 Submit by

 Husna Bibi
 Submit to Sir Arif

 . Department
 English

 Semester
 . Fourth

 Assignment of of syntax and semantics

 University of malakand woman sub campus bakhala

  Synthetic AND SEMANTICS
 Definition.

The relationship between syntax and semantics is known as synthetic semantics

It explain the relationship between form and meaning

SYNTHETIC. Semantics include

1. Entailment
2. Pre- supposition
3. Contradiction
4. Ambiguity
5. Amelioration
 ENTAILMENT
 Definition

A relationship that applies between two sentences proposition ( where the truth of one implies the
truth of other ) because of the meaning of the involved

 OR

Entailment is a concept that refers to a specific kind of relationship between two sentences. More
specifically, entailment means that if one sentence is true, then another sentence would also have to be
true: the second sentence would be entailed by the first sentence.

 For example

I can see a dog entails I can see an animal.

One cannot assert the first sentence and deny the second one.

 Type of Entailment
 1. One way Entailment
 2. Two way Entailment
 
Two way Entailment
  2. Pre-supposition
Presupposition is specifically studied in a subfield of linguistics known as “pragmatics.
Pre-supposition is something that a person believes to be true and he uses as beginning an
argument even though it has not been proved
Pre-supposition is what the speaker assume to be case prior to making an utterance
 For example
Tom sister brought two apartment
His father is a retired army office

 Type of pre supposition

Types of presupposition
1. The existential presuppositions
The existential presupposition is assumed to be either present in constructional
Possessive. For example:
“Her iron” (Ge, 2011)
It presupposes (») she has a iron) or for any definite noun phrase, as in the use
Of phrases such as: the King of Sweden, the cat, etc., the speaker presupposes the
Presence of the named entities. It means this types of presupposition by the existential
The noun itself.
 2.The factice presupposition
Factiva presupposition since some words are used in the sentences to denote
Facts, such as, regret, glad, odd, know, realize and aware. For example:
“Everybody knows that Clara was beautiful” (Yule, 2010).
It presupposes that John is beautiful. It means this types is the verb that had
Indicate a fact or real.
The non-fictive presupposition
  3. Non-fictive presupposition is the contrast of fictive presupposition. It is assumed
Not to be true. Verbs like dream, imagine and pretend are used with the
presupposition That what follows is not true. For example:
“Clara dreamed that she was rich” (Yule, 2010)
It presupposes that Clara was not rich. It means this types is the verb that had
Indicate not real or true.
The lexical presupposition
The lexical presupposition is the use of form with its asserted meaning is
Conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another meaning is understood.
For example:
“Someone managed to do something” (Ge, 2011)
The asserted meaning is that the person succeeds in some way. So when people
Claim that someone did not perform, the implication is the person did not succeed.
Nevertheless, there was an assumption (not asserted) that the individual was attempting
To do anything like that. Thus conventionally perceived as declaring succeed and
Presupposing tried (Yule, 2010). It mean this type had indicated something that stop or
Begin.
 4.The structural presupposition
The structural presupposition is conceptual assumptions. In this case, these
Sentence structures have been examined as conventionally and regularly assuming that
Part of the structure is assumed to be true. One would suggest that speakers may use
These systems to view knowledge as presumed (assumed to be true) and therefore to be
Recognized as valid by the listeners. For example:
“It presupposes that Clara go. The presupposition of a sentence is the set of
Conditions that had to be satisfied in order for the intended. It mean this type has the
Structure of the sentence itself.
 5. The counter-factual presupposition
Counter-factual presupposition is presupposed is not only true, but was the
Opposite of what is true, or contrary to facts. For example:
“If you were a friend of his, you should have supported him” (Ge, 2011)
It presupposes that you are not his friend. The conditional form of this sentence
Presupposes that the knowledge in the if-clause is not true at the time of the speech. It
Means this type had the word that indicated the sentence has a contrast with the
Condition of the speaker.
  Usage of presupposition
There is theory regarding the usage or the function presupposition. Pace said
In Ge (2011) there are eight usages of the presupposition that are acceptable.
 Conciseness
Concise language is more meaningful, powerful and convincing. For example:
The most widely used syntactical constructs in advertising language imperative
Phrases such as purchase something or do something and “You can …” in
Advertisements mean something more like “You need something,” “We can offer you
…” or “You can find comfort and relaxation with us” (Yule, 2016).
These presuppositions bring immediate effectiveness to advertisers. It means the
Presupposition had the use to make people understand the intention of the speaker by
Short sentence or utterance.
 Interestingness
This presupposition contains the shortcoming of product, therefore, the
Advertisement much more easily attracts consumers’ attention. Consumers can soon
Find that the presence of noise in a presupposition is rational, and does not in any way
Affect the functioning of the car, but, on the contrary, represents its high quality. As a
Consequence, the engagement of the reader and the amusement in the process are
Induced by user incomprehension and understanding. This means that this usage makes
The sentence more interesting and draws people to le
 Enlargement
Presupposition can enlarge the amount of information because presupposition
Information hardly appears solely. For example in the utterance:
“Why suffer another summer?” (Air conditioner) (Yule, 2016)
The main information of the sentence can enlarge the amount of information by
Increasing information density. The new information is air conditioner and old
Information is the question itself
 Emphasis
In communication, people convey certain information. The information can be
Given information and new information. The speaker will order given information Before new
information. The “unmarked” sequence of the information system is
Considered to be “given-new,” Yule (2016) which indicates that the arrangement of the
Information is in a series that goes from the information to the new information. The
Information emphasis is always structured at the last lexical point of the new
Information to be presented. In a word, presupposition determines the content and
Position of information focus of an utterance. The change in presupposition means the

 3. Contradiction
  4. Ambiguity
Semantic ambiguity exist when a word form corresponding to more than one
meaning or interpretation
For bilingual speaker additional ambiguity may arise when a word form is shared across
language but the meaning are different
 For example
English word “ organ “ which donates both a body parts and a musical instruments
She said john hits a girl with umbrella
 Type of Ambiguity
 Structure ambiguity
 Lexical ambiguity
 STRUCTURE Ambiguity
Structure ambiguity is the presence of two or more possible meaning within a sentence or
sequence of word
 Example
Flying planes can be dangerous
The tourist saw a woman with a telephone
 LEXICAL ambiguity
Lexical ambiguity is the presence of two or more possible for single word it’s also called
lexical homonym
 Example
L went to the Bank _
I know a little Italian ____ child . Language

 5. What is amelioration?
Amelioration is a type of semantic change that elevates a word’s meaning over time. A word
that previously had a negative meaning develops a positive one. Sometimes this process is
referred to as semantic melioration or semantic elevation. Amelioration occurs for different
extralinguistic reasons, such as cultural factors and changes in society over time. Amelioration is
less common than its opposite – pejoration.
. Some examples of amelioration include dizzy, pretty, Knight, Lord, and Lady.
 Dizzy
In Old English, the word ‘dizzy’ meant ‘foolish’. This meaning partially survives today in
expressions such as ‘a dizzy blonde’, for example. However, by Middle English, the main
meaning of the word ‘dizzy’ had become ‘to suffer from vertigo’ which is the meaning we
associate with the word nowadays.
 Pretty
The word ‘pretty’ comes from West Saxon (‘prating’), Kentish (‘pretty’), and Mercian
(‘prettying’). In Old English, the adjective was used to describe someone or something that
was ‘cunning, skillful, artful, wily, astute.’ But by the year 1400, with language developing
from Old English to Middle English, the word ‘pretty’ had taken on a new meaning which was
‘manly, gallant’.

With time, this meaning changed once again, to ‘attractive, skillfully made’ until it shifted to
‘fine’. By the mid-fifteenth century, the
adjective pretty is described something is very beautiful
 Nice
“The word nice is a classic example of amelioration . . .. This is a rare occurrence, compared
with the opposite process of pejoration, or downgrading.
“The meaning of nice when it first appeared in Middle English (about 1300) was ‘(of persons
or their actions) foolish, silly, simple; ignorant, senseless, absurd.’
“ . . . A shift away from disparagement began in the 1500s, with such meanings as ‘requiring
or involving great precision or accuracy.’ . . .
The movement toward amelioration reached its apex in the 1800s with such meanings as
‘kind and considerate, friendly.’”
(Sol Steinmetz, Semantic Antics: How and Why Words Change Meanings. Random House,
2008