mobile, signage,
Mobile, signage,
4 Preferred type of information landmarks (58%, 25%,
landmarks (80%, 30%, 30%)
17%)
Location, Route (42%,
5 Problems during mobile wayfinding
17%)
Location (50%)
6 Signage is useless in comparison to apps Yes, No (8%, 92%) Yes, No (30%, 70%)
Location & direction,
Location & direction,
route, search bar, info
7 Favourite features in App.
design
search bar, info design
(20%, 20%, 40%)
(50%, 25%, 8%, 25%)
8 I prefer colour coding in info. design Yes, No (75%, 17%) Yes, No (60%, 40%)
Building internals,
Login/logout feature, location accuracy, spatial
9 What info. Is missing in the app.
building internals coding legend, entrance
reference images
10 App. Route was ideal and short 50% Agreed 80% Agreed
11 Used other info. during experiment 58% Agreed 80% Agreed
Other info sources should be combined in
12 app 83% Agreed 100% Agreed
13 Do not frustrated while using app 58% Agreed 90% Agreed
Outdoor, Indoor Outdoor, Indoor (60%,
14 Which wayfinding is difficult (42%, 58%) 40%)
Night visibility,
Signage quantity,
15 Signage should be improved placements, info design,
minimal info, placements
colour coding
16 Signage and app are physically connected Yes, No (33%, 58%) Yes, No (60%, 40%)
Augmented reality,
QR code, detail info, in- QR code, validation
17 How static & digital info. can combine app signage info, info signage, in-app signage info,
sources should be info to find the signage
combined

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Sr. Questions H High Spatial Ability L Low Spatial Ability
18 Signage should be upgraded with tech Yes, No (75%, 17%) 100% Agreed

After investigating the differences in performance, the participants were divided into two
groups, i.e., higher spatial ability and lower spatial ability. Their recorded video data has been
analysed for any behavioural differences in performing the wayfinding tasks in the real
environment based on these two groups. Significant differences have been observed based on the
level of participants’ spatial ability. All the participants were interviewed regarding potential
behaviour during and after the experiment. The significant differences were related to acquiring
and understanding the wayfinding information. In Table 7.3, all the significant differences have
been delineated in detail.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
In the previous studies that are presented in this thesis, several individual-related differences
have been observed in wayfinding information gathering, understanding and ascribed behaviours.
In continuation to that, this study has also been focused on recording any cultural differences in
the current practices of wayfinding information syntheses. Owing to this, participants have been
divided into two groups, i.e., Hong Kong (Individualists) and Pakistan (Collectivists). These two
cultural groups have been divided as in the previous studies of this thesis. Out of twenty-four
participants, 11 participants belonged to the collectivist group whereas, 13 participants were from
the individualist group.

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 All wayfinding tasks (Difference in ICT & ACT))
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Average
07:40
06:43
Time Difference (minutes)

05:45
04:48
03:50
02:52
01:55
00:57
00:00
HK10
HK11
HK12
HK13
HK1
HK2
HK3
HK4
HK5
HK6
HK7
HK8
HK9

PK1
PK2
PK3
PK4
PK5
PK6
PK7
PK8
PK9
PK10
PK11
Hong Kong Pakistan
Participants

Figure 7.8 Task completion time for cultural groups

Critical differences in wayfinding performance have been observed between the

participants from Hong Kong and Pakistan (Figure 7.8), consistent with the previous studies
(Munroe and Munroe, 1997; Lawton and Kallai, 2002). The participants from Pakistan slightly
took less time to complete the wayfinding tasks and bear some differences in wayfinding behaviour
similar to the previous studies (Ahmed, 2015; Iftikhar, Asghar and Luximon, 2020a).
These studies investigated the wayfinding behaviour in the Asian subcontinent countries
as a collectivistic society and compared the differences with the individualistic societies. The
cultural differences in the wayfinding synthesis and behaviour have been presented in Tables 7.4
and 7.5, respectively.

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 Table 7.4 Comparative analysis of cultural differences in wayfinding information
syntheses

Sr. Types of actions

Moderately
1 Wayfinding task completion time Short Moderate** Long* Very long
short
Number of wayfinding information Mostly
2 Single Mostly single Moderate** Multiple
sources multiple*
Moderately Very often
3 Route directions in the App. Not used Rarely used** Often used
used* used
Moderately Very often
4 Written directions in the App. Not used** Rarely used Often used
used* used
Moderately Very often
5 Alphabetic nomenclature Not used Rarely used Often used *
used used**/*
Moderately Very often
6 Position pointer in the App. Not used Rarely used Often used
used* used**/*
Moderately Very often
7 Interactive map in the App. Not used Rarely used Often used**
used used*
Moderately Very often
8 Reference images in the App. Not used** Rarely used* Often used
used used
Moderately Very often
9 Identification signage in real world Not used Rarely used Often used*
used used**/*
Moderately Very often
10 Direction signage in real world Not used** Rarely used* Often used
used used
Not Moderately Very often
11 Dedicated pathway in the real world Rarely used Often used
used**/* used used
Moderately Very often
12 Landmarks in the real world Not used** Rarely used* Often used
used used
Not Moderately Very often
13 Verbal directions from a passer-by Rarely used Often used
used* used** used
* Hong Kong
**Pakistan

Table 7.5 Significant cultural differences in wayfinding behaviour

Sr. Questions HK HK Remarks PK PK Remarks

Can find way without using app in
1 complex environments.
36% Agreed 64% Agreed
2 Signage more useful than apps 54% Agreed 82% Agreed
3 Do not need other info while using app 18% Agreed 45% Agreed
4 Easy to match app. route in real settings. 73% Agreed 91% Agreed
Mobile, signage, landmarks Mobile, signage, landmarks
5 Preferred type of information (73%, 27%, 18%) (73%, 27%, 27%)
6 App information is reliable 91% Agreed Agreed (73%), Disagree (27%)
7 Problems during mobile wayfinding Location, Route (73%, 18%) Location, validation (27%, 27%)
8 Signage is useless in comparison to apps Yes, No (27%, 73%) Yes, No (9%, 91%)
Location, route, search bar
9 Favourite features in App. (64%, 18%, 18%)
Design and graphics
10 Prefer colour coding in info. design Yes, No (45%, 55%) Yes (91%)
11 Prefer reference images Yes, No (45%, 55%) Yes, No (82%, 18%)

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Sr. Questions HK HK Remarks PK PK Remarks
Login/logout feature, audio Updated routes, building
12 What info. Is missing in the app. info., building internals internals
Login/logout feature, accurate
13 What improvements are needed in info? position, 3D maps
Building internals, colour coding
14 Need signage info. during experiment Yes, No (82%, 18%) Yes, No (64%, 36%)
15 App. Route was ideal and short 45% Agreed 82% Agreed
16 Need to memorise the route to find way 55% Agreed 36% Agreed
17 Used other info. during experiment 82% Agreed 55% Agreed
18 It was easy to maintain sense of direction 55% Agreed 91% Agreed
19 Which wayfinding is difficult Outdoor, Indoor (64%, 36%) Outdoor, Indoor (36%, 64%)
Night visibility, colour coding,
Placement, larger text, more
20 Signage should be improved quantity, simple design
floor info, position & placement,
minimal info.
QR code, in-app info about Augmented reality, not sure but
21 How static & digital info. can combine signage placing should be combined
22 Signage should be upgraded with tech Yes, No (73%, 27%) 91% Agreed

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Current practices of wayfinding in complex institutional environments required a thorough
investigation due to the emergence of different types of wayfinding aids. The primary objective of
this research was to investigate the current practices of wayfinding information syntheses.
User preferences for information syntheses: Campus has a unique wayfinding system of
alphabetically naming the series of buildings displayed by large identification signage. The
respective signage has been significantly used and preferred by the participants for validating the
application-based information. The identification signage has been displayed in front of the
intersection or a building in the form of large alphabets. The naming pattern, i.e., ST415, has floor
information in the first digit, and the remaining two digits are the respective room numbers.
However, for the participants, this information was not very helpful as most of the participants
were not aware of this pattern of information, especially females. The participants have mentioned
several problems while locating the destination inside the building using only a static wayfinding
information system. They had to rely on the signage system while navigating indoors because the
wayfinding application had not incorporated the information related to building internals.
Effective sources for information syntheses: The other environmental cues like landmarks,
pathways and intersections were seldom used by the participants due to several reasons. The
landmarks were present in the environment, but due to homogenous building structures, it was

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complicated for the participants to memorise the landmark location with respect to the
environment. There were only one to two iconic buildings in the environment, whereas all the
remaining were of almost similar facades and heights. There was only one well-identified pathway
on the campus, while the rest of the area was also walkable and paved with tiles. Due to these
spatial characteristics, the participants have identified the campus as a complicated spatial setting
for wayfinding.
Gender-based preferences: The male participants have expressed that they have
experienced a partial visual absence of the signage information while navigating and wayfinding
inside the campus. In comparison, the female participants were completely unable to obtain the
signage information due to similar obstacles. As the obstacles can increase the topological depth
of the environment (Turner, 2007) and cause difficulty in wayfinding activities. The route planning
and memorising were considered very difficult during the experiment, especially for the female
participants. The participants have expressed that it was a continuous activity of accessing the
wayfinding information from the mobile application and validating it in real-world settings. The
reference images of the destination were also incorporated in the application to provide easy
validation in real-world settings; however, the navigators did not access this information. The
reference images were presented in the 3rd to 4th layer of information, which was difficult for the
participants to access. However, all the participants were instructed about the usage of application,
interface and type of information. In the interview, participants have expressed that the reference
images were not helpful due to the difference between the viewer’s perspective and the perspective
in which the picture has been taken.
The route was presented in the written directions as well as in the wayfinding application.
Some of the participants accessed this information but could not be able to decipher it for real-
world settings. Some of the male participants have used the detailed YAH-campus maps placed
on different locations throughout the campus. They have perceived the map information better due
to the correct location pointer. However, they have experienced the wayfinding tasks from the map
required much cognitive effort.

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 Cultural-based preferences: significant cultural differences have been observed during the
said experiment. The HK participants have used written directions in mobile applications,
identification signage and interactive map in the application as their key sources of wayfinding
information. Whereas participants from Pakistan have focused more on the Alphabetic
nomenclature of buildings, verbal directions from passers-by and reference images in the
application. Overall, differences in behaviour suggested that obtaining wayfinding information can
be different for different cultures; however, this can be minimised by the symbiosis of wayfinding
information sources.
This study investigated the current practices of information syntheses during the
wayfinding tasks in complex environments, especially when the navigators are fully or partially
unaware of the environment. The study suggested that the existing wayfinding systems consisting
of static and mobile systems cannot efficiently work for the navigators individually. The static
wayfinding systems are better in providing real-world information but have a single level of
information. The digital mobile wayfinding systems are efficient in providing detailed information
with multi-level information; however, it requires cognitive effort and skills to map the
information in real-world settings.
In current times, complex environments are increasing due to the rapid expansion of cities
and demand for space. Inside these intricate spatial settings, the traditional wayfinding mediums
are not effectively delivering wayfinding information. While the mobile information system had
to rely strongly on GPS or beacon-based signals. For effective wayfinding, the mobile information
systems, including mobile wayfinding devices, need to synthesise with static information and other
environmental cues. Public institutions, including universities, require the active attention of
wayfinding designers to mitigate the wayfinding issues. The current study suggests that the
practices of wayfinding information syntheses should be explored in detail using different sets of
environments and users. The participants’ individual and cultural differences in practices of
information syntheses should also be investigated for a better understanding of current wayfinding
issues. In the next chapter, a framework for wayfinding information syntheses has been proposed
as derived by the findings of performed studies.

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 CHAPTER 8: PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR AUTO GUIDED
NAVIGATION SYSTEM & WAYFINDING INFORMATION
SYNTHESES

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER

This chapter presents a framework for the auto guided navigation system, including the
influencing parameters. In addition to that, a wayfinding framework has also been proposed for
synthesising the environmental and mobile information to facilitate the wayfinding tasks in
complex environments. The presented and proposed framework has been designed based on the
study findings as well as the contributions from the existing studies in wayfinding literature.

EXISTING FRAMEWORK FOR WAYFINDING INFORMATION

The wayfinding process requires a concurrent cognitive process to obtain and understand the
environmental information for a successful and efficient wayfinding task. This whole process may
be influenced by several factors, including environmental factors, information design, and
individual-related differences. It has been suggested in the literature to identify the influencing
factors and the type of influence they have during the wayfinding tasks. Owing to this, a
comprehensive theoretical model has been proposed for wayfinding in virtual environments (Chen
and Kay M. Stanney, 1999). This theoretical model has presented the wayfinding tasks along with
the understanding of wayfinding information and the individual-related differences influencing the
whole process. This wayfinding model can be considered quite relevant to wayfinding in a real-
time environment. However, the studies conducted in this thesis suggested major changes in the
described wayfinding model for being effective in the complex spatial settings having multi-
cultural users with excessive environmental interaction due to scattered facilities. A detailed
description of the said model has been presented in the following section.

COMPONENTS OF THEORETICAL MODEL

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 The existing theoretical model has been divided into two parts consisting of wayfinding and
navigation. Wayfinding has been considered in this model as a complete cognitive process of
building up strategies to identify the location, orientation and potential route. Whereas navigation
has been presented as the tasks of locomotion consisting of decision points, turns and small route
planning. The researchers have delineated this framework as a wayfinding task starting from one
location to the destination. The complete process has been identified in five stages. These stages
are starting point, cognitive mapping, decision making, decision execution and task finished. In
the above-mentioned five-staged process, the cognition related processes have been described in
detail along with the influencing factors.

TOOLS FOR WAYFINDING INFORMATION

The existing model suggested the five different categories of tools that can deliver the
wayfinding information in a virtual environment for aiding the wayfinding tasks. The first category
of tools can display an individual’s current position in the environment. The second category of
information tools is the type of tools that can guide the user about their current orientation. The
position and orientation are essential to understand one’s current spatial settings and to obtain the
environmental information from the surroundings efficiently. The third category of tools is related
to the individual’s movement. The real-time movement can inform the user about the remaining
distance and identify the decision points on the route. The fourth category is related to the sources
of information that can describe the surrounding environment like signage or well-identified
pathways. The final category has consisted of the guided navigation system.
The above-mentioned tools for wayfinding information have been accessed by the users to
make the surrounding environment legible enough for wayfinding. All the categories of
information influence human cognition and help the users to understand their surroundings. The
existing model also suggested human senses as a gateway to access human cognition. If the human
senses have been compromised on any level, then the effectiveness of wayfinding information will
be compromised accordingly.

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 INFLUENCING FACTORS

Several influencing factors influence the wayfinding process on different levels. Amongst
those factors, environmental structure and spatial layout are quite crucial in affecting the efficiency
of wayfinding tasks. If complexly planned due to scarcity of space, the environmental structure
can lead to wayfinding frustration and anxiety. Similarly, the complex spatial layout also has a
negative influence on wayfinding activity. Usually, the built environment has complex layouts due
to post-occupancy structural extensions. The spatial environment can restrict the navigator’s visual
access, which ultimately compromises the cognitive map development. Owing to this, the
environment becomes illegible and difficult to memorise during self or guided exploration.
Another influencing factor is the experience or previous exploration of the environment.
Previous wayfinding experiences can also aid in the exploration of the environment, which
enhances the wayfinding task efficiency. This experience is majorly linked to the long-term
memory that generates spatial knowledge. An easy way to understand this is to take the example
of having extensive experience with different wayfinding tasks in different environments. This can
train the mind to store certain kinds of information in the long-term memory, like types of
wayfinding aids, structural information, and standard layout designs. Spatial knowledge is quite
helpful in building up the cognitive map, which is essential to find the desired destination. The
model also depicted the user’s spatial ability, motivation and searching strategy as integral
elements in influencing the wayfinding tasks.
Spatial ability and motivation are amongst the most important influencing factors as they can
increase the wayfinding performance. Spatial ability may be different in different individuals due
to several factors. These factors may include gender, culture, education or past experiences that
can enhance the user’s ability to decipher the environmental information in identifying their own
location and orientation. Based on the abilities, an individual derives his own searching strategy
to find a destination in an environment. If the strategy is efficient in obtaining and understanding
the environmental information through environmental cues, then the whole wayfinding process
can be positively affected.

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 STAGES OF HUMAN COGNITION

The model has described the whole wayfinding process in three significant steps: the cognitive
mapping process, the decision-making process, and the decision execution process. In the first
step, the users build up their cognitive map by obtaining information from different sources. These
sources of information are from environmental cues as well as from their personal experiences.
According to the model, spatial orientation and spatial information can be obtained by the first,
second, third, and fourth categories of wayfinding information tools. The information can be
obtained through these information tools and filtered through the human senses. At this stage, the
spatial knowledge from long-term memory is also considered to be influential in constructing the
cognitive map. After this, the information is processed to construct the cognitive map, leading to
the second step of the wayfinding process.
The second step has consisted of the decision-making process, which is instrumental in
developing the wayfinding plans. For this stage, categories three and four of wayfinding
information tools are instrumental that can guide the user about current movement and surrounding
environmental information. Past wayfinding experiences, along with the obtained wayfinding
information, can help the users to develop the wayfinding plans and make decisions about this.
Past experiences can also guide the users to quickly identify the routes, environments and route
plans that are somehow stored in the long-term memory by the previous wayfinding activities.
The third stage of the wayfinding task consisted of the decision execution process, which is
the navigation directed by the wayfinding strategies. Category five of wayfinding information tools
may be quite influential at this stage to finalise the process of decision making. Once the decision
has been finalised by the combination of auto guided services and the wayfinding plans, the task
has been finished by reaching the destination. The whole model explains the wayfinding process
in virtual environments; however, no information has been delineated for real-time wayfinding.
Based on the comprehensive approach of this model, motivation has been developed to propose a
refined theoretical model of wayfinding in real environments. The significant contribution of our
planned studies is to combine the necessary information on influencing factors of wayfinding tasks
and propose a new theoretical model for the wayfinding process.

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 PROPOSED WAYFINDING FRAMEWORK

The existing wayfinding framework has been studied and investigated thoroughly by having
an intense literature review of wayfinding information design and ascribed human behaviour.
Based on the studied literature as presented in chapter 2, further studies have been planned to
investigate the role of wayfinding information and human behaviour. The planned studies were
designed to investigate and validate the influencing factors for wayfinding information as well as
the types of various information tools. After analysing studies synthesised with the literature
findings, a comprehensive theoretical model for wayfinding processes has been developed.

WAYFINDING INFORMATION PROCESSING

The theoretical model of wayfinding tasks with different tools of wayfinding information has
been established and presented in Figure 8.1. The model has been delineated in the form of a neural
network for processing the wayfinding information. The main steps have been presented with a
thick-lined rectangle, influencing factors with dotted line rectangle and information sources with
rounded corner rectangles. The model has three significant stages of information receiving to
processing. These three stages are information gathering, a cognitive process for information
syntheses and wayfinding actions. The starting point of the wayfinding task consists of the human
senses where the wayfinding information from digital and environmental cues has been received.
This first process is known as information gathering from all the available resources. The visual
or sensory information that has been processed at the second stage of the model is described as a
cognitive process. This cognitive process synthesises the gathered information, process it, and then
a decision-making process has been initiated. This whole cognitive process can be influenced by
several factors including but not limited to individual-related differences. Once the decision has
been made, the final stage of the wayfinding process is initiated, known as wayfinding actions.
The details of the requisite theoretical model have been presented in the form of a concept diagram
in Figure 8.1.

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Figure 8.1 Wayfinding Framework with Auto Guided navigation system

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 TYPES OF INFORMATION TOOLS
In the presented model, two types of wayfinding information tools have been presented, i.e.,
digital wayfinding information and static wayfinding information. These two information systems
differ in terms of technology by means of which they are providing the wayfinding information to
the navigator.

DIGITAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

Digital information constitutes the types of wayfinding information that has been presented to
the users in the form of a digital display, especially mobile digital displays. These types include
digital navigation systems, wayfinding applications and complete auto-guided navigation systems.
The wayfinding information has been delivered to the navigator with an interactive screen display,
due to which specific parameters can influence the information delivery to the human sensory
organs. These influencing factors include the interface designs, which has usability related issues
in delivering the information. The other factor is presenting the information using a single layer or
multiple layers of information styles.

REAL ENVIRONMENT INFORMATION

The second type of wayfinding information is the static medium. The static wayfinding
information is the information designed to be presented in the real environment. This type of
information includes signage information, landmark buildings, artistic landmarks, identified
pathways, intersections and other distinguished environmental features to aid the navigator during
wayfinding tasks. Several factors can affect the efficient delivery of this real environment
information to the users. The visibility conditions in the environment like smoke, light,
illumination, glare, water, rain, and fog can be the factors that can affect the user access to this
information. While on the other hand, factors like visual clutter, wayfinding information design,
information volume and information content can also affect the real environment information to
be easily noticed by the navigators.

INFORMATION GATHERING

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 The information gathering is the first stage for the wayfinding tasks where all the wayfinding
information, either from the digital information sources or the real environment information
sources, has been gathered through the human senses. The influential human senses in gathering
the wayfinding information are usually sight and hearing. This wayfinding information can be
affected by the factors that can affect the human senses, like hindrances in visual attention or visual
and auditory impairments.

COGNITIVE PROCESS
The next stage in the proposed wayfinding model is where all the gathered information has
been processed by human cognition. This stage majorly comprises two different processes, i.e.,
information processing and decision making. Both processes are interlinked with each other. Once
the information has been processed, it will help the decision-making process through logic and
rational thinking. This cognitive process can be influenced by several factors. These factors have
been delineated in the proposed theoretical model, where some of the factors like cognitive ability,
attention, anxiety, information overload and long-term memory have been incorporated by the
previous literature. However, the factors like individual differences, spatial familiarity and spatial
ability have been incorporated by the studies performed during the research of this PhD thesis.

INFLUENCING FACTORS FOR COGNITIVE PROCESS

The said influencing factors can affect the wayfinding information processing and decision-
making process. The first factor is the individual related differences. These differences include
culture, gender, age, and education. Although these factors have been studied in the previous
literature, the said factors have been studied in detail during this PhD study. For cultural
differences, the sample has been taken from Pakistan and Hong Kong. The significant cultural
differences and the effect has been presented in the previous chapters in detail. In addition to that,
spatial familiarity and spatial ability have also been studied, and significant differences have been
presented in the previous segments of this thesis. The remaining factors mentioned in the proposed
model, like cognitive ability, attention and anxiety, can affect the overall thinking ability. Owing
to this, the cognitive process can be affected; however, if there is a certain level of spatial

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familiarity, then a wayfinding decision can be made. Information overload can be influential if
there is visual clutter present in the wayfinding environment or the wayfinding information is
presented in a way that is not effective to attract the users’ attention. The last influencing parameter
is spatial knowledge present in the long-term memory. If spatial knowledge or familiarity is above
a certain level, then it can improve the wayfinding efficiency irrespective of the environmental
complexity.
During this cognitive process, a new concept has been introduced, which is related to the
symbiotic relationship of the wayfinding information. This concept is named the information
syntheses of all the wayfinding aids from real, mobile, and virtual environments.

WAYFINDING ACTIONS
Once a specific wayfinding decision has been made through a detailed and intense cognitive
process, the respective wayfinding actions have been taken by the users. The wayfinding actions
can be of many types; however, the four major types of actions have been presented in the proposed
model. These tasks are to identify the location, identify orientation, route planning and route
execution. To understand this whole concept, a thicker line has been drawn from the wayfinding
actions to the start of the wayfinding process stating it as an iterative cycle. An example has been
presented to understand the flow of the model. From the starting point, all the wayfinding
information has been received by the human senses that are further goes to a cognitive process and
finally towards the wayfinding action. The wayfinding actions directly lead the navigator towards
the destination without any trouble; if not, then this process needs to be repeated in a similar
manner to reach the destination ultimately.

WAYFINDING INFORMATION SYNTHESES

Information synthesis is a concept that has been introduced after the findings of the presented
wayfinding studies. This concept suggests that the wayfinding information from different sources,
including signage, landmarks, wayfinding applications, pathways, beacon-based systems, and
others, should be synthesised and support each other to efficiently direct the navigators in the right
direction. Especially in terms of mobile wayfinding technologies, providing the wayfinding

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information needs to be validated in a real-time environment. Owing to this, a synthesis of digital
and real-time wayfinding information is anticipated to mitigate the current wayfinding issues in
complex environmental settings.
In the current practices, all the information sources are providing wayfinding information in

Figure 8.2 Information syntheses for wayfinding tasks

isolation. Like signage provide directional, identification and regulatory information. Whereas
similar kind of information is also available in wayfinding applications but somewhat different
manner. However, signage is good for getting the navigators’ attention in the real environment but
cannot efficiently guide them about the location and orientation. On the other hand, the wayfinding

144
applications can deliver a larger volume of wayfinding information but cannot effectively gain the
users’ attention due to several factors mentioned in the previous chapters.
Therefore, it is recommended in the proposed wayfinding framework that an information
synthesis should be considered to design the real environment wayfinding information to reduce
the information processing and cognitive load effectively. A theoretical explanation has been
presented in a diagram in Figure 8.2. This theoretical framework has consisted of the three
fundamental stages involving information sources, wayfinding tasks and environmental validation
through the information synthesis.

INFORMATION SOURCES
The mentioned theoretical framework explained the importance of wayfinding information
sources in starting the different wayfinding tasks as well as in the information validation while
performing these tasks. The environmental information can be accessed through two primary
mediums, i.e., static and mobile wayfinding. The detailed introduction and comparison of these
systems are as follows:

STATIC WAYFINDING INFORMATION

As the name suggests, the static wayfinding information is consisting of those mediums which
are somewhere placed permanently in the real environment to aid the navigators in finding their
way. The static information can be delivered through signage, (You Are Here) maps, digital
information kiosks, building landmarks, artistic landmarks, well-identified pathways, roads,
intersections, the shape of roads, shape of buildings and other distinguishing features related to
that. The signage can accommodate limited wayfinding information but is always visible for most
viewing angles. Map information through you are here maps is also quite helpful in planning the
route and understanding the environmental knowledge. However, it requires a great cognitive
effort to understand your own position as well as the validation of the acquired information in the
real environment. Building landmarks are quite efficient in letting one understand one’s location
and orientation due to its potential visibility range in the real environment.

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 On the other hand, the artistic landmarks are quite efficient in delivering the localised
information covering the smaller areas. The shape of roads, intersections, shape of buildings and
other environmental features can act as environmental landmarks to reorient the navigators in the
real environment. In this aspect, the environmental knowledge gained from the initial planning
through reading maps is quite essential to use the static wayfinding information efficiently.
There are several pros and cons for static wayfinding information systems. The benefits may
include permanent visibility, information validation not required, well-identified, less confusing
and real-time presence. However, they are compromised on viewing angles, limited information
volume, difficult to update or change the information, and they can be unnoticeable if placed in
the high environmental homogeneity.

MOBILE WAYFINDING INFORMATION

The other source of environmental information is mobile wayfinding information which is

mentioned in Figure 8.2. The mobile wayfinding information consists of many wayfinding aids,
including but not limited to personal devices, mobile devices, PDA’s and other location-enabled
digital devices. The significant information content which can be gathered from the mobile
wayfinding information sources consists of location pointers indicating current position, route
searching, planning, interactive maps, reference images, facility information and orientation
identification. These devices gathered the individual user-based information using different
technologies like GPS and beacon-based systems to provide context-aware information. The
significant benefits of mobile wayfinding information are that it can incorporate a larger volume
of information, provide interactive information, and be updated on a real-time basis.
The larger volume of information in mobile sources is theoretically quite good as navigators
can access this information anytime. However, it also requires a good number of cognitive efforts
to reach the desired information through app navigation. The digital interface is of quite an
importance in affecting the user’s ability to reach the required wayfinding information. The digital
application navigation is also quite dependent on the user’s familiarity with the technology and
mobile devices.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL VALIDATION
The environmental validation is the confirmation of the cognitive map and the information
acquired from different wayfinding aids and spatial settings. In figure 8.2, the environmental
validation is of critical importance. The wayfinding information gathered from mobile information
sources and static information sources are processed inside the human brain and afterwards helps
in building up the cognitive map. The cognitive map of information needs a specific validation in
the real environmental settings. If this information is not being validated in the real environment,
then the cognitive processing is constantly going to search out the relevant clue from the
surroundings.
A very simple example can explain this phenomenon. A wayfinding task has been planned
from point A to Point B, starting point and the destination point, respectively (Figure 8.3). The
gathered information described a landmark on a decision point. Once the navigator is at that
decision point, he needs to validate whether this decision point is correct as he learned it from the
wayfinding information. This verification can be done if he is able to see the described landmark
in the real environment. Afterwards, he can align his location and orientation as per the learned
information. Environmental validation is quite necessary to complete the wayfinding tasks
effectively.

WAYFINDING TASKS
The third phase of the proposed theoretical framework consists of wayfinding tasks. The
wayfinding tasks are quite different in terms of information requirements based on their type of
activities. The fundamental wayfinding tasks identified in the previous literature and mentioned in
this thesis's initial chapters are as follows. Route planning, identify location, Identify orientation,
and Route execution. The wayfinding information requirement would be quite different as all the
mentioned tasks have different nature of activities. The segregation of these tasks has already been
established in the literature as an effective way of performing the wayfinding. The information
required for these wayfinding tasks and their interrelationship has been delineated in Figure 8.3.
The figure explains the complete wayfinding process along with the wayfinding tasks in detail.

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The figure also explains the type of information and when it is required to perform the requisite
task.

ROUTE PLANNING

Planning is crucial while performing the wayfinding tasks, especially inside those spatial
settings that are hard to remember due to visual homogeneity. In this wayfinding task, complete
planning is required by the navigators from the starting point to the final location. Route planning
is majorly done using digital or paper maps, complete route information, environmental aids and
where to look it for. Once the information is provided, the navigator starts building up a cognitive
map to understand the route and potential decision points for effective wayfinding.

IDENTIFYING LOCATION

Location identification is also considered an essential wayfinding task. The identification of

location is not only helping the navigators to understand their current position but also can help
them for validating the further planning of the route. In the cognitive map, the navigators need to
understand the covered and remaining route to validate wayfinding information. Also, the correct
identification of the navigator’s current position can reduce the cognitive load, bringing
wayfinding efficiency.

IDENTIFYING ORIENTATION

During or at the start of the journey, the identification of one’s orientation is as important as
the current location. The orientation information allows the users to understand their current
position and to help them whether to continue in this direction or not. This wayfinding task is quite
tricky if the environment is visually similar or cluttered with different aids like advertisements on
roads and public spaces. In these areas, environmental validation is necessary to proceed further;
however, it is not possible with the correct identification of one’s location and orientation.

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 ROUTE EXECUTION

The fourth and final wayfinding task is route execution. Once the navigator acquires the
relevant information regarding route planning and identifies the correct location and orientation,
the route can be executed confidently towards the destination. Route execution can be
compromised if the cognitive map and environmental validation are not matching correctly. Once
the route has been executed, all the tasks mentioned above can be repeated as per the need of the
navigator. All the wayfinding tasks have been presented in the relevant sequence as being practised
by most of the navigators.

WAYFINDING INFORMATION REQUIREMENT

Wayfinding is a complete journey from a starting point to a destination. It involves many stages
ranging from the starting point, walking, decision points and the destination. During this process,
several types of environmental and wayfinding information are required to reach the destination
efficiently. In the previous literature, all the stages have been described in detail; however, the
wayfinding information requirement during all the stages have not been discussed holistically. Our
proposed wayfinding information requirement framework has tried to develop a complete
delineation of the information required during the wayfinding process. In figure 8.2, the concept
of information synthesis has been introduced. From that theoretical framework, a complete
information synthesis and information requirement framework has been formulated. The
suggested framework has been suggested based on the findings of this thesis (Figure 8.3). The
several stages of the wayfinding process, along with the information requirement, has been
discussed in detail as follows.

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Figure 8.3 Wayfinding tasks and information process

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 STARTING POINT
The first stage of the wayfinding process is the start of the journey. At this point, certain
information has been required by the participants to perform various wayfinding tasks. In figure
8.3, the information requirements have been carefully delineated. The first wayfinding task is route
planning. At the starting point or before starting the actual journey, route planning is essential to
finding the destination. This becomes of most importance when the spatial settings are illegible
and hard to memorise. For this route planning task, synthesized information gathering has been
proposed from the mobile and static information sources. The interactive map, digital route
estimation, and location pointer are of critical importance from the mobile information sources,
interactive map, digital route estimation, and location pointer. Whereas the static information
sources can be quite helpful if the provided information has you are here maps (YAH) and
identification signage. By synthesizing the mentioned information from both sources, navigators
plan their route to find the destination.
Along with route planning, the task of identifying the current location is essential to locate
yourself correctly in the planning phase. The location and orientation pointer from mobile
information sources are of great importance for location identification and correct self-orientation.
However, in many situations where spatial congestion is present, like in complex institutional
environments, the location and orientation pointer does not work correctly. Also, they show
sometimes misleading information, which confuses the navigators while route planning or
performing other wayfinding tasks. Owing to this, a synthesised approach has been proposed in
the current framework for location identification. From static information sources, identification
signage, landmarks, pathways, and visible road intersections are the critical sources for secondary
information. The information synthesis can provide the basis for information validation in the real
environment and efficiently guide the navigators.

WALKING
The next stage of the wayfinding process after route planning is the walking activity. During
this activity, the information requirements for the navigators have been changed. When a navigator

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is walking, he requires location identification on the go and orientation to resume the current
activity. Also, there is little time to look for the environmental cues during walking as they pass
by quickly. Owing to this, those environmental aids can be helpful for the navigators, which are
easily noticeable, require less effort to identify and deliver the information within a limited time.
For this reason, a synthesised information requirement has been proposed during the walking
activity. The mobile information can provide the location and orientation information by using
real-time tracking; however, in the case of inaccurate tracking, the real environment aids can be
quite beneficial.
It was quite evident from our studies that navigators spend more time navigating the mobile
information during walking as it was continuously there with them. In addition to that, mobile
wayfinding applications can accommodate more wayfinding information than the real-time
environment, which gains the attention of the navigators during walking. The static wayfinding
information, identification signage and landmarks have been proven more influential in guiding
the navigators than the other factors. However, in our framework (figure 8.3), we have proposed
that if pathways and intersections are planned to attain the navigator’s attention, they can also be
of great use. Once the location and orientation have been identified during the walking activity,
the navigators continue executing their next wayfinding stages.

DECISION POINTS
During the wayfinding process, the most critical stage is decision points. Decision points, along
with several definitions, have been discussed in the previous chapters. The basic understanding
regarding the decision point is that it is a point on the planned or exploratory route where a
navigator needs to decide on the current location, orientation and continuity of their journey. It can
be road or pathway intersections, fused pathways, roundabouts or fused walkable areas. In other
words, it can be treated as a mediatory point somewhere in the whole journey. The information
required at this point should be helpful in identifying location, orientation, and further planning of
the route.
In our proposed framework, we have delineated the required information from mobile and
static information sources. However, as per our studies, the navigators tend to experience some

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difficulties while entirely relying on mobile information sources. They have faced difficulties in
realising their current positioning and orientation due to several factors. These factors include but
are not limited to the crowd influences, visibility conditions, visual clutter in the real environment
and inaccuracy of the mobile tracking system due to spatial complexity. The findings have also
been discussed in study 4 of this thesis. The navigators, therefore, more relied on the real
environment validation. Furthermore, the major helpful information aid was identification signage
and reference images from static information and mobile information, respectively. However, for
both information types, synthesis was instrumental rather than relying on one information source.

DESTINATION
As depicted in figure 8.3, explaining the journey from point A to point B where A is the starting
point and B is the destination point. The destination point is the end stage of a wayfinding process.
At this stage, the most critical factor was to identify the destination. So, the information which can
easily identify the destination may be influential at this stage of information requirement. As per
the literature and our study findings, several information sources have been delineated in our
proposed framework. Location and orientation pointer are necessary to identify that journey has
been finished. In addition to that, reference images of the destination are also critical to familiarise
the navigators in advance visually. At the same time, identification signage and other landmarks
are necessary to identify the destination. According to our findings, the navigators relied more on
the identification signage in the real environment synthesizing with the reference images provided
by the mobile information. However, several issues have been caused due to the difference in
viewing angle and the time of picture taken. The proposed theoretical framework explained the
concept of wayfinding information synthesis and the information requirements while performing
the different wayfinding tasks.
In the next chapter, a study has been performed to validate the findings of the current
framework for further applications by information designers and users. The current framework in
figure 8.3 has suggested the contribution of mobile and static wayfinding aids in directing the users
while performing wayfinding tasks. The complete framework suggested a detailed information
requirement plan for the users; however, the location and orientation identification are the most

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important part of the whole framework. Therefore, in the next chapter, the information
requirements for location and orientation identification have been validated at decision points. This
validation can be useful to understand the basic concept of the suggested framework which utilises
this location identification repeatedly during all the four stages of wayfinding tasks presented in
figure 8.3.

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 CHAPTER 9: VALIDATION STUDY FOR INFORMATION
SYNTHESES & TYPES FOR WAYFINDING TASKS IN
COMPLEX ENVIRONMENT

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER

This chapter introduces a validation study for the proposed theoretical framework for
wayfinding information syntheses and the types of wayfinding information required by the
navigators in the complex environment. The location and orientation identification at the decision
points have been planned to be validated from the proposed wayfinding synthesis model. The
identification of one’s location and orientation are very influential in all the wayfinding tasks as
presented in the previous chapter. The whole framework validation would require an enormous
amount of time and effort. Owing to this, the effectiveness of environmental information syntheses
has been validated in this study. The validation study tried to validate the said parameters in the
simulated situation to investigate the effectiveness of the proposed model. The findings have a
strong influence in developing the information guidelines for the requisite designers and guiding
them to improve the institutional wayfinding system.

INTRODUCTION

Wayfinding tasks require an intensive cognitive effort and the ability to gather environmental
information from different resources and find the destination. This task becomes more intensive if
the environmental settings are more spatially complex, homogeneous and difficult to remember.
Owing to this, after several studies on human wayfinding behaviour and performance. A
comprehensive wayfinding framework has been developed. The said framework presented the idea
of wayfinding information syntheses by using mobile/portable information with static wayfinding
information systems. The framework also proposes different information requirements for various
wayfinding stages and for performing different wayfinding tasks. The proposed findings require a

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comprehensive study to validate the suggested information requirement. The proposed findings
stated different information requirements while performing various wayfinding tasks as presented
in the previous chapter. The wayfinding tasks including starting point, walking, decision points
and destination require the participants to gather the information from environmental sources and
utilise them for identifying their current location and orientation. This location identification
further helped them to devise further wayfinding strategies and actions. From the presented
wayfinding framework in figure 8.3, the location and orientation identification has been considered
very influential in all the wayfinding tasks. Therefore, in this study, an experiment has been
designed to validate the proposed wayfinding framework. Owing to this, two hypotheses have been
designed to validate the influence of environmental information and user syntheses behaviour.
Hypotheses: H1: Reference images of wayfinding information, if provided with user matched
angles and synthesized with the real environment, can increase the wayfinding
performance.
H2: Façade reference images of building landmarks can be less effective than the
user matched angle images for increasing the wayfinding performance.
A validation study has been conducted based on the suggested wayfinding information
requirement using wayfinding performance as a standard metric. Twenty-seven male university
students have participated in the study. The study has been performed using a desktop-based virtual
reality setup. The participants have performed five wayfinding tasks, each within an unknown
institutional complex environment. Based on the hypothesis, the participants were analysed for
their performance. The developed hypotheses were based on the proposed theoretical framework
and have been proven right. The suggested information requirement increased the participants’
performance by taking less time.

METHOD

This validation study was aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the proposed theoretical
wayfinding information requirement framework in real-time environmental settings. From the said
framework, self-location identification has been identified as the significant and most repeating

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factor. Therefore, this factor was tested in the validation study with the variety of different
information settings provided to the navigators. Owing to this, a desktop-based virtual reality
experiment has been designed using 360o panoramic images of the real institutional environment.
Participants need to perform five wayfinding tasks each, and their performance has been measured
by the time taken and the count of errors. The experiment was performed in three stages pre-
experiment questionnaire (sense of direction), wayfinding tasks, post-experiment interview for
ascribed actions. All the participants who participated in the experiment were inducted from a
reputed higher education institution from Hong Kong. For this study, the data has been recorded
in the form of the Likert scale, screen recording and voice recording for the experiment and
interview, respectively.

PARTICIPANTS
The participants were invited from a very reputed higher education institute situated in the city
centre of Hong Kong. All the participants were informed via a participant induction poster
requiring male Chinese participants with a specific limitation on age group (18 to 35). Only male
participants were invited to the experiment to avoid gender differences while performing
wayfinding tasks as predicted from the previous literature as well as in our studies. Literature and
our studies also supported the cultural influences on human wayfinding behaviour. For that reason,
only Chinese participants were invited to conduct the experiment. The participants were informed
before about the desktop-based virtual reality experiment. All the participants were quite aware of
the computer basics. In addition to that, trial wayfinding tasks were also designed to familiarise
themselves with the experimental setup. In total, twenty-seven participants took part in the
experiment and performed five different wayfinding tasks each. However, the data of two
participants were disqualified to maintain the overall quality.
Participants were also required to report the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (SBSDS)
before starting the experiment, along with the questions related to the usage of wayfinding
applications. Before starting the experiment, the complete procedure of trials and actual
experiment has been explained to the participants, and they were given a five-minute practice time.
A consent form has been signed by the participants for taking part in the research study, and they

157
were given a cash incentive for their cooperation. Requisite ethical approval (APPENDIX I) has
been obtained from the relevant authorities, and special precautionary measures have also been
taken due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

DATA COLLECTION

The current experiment has been segregated into three major segments. The first segment has
been consisted of collecting data related to the participants’ sense of direction and their prior
experience of using wayfinding applications. In the second phase, the desktop-based virtual reality
experiment has been performed after a brief demonstration and practice session. The third phase
was about the explanatory interview from the participants explaining the reason for choices and
ascribed actions. The data has been recorded and analysed quantitatively and qualitatively
wherever deemed necessary.

PRE-EXPERIMENT
On arrival, all the participants were asked to sign their written agreement to participate in this
research study, and their acquired data can be shared on public forums. After that, the participants
were asked to report the sense of direction scale to measure their spatial ability. The Santa Barbara
Sense of Direction Scale (SBSDS) (Hegarty et al., 2002) has been used in many studies and found
quite effective in measuring spatial ability. In the said questionnaire, participants were also asked
about their prior usage of wayfinding applications, i.e., Google Maps. The questions asked from
the participants have been presented in Table 9.1. The first two questions were related to the usage
of wayfinding applications, whereas the remaining questions have been taken from the Santa
Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (SBSDS). The questions from SBSDS have been presented in
the Likert scale, having strongly agreed and strongly disagreed on the poles. The data has been
recorded using the online service of Microsoft Forms.

Table 9.1 Pre-experiment questionnaire

Sr. Questions
Wayfinding Applications

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 Sr. Questions
Do you use wayfinding applications?
What applications do you use for wayfinding?
Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale
Q1 I am very good at giving directions.
Q2 I have a poor memory for where I left things.
Q3 I am very good at judging distances.
Q4 My "sense of direction" is very good.
Q5 I tend to think of my environment in terms of cardinal directions (N, S, E, W).
Q6 I very easily get lost in a new city.
Q7 I enjoy reading maps.
Q8 I have trouble understanding directions.
Q9 I am very good at reading maps.
Q10 I do not remember routes very well while riding as a passenger in a car.
Q11 I do not enjoy giving directions.
Q12 It is not important to me to know where I am.
Q13 I usually let someone else do the navigational planning for long trips.
Q14 I can usually remember a new route after I have travelled it only once.
Q15 I do not have a very good "mental map" of my environment.

EXPERIMENT
The wayfinding experiment has been designed to evaluate the participants’ information
requirements while performing the wayfinding tasks. As proposed in the previous chapter, the
wayfinding information synthesis suggested the concurrent use of mobile and static wayfinding
information. This experiment simulated the suggested environment and required the participants
to perform wayfinding tasks using the desktop-based virtual reality system. After completing the
initial questionnaire regarding their spatial ability and usage of wayfinding applications, they were
introduced to the experimental procedure. Researchers demonstrated the experimental procedure
with the trial setups in front of the participants. Participants were also given five minutes to practice
the method for identifying their location and explore the environment using a desktop-based virtual
reality system. The participants were given five different and unknown locations inside the
educational institution. They could take their time in identifying their location. Once the task is
completed, they were directed towards the following location by the researchers.

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 EQUIPMENT

Figure 9.1 Experimental setup in design lab

The experiment has been conducted using the HP desktop (Core i7, 5th gen, dedicated graphics
memory 8 Gb) and dual monitor screens having a screen resolution of 1920x1080. Both monitors
were attached to a single computer as an extended display in addition to the main one. One screen
has been used as a mobile information display, and the other has been simulated as a 360o
panoramic virtual environment. The panoramic images from an educational institution have been
downloaded from google maps with relevant API's. The panoramic images have been converted
into a 360o spherical navigable environment using a cloud-based virtual tour software known as
LAPENTOR. For the mobile information, the maps have been created using Adobe illustrator
2021 and Adobe Photoshop 2021. The participants can view all the directions using a mouse
pointer and zoom in and out to see the details in the real environment. Similarly, for the mobile
information, the zooming and panning options were also added to see the details.

DESIGN

The experiment has been designed with a clear objective, and independent and dependant
variables have been defined accordingly presented in Table 9.2.

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 Table 9.2 Experiment variables

Independent Variable with sub features Dependent Variables

Types of wayfinding information:

 Written information  Time taken for task completion

 Landmark information
 Reference images of identification signage
Viewing angle of a reference image  Number of errors during the task
completion
 Viewing angle matched with actual info.
 Regular viewing angle
Signage

 Visible
 Not Visible

Controlled Factors: During the whole experiment, certain factors have been controlled to prevent
confounding elements. These factors have been delineated in Table 9.3. The factors start with the
lighting conditions of the experimental settings, which have been kept to daylight time. The
amount of information has been kept constant with an equal amount of information throughout all
the conditions. The provided map has provided the information for a selected diameter as presented
in the table. Walking speed, path and asking directions were considered confounding in the
previous studies of this thesis. In response to that, these factors have been kept constant in the
virtual environment for a reliable causal relationship among the type of information and the
participants’ performance. The most critical parameter has been balanced, which is the different
difficulty levels of the testing environment. The Latin square method has been used to balance this
bias.

Table 9.3 Controlled factors during the experiment

Measures
Factors

All the locations will be presented with daylight without glares on wayfinding
Lighting conditions
information.
Every map provided with three pieces of information (signage/reference image or
Amount of info.
both).
Map details The provided map has been taken 100m diameter of the presented location.

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 Measures
Factors
Visual conditions Visual conditions kept clear. i.e., no smoke, fog, or visual clutter.
Walking speed No walking is required as all the participants will be at decision points only.
Asking directions Being virtual experiment participants cannot ask for directions from anybody.
Walking path No walking is required as all the participants will be at decision points only.
Language barriers All the required information will be presented in English and Chinese language.
Cultural differences Only Chinese participants have been invited.
Gender differences Only Male participants have been invited.
Balancing location difficulty has been done using the Latin square method of
Latin square
order 5 to reduce the bias.

Experiment Parameters: During the whole experiment, certain factors have been controlled to
prevent confounding elements. These factors have been delineated in Table 9.3. in addition to that,
specific metrics have been devised to measure the performance of the participants. The first metric
was the time taken to complete the respective wayfinding task, along with the number of errors
they have made while pointing out their current location and orientation on the map. The detailed
parameters and metrics have been presented in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4 Experiment metrics and pre-requisites

Experiment Parameters

Metrics  Time taken for task completion

 Number of errors during the task completion
Task Identify Location & Identify Orientation on the provided map
Participants Total 25 (Chinese), Male
Participant consent form,
Briefing of participant instructions,
Pre-Requisite Usage of Google Maps,
Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale,
Virtual reality practice session to ensure a similar level of familiarity

LOCATIONS & CONDITIONS

The experiment has been performed using the virtual location of a reputed university in Hong
Kong. All the participants have never visited the said university campus before, and they were not
familiar with the environmental settings of the said campus. All the selected locations have been
carefully selected while keeping in mind certain elements. The complexity of the selected location

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can be an influential factor in affecting the participant’s performance and for the increased number
of errors. Specific parameters have been devised to cater to this issue before selecting the real-life
location for our virtual experiment. The parameters have been presented in Table 9.5. In total, four
parameters have been considered significant based on the literature and performed studies. The
number of buildings in the experimental settings for each task has been kept constant to five. In
addition to that, pathways, building shapes and the number of intersections were also considered
to be essential and kept constant for a uniform complexity throughout the experiment.

Table 9.5 Location complexity parameters

Location Complexity parameters

Building shapes Intersection type
No. of buildings Pathways
(Same or (no, 3-way, 4
in view (Visible or fused)
distinctive) way)
L1 5 Visible Distinctive 2 ways
L2 5 Visible Semi distinctive 3 ways
L3 5 Visible Distinctive 3 ways
L4 5 Visible Distinctive 3 ways
L5 5 Visible Distinctive 3 ways
After selecting the locations based on the above parameters, experimental conditions have
been devised. During the experiment, there were two screens, one for the map information and the
other for the 3d virtual environment, as depicted in Figure 9.1. To develop the experimental
conditions, a combination of three independent variables have been devised consisting of the type
of information, viewing angle and the visibility of the said information. Out of 24 different
combinations, four combinations have been selected as the experimental conditions. To measure
the effectiveness of the change of information, a basic set of combinations has also been selected
named as condition 1. The details of experimental conditions have been presented in Table 9.6,
where certain symbols have been used to depict the information. In the mentioned table, certain
symbols have opted, i.e., landmark (L), signage visible (S1), signage not visible (S0), landmark
with façade view (LF) and landmark with matched or user perspective view (LM).

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 Table 9.6 Experimental conditions

Real Environment Information Map Information

Landmark + Signage not visible Signage Visible
Condition 1
(L + S0) (S1)
Landmark + Signage not visible Landmark Facade view, Signage Visible
Condition 2
(L + S0) (LF + S1)
Landmark + Signage not visible Landmark Matched view, Signage
Condition 3
(L + S0) Visible (LM + S1)
Landmark + Signage visible Landmark Facade view, Signage Visible
Condition 4
(L + S1) (LF + S1)
Landmark + Signage visible Landmark Matched view, Signage
Condition 5
(L + S1) Visible (LM + S1)
Based on the conditions mentioned above, five locations have been prepared and used for the
pilot testing. In the pilot testing, it has been observed and mentioned by the participants as well
that may be the environmental settings can influence the wayfinding performance. Owing to this,
the Latin Square method has been applied to balance the effect of environmental settings. After
applying this design balancing method, five balanced settings have been developed (APPENDIX
II), consisting of five environmental settings in each category. The balancing of environmental
settings and information conditions have been presented in Table 9.7. Twenty-five participants
have been presented with these balanced settings so every balanced setting have been utilised by
five participants. Therefore, the analysis will solely depict the effect of information change on the
wayfinding performance.

Table 9.7 Latin square balance of environmental settings

Balanced settings 1 L1-C1 L2-C2 L3-C3 L4-C4 L5-C5

Balanced settings 2 L1-C2 L2-C3 L3-C4 L4-C5 L5-C1
Balanced settings 3 L1-C3 L2-C4 L3-C5 L4-C1 L5-C2
Balanced settings 4 L1-C4 L2-C5 L3-C1 L4-C2 L5-C3
Balanced settings 5 L1-C5 L2-C1 L3-C2 L4-C3 L5-C4

PROCEDURE

Participants have been invited to the Asian ergonomics design lab for taking part in the
wayfinding virtual reality experiment. The experiment has been designed with five wayfinding
tasks having a variance of wayfinding information. Participants have been asked to report their

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consent regarding personal data while using standardized consent forms. After that, participants
were requested to be seated in front of the desktop-based virtual reality setup. The participants
were asked about their prior experience using wayfinding applications, i.e., Google maps, apple
maps. After that, to measure their spatial ability, the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction scale has
been presented to the participants.
There were four environmental settings have been prepared for the participants to practice and
acquaint themselves with the mechanics of the experiment. The experimental procedure, along
with the practical examples, have been demonstrated to each participant. Once they feel
comfortable, they can practice themselves for 2-3 minutes. The wayfinding tasks require the
participants to locate their location and identification on the map. For this purpose, participants
could practice so that it cannot be a factor of delay and affect the participant’s performance in any
way. After completing the practice session, participants were given the actual balanced
environmental settings to identify their location and orientation on the map. Every environmental
setting has been oriented towards the real North; however, true north was never mentioned on the
map information, so the participants cannot guess the orientation information from here. During
the experiment, a video recording device has been placed to record the participants’ actions. Once
the task has been completed by the participant, the researcher was responsible for changing the
next location information for both, i.e., map information and real environment information.
After completing all the tasks, the participants were invited for a short explanatory interview
for their actions during the experiment. During the interview, they were asked about the most used
information sources and why they have relied on them. In addition to that, the participants were
also asked about their desired strategy of searching the way in an unfamiliar environment,
especially when the environment is spatially complex and hard to memorize. The data for this
experiment has been collected in the form of video footage, which has been analysed afterwards
using requisite methodologies.

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 DATA ANALYSIS

The collected data has been in the form of video recordings. All the video recordings have been
analysed carefully using different methodologies. The wayfinding task time has been observed
from the recordings and noted down for every participant and every task. In addition to that, if the
participants have made an error while performing the experiment, then it also has been recorded.
Based on the hypotheses mentioned earlier in this chapter, specific statistical techniques have been
considered relevant to analyse the data. All the information conditions have been recorded in the
form of time taken. So, the statistical mean and standard deviation of time taken for each condition
was considered appropriate for the initial finding of participants’ performance. Before applying
any further statistical analysis, the data were checked for normal distribution using Shapiro Wilk’s
test of normality. The data were further analysed using the Related-Samples Wilcoxon Signed
Rank test after being found as a non-normal distribution. The said test was also used for the
combination of conditions which has been further explained in the results section. To find out the
relationship between spatial ability and the participant’s performance, Kendall’s Tau correlation
test has also been considered appropriate.

RESULTS

The results of the current validation study have provided interesting insights regarding the
proposed wayfinding information framework. The proposed wayfinding framework suggested the
wayfinding information synthesis while finding the way in an unknown environment. In this
validation experiment, the participants' wayfinding performance was recorded with the change of
information conditions. The performance has been measured using the time taken and the total
number of errors while performing the wayfinding tasks. The overall time taken, and the number
of errors has been presented in Table 9.8.

Table 9.8 Wayfinding tasks performance

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

SBSD
5.73
4.93

5.73
5.53
3.33

5.07
4.33
5.13
5.67
5.13
2.27

5.87

4.07

5.27
3.8

4.6
3.6

2.4

3.6

5.8

4.4

4.4
6

S scale

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 Locations & Time Taken (Number of

s
Info.
Errors) Setting

N
L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1
BS 1

Mean
0:25 (0) 0:29 (0) 0:38 (0) 0:33 (0) 2:02 (0)
L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2
1:58 (0) 0:38 (0) 0:47 (0) 0:28 (0) 1:18 (0)
BS 2
L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3
BS 3

Std. Deviation
0:58 (0) 1:05 (0) 0:53 (0) 1:35 (0) 1:00 (0)

significant or not.
L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4
0:42 (0) 1:28 (0) 0:50 (0) 0:38 (0) 2:57 (0)
BS 4
L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5
0:33 (0) 0:44 (0) 1:13 (0) 0:51 (0) 1:06 (0)
BS 5
L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1
0:58 (0) 1:34 (0) 1:07 (0) 0:47 (0) 1:55 (0)
BS 1

25
L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2

61.312
105.60
0:48 (0) 0:18 (0) 0:24 (0) 0:40 (0) 0:51 (0)
BS 2

Condition1
L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3
3:27 (1) 2:47 (0) 0:41 (0) 3:23 (2) 0:45 (0)
BS 3
L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4
0:53 (0) 0:36 (0) 0:53 (0) 0:47 (0) 1:25 (0)
BS 4
L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5
0:58 (0) 0:35 (0) 1:02 (0) 1:07 (0) 0:43 (0)
BS 5
L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1

25
BS 1

96.48
1:03 (0) 0:43 (0) 1:44 (0) 1:17 (0) 4:57 (2)

81.817
L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2
BS 2

Condition2
1:10 (0) 0:36 (0) 1:10 (0) 0:35 (0) 0:44 (0)
L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3
1:08 (0) 2:22 (0) 1:10 (0) 1:43 (0) 0:56 (0)
BS 3
L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4
1:02 (0) 0:51 (0) 1:27 (0) 0:44 (0) 2:20 (2)
BS 4
L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5
BS 5

25
0:51 (0) 0:33 (0) 4:03 (4) 1:37 (0) 0:42 (0)

54.48

20.245
L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1
0:26 (0) 0:30 (0) 0:18 (0) 0:19 (0) 0:49 (0)
BS 1

Condition3
L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2

Table 9.9 Descriptive analysis

2:43 (1) 0:32 (0) 2:17 (2) 1:23 (1) 1:17 (0)
BS 2
L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3
1:17 (0) 1:25 (0) 0:48 (0) 0:29 (0) 1:05 (1)
BS 3
L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4
1:13 (0) 1:11 (0) 1:16 (0) 0:15 (0) 0:27 (0)
BS 4

25
L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5

79.48

54.669
1:32 (0) 1:15 (0) 6:11 (1) 3:09 (0) 2:24 (1)
BS 5

Condition4
L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1
1:02 (2) 0:21 (0) 1:21 (0) 0:55 (0) 3:22 (1)
BS 1
L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2
2:10 (0) 0:48 (0) 3:22 (2) 0:47 (0) 3:07 (2)
BS 2
L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4 L1-C3
3:20 (0) 0:37 (0) 1:30 (2) 0:58 (0) 1:17 (0)
BS 3
L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5 L1-C4

25
BS 4

48.24
0:56 (0) 0:58 (0) 1:07 (0) 0:27 (0) 1:24 (0)

26.425
L1-C4 L1-C3 L1-C2 L1-C1 L1-C5
BS 5

Condition5
0:55 (0) 0:45 (0) 1:21 (0) 1:33 (0) 0:32 (0)
the table mentioned above, i.e., Table 9.8. All the conditions have a different set of information

statistical investigation is required to understand whether the time differences are statistically
the participants. As described in Table 9.9, the highest mean time has been taken for information
information conditions have been compared using the mean time taken for each condition for all
which affected their wayfinding performance. To investigate the differences in time taken for the

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respective conditions, a descriptive analysis has been performed using SPSS software. All the

respectively. However, the time difference has suggested that participants have performed better
in certain information conditions for completing the wayfinding tasks. However, a detailed
condition one, followed by condition two, condition four, condition three and condition five,
Five balanced settings have been provided for all the twenty-five participants as mentioned in
 To compare the mean differences of the said information conditions, specific statistical tests
have been instrumental. Based on this study, the data has been checked for normal distribution and
found non-normally distributed. Owing to this, nonparametric tests for related samples have been
considered suitable to compare the mean differences, i.e., Related-Samples Wilcoxon Signed Rank
Test (Siegel, 1956). The said test has been applied to compare each information condition with
other conditions and to investigate whether the statistical differences have been instrumental or
not. The results showed some interesting facts because all the conditions were not statistically
different from each other, contrary to the expectations from Table 9.9. The performance in
condition 1 is statistically like condition 2, where the p-value=0.270, which is higher than the
significant value (p ≤ 0.05). Similarly, condition 1 with condition 4, condition 2 with condition 4,
condition 3 with condition 5 are statistically like each other, having the p-value equal 0.113, 0.716
and 0.166, respectively, which is relatively higher than the significant p-value.
In addition to that, some of the information conditions have been considered statistically
significant differences with each other depicting the performance variation. The p-value for
condition 1 and condition 3 has been reported significantly where the p-value equals 0.000.
Similarly, condition 1 with condition 5, condition 2 with condition 3, condition 2 with condition
5, condition 4 with condition 5 are significantly different from each other, having the p-values
equal to 0.000, 0.026, 0.000 and 0.021. Although the mean time taken depicted in Table 9.9
suggested the performance variation, the statistical test suggested that some conditions are not
statistically different. Moreover, the conditions mentioned in Table 9.6 have signage visibility and
reference image information as key variables to understand the impact on wayfinding performance.
Owing to this, condition 2 and condition 4 have been combined and compared with condition 3
and condition 5. In the combined conditions 2 and 4. the reference images have been presented in
the façade view. Whereas, in conditions 3 and 5, the reference images have been presented in the
matched perspective view. So, the above-mentioned statistical test can analyse that which
information condition is significantly better than others.
Similarly, condition 2 and condition 3 have been combined and analysed with condition 3 and
condition 4. In both condition combinations, the difference is of signage visibility in the real

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environment. In conditions 2 and 3, the signage is not visible in the real environment, whereas the
other two conditions are vice versa. The related sample Wilcoxon test has been applied to
investigate the relationship of information variance with the wayfinding performance. The
combination of conditions 2 and 4 have been statistically significant with the combination of 3 and
5 in terms of wayfinding performance. This notion can be easily seen where the p-values are equals
to 0.001, which is statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). For the condition combination of 2 and 3 with
a condition combination of 4 and 5, the performance difference is not significant because the p-
value equals 0.304.
In addition to that, participants’ spatial ability has also been analysed with their wayfinding
performance. The spatial ability can also be the confounding factor affecting the performance
instead of the information variation in the static or mobile information. For that reason, the Santa
Barbara sense of direction scale has been reported by each participant before starting the
experiment to measure their spatial ability. The individual’s spatial ability has been collated with
the total time taken while performing the wayfinding tasks. As the data was non-normally
distributed, Kendall’s Tau test of correlation was considered suitable for this purpose. The relation
between the participant’s spatial ability and total time taken for the wayfinding tasks has not been
significantly correlated, i.e., (p-value=0.123).
After the experiment, all the participants were asked several questions related to their
wayfinding experience and decision choices made during the experiment. All the participants have
mentioned several essential wayfinding aids which were quite helpful for them while performing
the wayfinding tasks. All the mentioned information sources have been transcribed and coded into
generic categories. The information categories have been converted into a word cloud based on
the frequencies mentioned by the participants. The word cloud of information sources has been
presented in Figure 9.2 and Table 9.10. The preferred sources for information have consisted of
the shape of road in real and map environment, road intersections, landmark reference images in
the map information and building façade in the real environment. These sources have been
presented respectively to the frequencies mentioned by the participants.

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 Table 9.10 Information types and frequencies

Sr. Information Type Frequency

1 Road Intersections 16
2 Shape of road 14
3 Reference Images 12
4 Façade design of the building 10
5 Map Information 9
6 Signage in real environment 8
7 Environmental natural features 5
8 Perspective matched images 4
9 Road name 2

Figure 9.2 Word cloud of preferred information sources

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

The mean comparison of the information conditions and statistical differences have been
influential in describing the factors which can affect the wayfinding performance of the
participants. In Table 9.9, the overall mean comparison of information conditions clearly described
that the wayfinding performance had been lowest with the information condition 1 followed by
condition 2, condition 4, condition 3 and condition 5, respectively. However, the most effective
and efficient information condition cannot only be found out by the mean comparison of the time
taken for performing the wayfinding tasks. To see the overall performance distribution amongst

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all the participants, it was considered necessary to perform the Wilcoxon rank test for the mean
comparison. The respective statistical test investigated the said argument in detail. In the previous
section of this study, the hypothesis described that the match perspective reference images are
more efficient in increasing the wayfinding performance than the regular façade reference images.
As the statistical test suggested, the performance (Time taken for task completion) of condition
1, condition 2 and condition 4 are somehow not significantly different from each other. This
argument suggests that the information conditions presented in these three conditions almost have
a similar impact on the participant’s wayfinding performance. On the other hand, the performance
(Time taken for task completion) of condition 3 and condition 5 are quite like each other but
significantly more efficient than conditions 1, 2 and 4. In three conditions (1,2,4), reference images
(façade view) were provided on the map information as described in Table 9.6. While in conditions
3 and 5, reference images in the map information were from the matched perspective instead of
the façade view. The effect of the signage variable on performance is not significant, however, the
effect of the viewing angle of a reference image on performance is significant. Users performed
better if the reference images of environmental information provided in the map are of matched
perspective instead of façade view.
As an overall discussion, the results can be summed up to the statement i.e., (performance of
Condition 5 = Condition 3 > Condition 4 = Condition 2 = Condition 1). This relationship has
proved the mentioned hypothesis about the reference images. In addition to that, two of the
information conditions (2,3) have no signage visibility in the real environment, whereas the
conditions (4,5) have visible signage in the real environment. To further investigate whether
signage visibility can significantly affect the wayfinding performance, the two sets of conditions
have been combined, as stated in the results section. The results enunciated that conditions 3 and
5 is statistically better than conditions 2 and 4; however, conditions 2 and 3 have no significant
performance differences with conditions 4 and 5. This notion can be influential in proving that
reference images if matched with the user’s viewing perspective, can increase the wayfinding
performance. This argument has been consistent with the previous study (Cheung, 2006), where

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image information performed better in navigation tasks. However, regarding the façade images or
matched perspective images, no information has been studied before in the literature.
In addition to that, 3D models of landmarks or as a piece of reference information can also be
influential, as presented in the previous studies (Shelton and Hedley, 2004; Klatzky et al., 2008;
Hoe et al., 2017). However, the presented 3D models have a very different view compared to the
user’s human eye view. Owing to this, 3D models would be able to perform like the façade images
as depicted in our study. A similar study (J. Xia et al., 2008) has also described that images of
particular landmarks from eye level are influential in enhancing orientation and navigation
performance. The wayfinding performance in our study was not affected by the visibility of
identification signage in the real environment. The signage visibility was considered important in
synthesizing the map and real environment information, however, participants considered
reference images of landmarks more important while combining the two information sources.
Although the studies (Gibson, 2009; Oyelola, 2014) suggested that the identification signage
are extremely useful in the public spaces for identifying the potential destination, however, in our
study, due to the presence of mobile map information, the identification signage in the real
environment was considered less important. Because in the map information, it is quite difficult to
validate the information in the real environment just by seeing the identification signage. Maybe
it can give the idea of location proximity; however, it cannot give the exact direction and
orientation in the real environment. After performing the experiment, the participants mentioned
their preferred wayfinding information sources as per their practice and comfortability.
As depicted in Figure 9.2, the most preferred information source is the shape or patterns of the
road. This finding has been considered consistent with the previous studies (Hölscher et al., 2009;
Carlson et al., 2010; Wolbers and Hegarty, 2010) where the shape of the road was quite influential
for the participants to navigate themselves in the real environment. In addition to that, the road
intersections are also considered to be very influential while performing the wayfinding tasks. Our
finding has also been consistent with the previous studies (Asher et al., 2013; Clarke, Elsner and
Rohde, 2013). However, in both information aids, the intersection is also a decision point for a
wayfinding task, i.e., either to continue in the same orientation or need to change it. After that, the

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reference images of landmarks are also considered to be very important in guiding the navigators.
However, in the previous studies (Cornell and Greidanus, 2006; Omer and Goldblatt, 2007), the
role of landmarks in wayfinding have been investigated. In our study, the reference images to
identify the landmarks in a real environment have been investigated and found effective while
performing the wayfinding tasks.
The wayfinding information in the real environment (static) and in the mobile platforms is
helpful in the wayfinding aids when the environment is not complex. For the complex, congested
institutional public environment, these information aids are not effective enough to guide the
navigators. Owing to this, an information synthesis of static and mobile wayfinding information is
required to inform the navigators effectively also for the validation of provided information in the
real environment. For information synthesis, only the role of landmarks reference images and
signage visibility have been validated for this study. The reference images with the matched
perspectives of the user’s view are more efficient than the reference images of the building façade.
On the other hand, the signage visibility in the real environment has no significant influence
on participants’ wayfinding performance. It is also recommended to validate further the proposed
wayfinding theoretical framework for different parameters mentioned in the framework. The
wayfinding information synthesis for static and mobile information can be proven efficient in
comparison to the existing wayfinding strategies, especially for complex and illegible
environments. In the next chapter, comprehensive conclusions have been discussed based on the
findings of this thesis. Future works along with the thesis limitations have also been discussed in
the next chapter to further direct the readers regarding the requirements for wayfinding system
design.

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 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER

The current chapter discusses the key findings of the said thesis consisting of the type of
environmental settings, user-related differences in behaviour, different types of information,
wayfinding information aids and the proposed idea of wayfinding information synthesis. This
chapter also discusses the limitations of the presented studies along with the theoretical
contributions of the current studies. After that, some future research directions will be discussed,
which can further enhance the findings of this thesis. The future directions will help the readers to
understand the extent of the said project if combined with the potential technological
advancements.

KEY FINDINGS

The key findings for this research thesis include several factors related to the spatial
environment and its quality, user-related differences and behaviour, and the wayfinding
information and its types. In this thesis, several research studies, including human participants,
have been conducted to investigate the factors and propose a new wayfinding framework for the
effective delivery of information to navigators.

COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS
The spatial environments have been consisted of buildings, walking areas and landmarks in
indoor and outdoor spaces. These spaces possess several qualities; however, for wayfinding, the
environment needs to be legible for the navigators. The public spaces, especially institutions
situated in the central urban areas with congested spatial planning, have been transformed into
complex, illegible and homogenous spaces. These spaces are hard for the navigators to memorise
and recall during the wayfinding tasks. The homogeneity of the environment makes it even more
complex, which is the usual case for public sector universities, hospitals, malls and other congested

174
public spaces. This thesis highlighted the differences between regular and complex environments
for wayfinding and described that the wayfinding strategies which have been proposed in the
previous literature are not efficient enough to cater for the wayfinding problems of modern-day
environments. These environments become more complex after the extension of spaces with poor
planning and mostly based on the already defined and available space. This thesis also contributed
towards the metrics for identifying the complex environments and recommended well-thought
wayfinding strategies to mitigate the navigation issues and made the whole environment efficient
for all types of users.

CULTURAL & INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

This thesis investigated the differences related to the navigators while performing wayfinding
tasks. In our study, two cultures being the representatives of collectivists and individualists, have
been studied to investigate the cultural differences. Several cultural differences, including the
design of information, information volume, and type & coding preferences, have been identified.
The identified differences have suggested that the existing wayfinding aids, especially the written
aids, have potential limitations in terms of language understanding as well as in attracting the
users’ attention while doing the wayfinding tasks. Users from different cultures can understand
similar information at different levels because of their cultural influences. Similarly, the
wayfinding behaviour while performing the real-time and virtual wayfinding tasks also varied
because of the said influences. In the previous literature, it has been evidently expressed that there
is a need for culturally consistent wayfinding aids in complex environments; however, no
theoretical framework has been proposed with special consideration of cultural and individual-
related differences.
Several individual-related differences, including age, gender, education, profession, spatial
ability and spatial familiarity, has also been investigated in our studies. Spatial familiarity, gender
and spatial ability have been influential, whereas the remaining factors have little or no influence
on the wayfinding performance. This notion suggests that in complex environments, the overall
performance for wayfinding tasks may only be affected if the navigators have visited that before
they are too good at finding their way. The individual-related differences have also suggested that

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the existing wayfinding techniques and information aids are not efficiently enhancing the
wayfinding activity, especially if the navigators are unfamiliar with the environment.

INFORMATION AIDS, TYPE & VOLUME

Wayfinding information can be delivered by utilising various environmental cues and
purposely designed aids to help the navigators in wayfinding. These aids are majorly of two types
consisting of static and mobile wayfinding aids. In static wayfinding aids, all those aids are
included, which are present in the real-time environment, i.e., signage, kiosks, landmarks,
pathways, intersections. In the mobile wayfinding aids, the information can be delivered by GPS
devices, smartphones, beacon-based devices and using RFID. In our studies, a thorough
investigation has been conducted in real-time environments and virtual environments. Users have
depicted the differences of preferences in the wayfinding information and designs. Collectivists
prefer minimal, colour-coded and symbolic information in signage along with more reliance on
gaining the information from a passer-by. On the other hand, individualists prefer more detailed,
thorough and less colour-coded information for the real environment; also, they preferred to avoid
social contact for obtaining the wayfinding information.
Identification signage, mobile devices and building landmarks have been preferred by the
navigators. Whereas the optimised information volume has been varied across cultures and spatial
familiarity. Navigators also suggested improving the existing wayfinding information and process
in the complex public institutions as they are not efficient in guiding the way with ease.

WAYFINDING BEHAVIOUR
In this thesis, some of the studies have also been performed by the users in the real environment
of a complex university environment. Participants were asked to perform various wayfinding tasks
inside the campus to observe their potential behaviour. As suggested by the preliminary studies,
there was a significant difference of behaviour in obtaining wayfinding information, preferred
sources of information and wayfinding strategies amongst different cultures, gender, spatial
familiarity levels. The participants have faced difficulties in the real environment due to the
presence of extreme homogeneity in the spatial settings. Collectivists performed slightly better

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than the individualists because of their social interactions with the passer-by. The former group
relied more on the real environment information rather than the provided digital devices; also, they
have preferred the interesting landmarks and intersections to guide them during the tasks.
Gender also played an essential role in our studies, where females performed with a slight poor
performance in comparison to males. The initial starting time for planning the wayfinding task has
been quite long for females as well as they took longer time on decision points as well. Most of
the participants tried to validate the provided information gained in the planning phase of the
wayfinding tasks in the real environment; however, they could not do so because of several factors
mentioned in the previous chapters. Spatial familiarity was also influential in the participants’
performance, as the familiar navigators took less time obtaining environmental information.

INFORMATION SYNTHESIS
As per our investigations, the static wayfinding aids were not efficient enough independently
to deliver the wayfinding information to the navigators because of the cultural and individual-
related issues. While on the other hand, mobile wayfinding information also has several factors
making it less efficient as an independent source of wayfinding information. In our real
environment study, it has been observed closely that participants gained some of the information
from mobile sources and YAH maps at the start of their wayfinding task, which is the planning
phase. After gaining that information, they continuously tried to validate the information from both
sources; however, they were not quite successful. This factor can be explained by this notion that
in the previous literature, less or no consideration have been given to the synthesis of information
during wayfinding tasks. A study (Jeffrey, 2017) suggested that static wayfinding aids can never
be replaceable by digital or mobile wayfinding aids due to their potential benefits in the near future.
According to the study, researchers have anticipated that maybe in future, both types of wayfinding
systems should synthesise the information and worked for hand in hand to facilitate the navigators
during wayfinding in complex environments.
As per the findings of our research and the research study (Jeffrey, 2017), it was much needed
to develop a theoretical framework for synthesising the wayfinding information by having both
information sources together. In this thesis, a complete wayfinding framework with auto guided

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navigation systems have been proposed. Which further elaborates the information syntheses in the
cognitive part. Owing to this, a wayfinding information syntheses framework has also been
proposed with the information requirements for different wayfinding tasks. This theoretical
framework has also been validated afterwards for some of its recommendations due to the potential
restrictions of time.

THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION

Several theoretical wayfinding models have been proposed in the previous literature discussing
related issues like human behaviour, information types and cognition. The first comprehensive
model in the wayfinding literature for human wayfinding in an urban environment was proposed
in a research study (Gopal and Smith, 1990). This proposed conceptual representation discussed
the cognitive processes of a navigator in an urban environment. The model majorly described the
cognitive processes, including the role of long term and short-term memory. The role of motor
structures, including the environmental influences on human cognition, has been discussed in
detail. In addition to this framework, another framework has been proposed in a study (Timpf et
al., 1992) which majorly described edges and vertex and their levels of abstractions during
wayfinding. In this conceptual model, there are three significant levels of abstractions, i.e.,
planning level, instructional level and driver level. This wayfinding model discussed the
wayfinding while driving, planning of the highway structures and their related issues. The
information requirements have been very briefly described in this model for the above-mentioned
three levels of abstractions.
Moreover, another study (Chen and Kay M Stanney, 1999) proposed a comprehensive
wayfinding model for navigation in virtual environments. In the proposed model, the wayfinding
process has been defined with clear and objective stages, including cognitive mapping, decision-
making, and decision executions. Also, in the wayfinding model, several information requirements
have been laid down necessary for the navigator to perform the wayfinding tasks in the virtual
environment efficiently. The influences of navigational tools have also been proposed; however,
major consideration has been given to virtual navigation. In reference to this model, another

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conceptual model (Li, 2006) has been proposed discussing the human and environmental
interactions. This model is described in the shape of a triangle having the environment as a
dynamic source of information, whereas the individuals are responsible for the cognitive processes
and spatial abilities. On the third end, there were mobile devices which are responsible for being
an effective source of information having position and orientation-based technologies. In all the
three mentioned sides, the interaction of information has been practised by the navigators, whereas
the environment and the mobile devices are the active sources of wayfinding information. In
addition to this model, another study (Li and Willis, 2006) explained this information interaction
model in detail by providing the behaviour of interaction. The interaction between individual and
environment is influenced by the current location of the navigator.
Similarly, the interaction between individual and mobile devices are influenced by the
interfaces of the mobile device as well as the type of information presented. Moreover, the
interaction between mobile devices and the environment is influenced by the representations of
the environment. This study also proposed the conceptual model of context-aware interactions
based on the current findings.
A study (J. Xia et al., 2008) has proposed a framework for wayfinding processes based on the
differentiation of cognitive maps. The study represented two wayfinding processes, one with the
partial or no cognitive map and the second one with the completed cognitive map. The model
represented the different information requirements and the complete wayfinding process. Which
also described the tangible entities, non-tangible entities, decision-making process and the
wayfinding actions. The significant differences between the two proposed frameworks were during
the wayfinding actions. The framework suggested some additional wayfinding information and
validation requirements during the wayfinding actions and decision-making processes in the model
with partial cognitive maps. In addition to that, the model has partially proposed some details based
on the use of landmark utilities and the influence of landmarks on building up cognitive maps. In
addition to that, another study (Lu and Bozovic-Stamenovic, 2009) has studied some socio-spatial
perspectives in wayfinding and proposed a model based on the cultural influences on the
wayfinding behaviour. The model proposed four major parameters in wayfinding consisting of

179
human cognitive ability, wayfinding performance (search patterns), relational patterns of a setting
and culture. The model described that cultural influences could affect human cognitive ability. At
the same time, the wayfinding performance can be affected by the human cognitive abilities as
well as the intelligibility of the settings. The four staged model briefly discussed the general
influences on wayfinding behaviour.
A study (Giannopoulos et al., 2014) has suggested a wayfinding decision model involving a
three-staged iterative cycle process. The model has three major stages having environmental
model, instructions model and user model. In the environmental model, the two categories have
been described as independent and dependent models, whereas in the user model, spatial abilities,
cultures and personal preferences have been described. In addition to that, in the instructions
model, types of information have been described as pictorial, verbal and auditory information.
Another study (Luo, 2018) has proposed a model for habitual wayfinding, which has been defined
based on the studies performed in academic libraries. The model describes the wayfinding process
and identifies another critical factor of travel habit in the whole process, which can affect the
decision-making process while performing the wayfinding tasks. All the proposed wayfinding
models have been proposing different phases of the wayfinding process. However, none of the
models have been proposed based on the holistic approach of wayfinding, it’s information
requirements and the application in complex environments.
In our proposed framework in Figure 8.1, a comprehensive wayfinding framework has been
proposed incorporating the holistic approach. This approach involves the human senses,
information requirements, information influences, environmental influences, individual-related
influences, cognitive processes, and wayfinding actions. The framework also suggested the
incorporation of wayfinding information syntheses while designing the wayfinding systems for
complex environments. The concept of information syntheses has been further explored in Figure
8.2, which describes the contributions of static and mobile wayfinding information and user
validation in the real environment. This model has been further explained in Figure 8.3, describing
each wayfinding phase with actions along with the requisite information requirements by the users
if the environmental settings are too complex and illegible for the navigators. This theoretical

180
contribution will not only help the designers to design and propose some effective wayfinding
systems as well as it will help the researchers to dig more in synthesising the wayfinding
information in other complex public institutional environments.

LIMITATIONS

In the first two studies related to wayfinding behaviour and preferences, the sample size was
adequate for the statistical tests for each group; however, the sample has been taken from the
population of Hong Kong and Pakistan to represent the individualists and collectivists cultures,
respectively. For more accurate findings, it has been advised to gather data from more cultures so
that the existing findings can be further validated from the sample population taken from the
different countries. In the remaining studies where cultural differences need to be studied, the
sample population has been taken from these two countries to maintain the control on confounding
factors. However, for the remaining studies, the sample size has been kept near twenty-five to
thirty participants. Which is considered to be an adequate sample size in the previous wayfinding
studies (Meng and Zhang, 2014; Manganelli, 2016; Lin, Cao and Li, 2019); however, the larger
sample size in the wayfinding experiment can further strengthen the findings.
In our studies, all the participants have been invited from the university campus; therefore,
they were mostly students of different degree levels. Most of the participants were within the range
of 18 years to 35 years. Owing to this, no significant age differences have been recorded in our
wayfinding experiments. It has been considered a limitation due to the pandemic; many
participants outside of the university settings were afraid to come for the experiment. However, it
has been suggested that participants from larger age groups should also be inducted to perform
wayfinding experiments, especially in complex environments, for further interesting insights.
During the wayfinding experiments, several confounding factors have already been controlled to
prevent the participants from other influences. However, in the real-time wayfinding experiment
performed in study 3, this has been considered a little challenging. Owing to this, further validation
study has been performed in the virtual reality-based environment to validate the findings and
information suggestions proposed in the theoretical framework.

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 In the real and virtual environment wayfinding experiment, only university settings have been
used. These settings have been taken as an ideal example of the complex environment of a public
institution situated in the middle of the urban areas with the scarcity of space. However, it has also
been suggested that the findings from the university settings can further be applied to public
hospitals, malls and travel terminals with a bit of change in the information requirements
depending upon the environment.

FUTURE WORK

This work proposes a novel approach for understanding the relationship of complex
environments, wayfinding information and user behaviour. Most of the users of public institutions
are digital natives and require the up-gradation of traditional wayfinding approaches. Further
research is needed to understand the users’ information requirements in complex environments,
especially context-aware information. Several tools have been identified and utilised for aiding in
wayfinding tasks like beacon-based devices, positioning devices and smartphones; however, the
wayfinding information content for this generation is yet to be explored in detail. Future
wayfinding devices propose a strong dependence on augmented reality devices; however, these
devices still require requisite information for the respective audience to effectively deliver the
content. From our theoretical framework, it can evidently be seen that the information syntheses
and environmental validation, whether doing it by augmented reality or by human cognitive
process, still need further investigation to improve the wayfinding systems. The current
information syntheses practices are needed to be explored in a variety of environments with a
variety of cultural samples to understand human behaviour regarding their respective processes. It
has also been recommended that traditional wayfinding aids should be re-explored with a
synchronised approach within mobile information. Because the auto guided navigation systems
still needed human validation in the real environment as human wayfinding behaviour suggested
so. Our proposed framework presented a holistic understanding of the wayfinding issues in modern
and complex environments and presented the relevant suggestions to mitigate the confounding
influences, which opens new dimensions for future researchers to investigate it further.

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APPENDIX I: ETHICAL APPROVAL FOR RESEARCH

183
APPENDIX II: BALANCED SETTINGS

Balanced Settings 1

184
Balanced Settings 2

185
Balanced Settings 3

186
Balanced Settings 4

187
Balanced Settings 5

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