(19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

MUTHAYAMMAL COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE,

RASIPURAM-637408
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
II YEAR/III SEM
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS - (19UEL03)
UNIT-III (Amplifiers)

3.1. Amplifiers:
A circuit that increases the amplitude of the given input signal
signal is an amplifier.
A small AC signal fed to the amplifier is obtained as a larger AC signal of the same frequency at
the output.
Amplifiers constitute an essential part of radio, television and other communication circuits.
In discrete circuits, bipolar junction transistors and Field effect transistors are commonly used
as amplifying elements.
Depending on the nature and level of amplification and the impedance matching requirements
different types of amplifiers are available as follows.

3.2. Classification of Amplifiers:

1. Based on the transistor configuration
Common emitter amplifier
Common collector amplifier
Common base amplifier
2. Based on the active device
BJT amplifier
FET amplifier
3. Based on the Q-point
point (operating condition)
Class A amplifier
Class B amplifier
Class AB amplifier
Class C amplifier
4. Based on the number of stages
Single stage amplifier
Multi stage amplifier
5. Based on the output
Voltage amplifier
Power amplifier
6. Based on the frequency response
Audio frequency (AF) amplifier
Intermediate frequency
equency (IF) amplifier
Radio frequency (RF) amplifier
7. Based on the bandwidth
Narrow band amplifier (normally RF amplifier)
Wide band amplifier (normally video amplifier)

I. Balakrishnan, [Link]/E&C,
[Link]/E&C, | MCAS - Department of Electronics
ctronics and Commu
Communication 1
 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

3.3. Class A amplifier:

In a Class A amplifier, the transistor is biased such that the output current flows, i.e. the
transistor is ON for the full cycle (360°) of the input ac signal as shown in figure.

Figure 1 (Class A Operation)

A simple transistor amplifier that supplies power
to a pure resistance load RL is shown in figure.
Assuming that the static output characteristics
are equidistant for equal increments of input
base current iB, if the input signal iB is a
sinusoidal the output current and voltage are
also sinusoidal as shown .
ic, vc are instantaneous deviations from quiescent
values Ic and Vc.
The power output is given by the equation Figure 2(Simple Series fed Amplifier)
= =
Where VC and IC are the RMS values of the
output voltage vc and output current ic
respectively.
−
= =
√2 2√2
and
−
= =
√2 2√2
The output power,
= =
√ √
− −
= =
8

The power term can be expressed in terms Figure 3(Class A Operation waveforms)
of load resistance RL
= =
√2 √2 2

= =
2 2

3.3.1. Transformer Coupled Class-A Audio Power Amplifier:

In the above figure, the load resistor is connected directly in the output circuit.
Hence, the quiescent current passes through this resistor resulting in considerable waste of
power as it does not contribute to the ac signal at the output, thereby decreasing the efficiency
of the amplifier.
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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

Further, it is not advisable to pass the DC

component of current through the output
device, for example, the voice coil of a
loud speaker.
This problem can be solved by using a
suitable transformer for coupling the load
to the amplifier as shown in figure.
Since the load is not directly connected to
collector terminal the DC collector
current does not pass through it.
In an ideal transformer, the resistance of
the primary winding is zero. Hence DC Figure 4(Transformer coupled Class A Amplifier)
power loss in the load is zero. Hence, the transformer substitutes the DC load with an ac load.
To transfer a significant amount of power to a practical load such as a loud speaker with a voice
coil impedance of 4 to 20Ω, it is necessary to use an output matching transformer.
Otherwise, the internal device resistance which might be higher than that of the speaker will
lead to most of the power generated is lost in the active device.
The secondary load RL when reflected into the primary becomes
R’L = RL/n2,
where n = voltage transformation ratio = N2/N1,
N2 = number of secondary turns
N1 = number of primary turns.
By taking N2 lesser than N1, n can be made much less than unity and RL can be made to look
much bigger than the actual value.

3.3.2. Efficiency of class A Amplifiers:

Assume that the amplifier is supplying power to a pure resistive load.
The average power input from the DC supply is VCC X IC .
The power absorbed by the output circuit is + where Ic and Vc are the RMS output
current and voltage, respectively, and RL is the static load resistance.
If PDV, is taken as the average power dissipated by the active device, then from the principle of
conservation of energy,
= + +
Under DC conditions, from the series fed amplifier, Vcc = Vc + IcRL. Substituting value of Vcc in the
above equation
+ = + +
+ = + +
= + − −
= −
From the above equation gives the amount of power that must be dissipated by the active
device.
It represents the kinetic energy of the electrons which is converted into heat.
For no applied input signal, the AC power output is zero, and then PDV has its maximum value of
V cI c.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

For an applied input signal, the heating of the device is reduced by the amount of ac power
converted by the stage and supplied to the load.
Hence, the amplifying device is cooler when delivering power to the load than when there is no
such AC power transfer.
[Link]. Conversion efficiency:
It is a measure of the ability of an active device in converting the DC power of the supply into
the AC power delivered to the load.
Conversion efficiency is also referred to as theoretical efficiency or collector circuit efficiency and
is denoted by η. By definition, the percentage efficiency is
!"#$% '()* +)%!,)*)- .' .ℎ) 0'$-
= × 100%
+1 '()* 233%!)- .' .ℎ) '2.32. 4!*42!.
×
= √2 √2 × 100%

= × 50%

The collector circuit efficiency differs from the overall efficiency because the power taken by
the base is not included in the denominator of the above equation.
[Link].Maximum value of efficiency:
With certain idealizations made in the characteristic
curves, it is possible to obtain an approximate expression
for the maximum value of efficiency.
Though these assumptions introduce errors in the analysis,
the results permit a rapid estimate of the numerical value
of efficiency and furnish an upper limit for this figure of
merit.
It is assumed that the static curves are equally spaced in
the region of the load line for equal increments in the
excitation (base current). Figure 5(Load line for efficiency
calculation)
Referring to the load line given in the figure the distance 1
to Q is equal to that from Q to 2.
Further, it is assumed that the excitation is such as to give zero minimum current.
This load line may be used to analyse either a simple series-fed amplifier or a transformer-
coupled amplifier.
The only difference between these two circuits is that the supply voltage Vcc = Vmax in the
series-fed case, whereas VCC = quiescent voltage VC in the transformer coupled amplifier.
Under these idealized conditions,
= and =
Hence the efficiency becomes
= × 50%

Substituting the values of Im and Vm in the above equation

−
= × 50%
2×

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

−
= × 25%

The type of coupling used must now be taken into account for the series-fed load VCC = Vmax and
−
= × 25%

The above equation indicates that the upper limit of the conversion efficiency is 25%, and even
this low value is approached only when Vmax >> Vmin.
If the load is coupled to the amplifier stage through a transformer, then
= × 50%
−
= 2 × 50%
−
2
= 50%
3.4. Class B Amplifier:
In a Class B amplifier the transistor bias and the amplitude of the input signal are selected such
that the output current flows, for only one half cycle (180°) of the input ac signal
In a Class B amplifier the transistor is biased almost at cut-off, so that it remains forward biased
only for one half cycle of the input signal.
Hence its conduction angle is only 180°.

Figure 6(Class B Operation)

The advantages of Class B as compared with Class A operation are
possible to obtain greater power output
efficiency is higher
Negligible power loss (as no output current flows) at no input signal.
For these reasons, in such applications where the power supply is limited, say, operating from
solar cells or a battery, the output is usually delivered through a push-pull Class B transistor
circuit.
3.4.1. Efficiency of Class B Amplifier:

The graphical construction for determining

the output waveforms of a single Class B
transistor amplifier stage is shown in figure.
In this diagram, the output characteristics
are assumed to be equally spaced for equal
intervals of excitation so that the dynamic
transfer curve is a straight line.
It is also assumed that the minimum current
is zero.
Figure 7(Class B Operation Waveforms)

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

From figure, for a given sinusoidal input, the output is sinusoidal during one half of each period
and zero during the second half cycle.
Load resistance connected in the secondary reflected into the primary, i.e. the effective load
resistance is
′ = ;< ⁄;
Here, N1 represents the number of primary turns from one end to the center tap.
The waveforms shown in figure are for one transistor (Q1) only.
The output of Q2 is a series of sine loop pulses that are 180° out of phase with those of Q1.
The load current which is proportional to difference between the two collector currents is
therefore a perfect sine wave for the ideal conditions assumed.
The power output is
= > ? > ? =
√2 √2
=
2
=
−
2
The corresponding direct collector current in each transistor under load is the average value of
half sine wave of Figure.
Since @A = for this waveform, the total d.c. input waveform for the two transistors used in
B
the push-pull system is given by
=2 @A =2
C
The factor 2 in this expression arises because two transistors are used in the push-pull system.
The collector circuit efficiency
= × 100%

−
= 2 × 100%
2
C
C −
= × 100%
4
C
=
E1 − F × 100%
4
For transistor circuits Vmin << VCC , it is possible to approach maximum conversion efficiency
given by = 25 C% = 78.5% for a Class B system compared with 50% for Class A operation.
Such a large value of efficiency results from the fact when there is no excitation there is no
current in a Class B system, whereas in a Class A system even when there is no excitation (at
zero input signal) there is a drain Ice from the power supply.
Further, in a Class B amplifier the dissipation at the collector is zero in the quiescent state and
increases with excitation, whereas the heating of collectors of a Class A system is maximum at
zero input and decreases as the signal increases.
Since the direct current increases with signal in a Class B amplifier, the power supply should
have good regulation.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

3.4.2. Class-B - Push-Pull Amplifier:

In class-A amplifiers waveform the static output characteristics are equidistant for equal
increment of input excitation.
Hence the dynamic transfer characteristic is assumed to be linear and the output waveform will
resemble the input waveform.
But in practice this condition is not valid. Hence distortion of the output waveform might result.
A large amount of distortion introduced by
the non-linearity of the dynamic transfer
characteristic may be eliminated by the
push-pull configuration as shown in the
figure.
In this circuit the input excitation is
introduced through a center-tapped
transformer where two equal voltages
which differ in the phase by 180° is
produced across the secondary winding. Figure 8(Class B Push Pull Amplifier)
Thus when the signal on transistor Q1 is positive, the signal on Q2 is negative by an equal
amount.
For the input signal of the form ib1 =Ibm Cos⍵t applied to Q1, the output current from the
transistor is given by
i1=IC + B0 + B1 Cos ⍵t + B2 Cos 2⍵t + B3 Cos 3⍵t + . . . .
Where, B0, B1, B2, B3 . . . . are the constants determined by the nonlinearity of the transistor.
In addition to the input frequency ⍵, certain higher order terms given by 2⍵, 3⍵, . . . are
available in the output that distorts the output waveform with respect to the input waveform.
This type of distortion is referred to as harmonic distortion and this should be minimized.
The corresponding input signal to Q2 is
ib2=-ib1=Ibm Cos (⍵t+π)
The output current from this transistor is obtained by replacing ⍵t by (⍵t+π)in the expression
for i1, That is
i2(⍵t)=i1(⍵t+π)
Hence
i2=IC + B0 + B1 Cos (⍵t+π) + B2 Cos 2(⍵t+π) + B3 Cos 3(⍵t+π) + . . . .
Which is reduced to
i2=IC + B0 - B1 Cos (⍵t+π) + B2 Cos 2(⍵t+π) - B3 Cos 3(⍵t+π) + . . . .
As shown in circuit the currents i1 and i2 flow in opposite directions through the primary
winding of the output transformer.
The total output current i, in the secondary is then proportional to the difference between the
two collector currents.
That is, i=k (i1-i2) = 2k (B1Cos ⍵t+ B3Cos 3⍵t+…..)
This expression shows that a push-pull circuit will balance out all even harmonics in the output
and the third harmonic term acts as the principle source of distortion, provided the two
transistors Q1 and Q2 are identical.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

[Link]. Advantages
A push-pull arrangement gives less distortion for a given power output.
The DC components of the collector current oppose each other magnetically in the transformer
core, thereby eliminating any tendency towards core saturation leading to non-linear
distortion.
The effects of ripple voltages contained in the power supply will be balanced out.
[Link]. Disadvantages:
It requires a bulky and expensive output transformer.
It requires two out-of-phase input signals which necessitate an input center tapped transformer
or phase inverter.

3.5. Distortion in Power Amplifiers:

An amplifier should produce an output
waveform which does not differ from
the input signal waveform in any
respect except amplitude.
The output is an amplified signal of the
input.
The difference between the output
waveform and the input waveform in
an amplifier is called distortion.
3.5.1. Cross over distortion:
This is caused by non-linearity of the
input characteristic of the transistors.
Transistors do not turn ON at zero volt
applied to the emitter junction but only
when the emitter junction is forward Figure 9(Distortion in Power Amplifiers)
biased by the cut in voltage Vγ = 0.3 V for germanium and 0.7 V for silicon.
As a result, the sinusoidal base voltage excitation will not result in a sinusoidal output current.
The distortion caused by non-linear transistor
input characteristic is shown in figure.
The iB - vB curve for each transistor is drawn and
the construction used to obtain the output
current is shown.
In the regions of small input currents (for vB <
Vγ), the output is much smaller than it would be
if the response were linear and this effect is
called Cross over distortion.
In a Class B push-pull amplifier this results in
one transistor cutting off before the other begins
conducting as shown in the figure.
The distortion introduced is called so because it
occurs during the time when the operation
crosses over from one transistor to the other in
the push-pull amplifier. Figure 10(Cross Over Distortion)

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

To minimise cross over distortion, the transistors must operate in a Class AB mode where a
small standby current flows at zero excitation.
But the price that must be paid for this improvement is a loss in efficiency and waste of standby
power.

3.6. Complementary Symmetry (Class B) Push-Pull Amplifier:

In a complementary symmetry class B
amplifier, a PNP-NPN transistor pair is used.
When common emitter configuration is used
in push pull amplifier, it becomes difficult to
match the output impedance for maximum
power transfer without an output
transformer.
Hence a matched pair of complementary
transistors is used in common collector
configuration in this arrangement.
The common collector configuration has the
lowest output impedance and hence
impedance matching is possible.
The complementary symmetry amplifier Figure 11(Complimentary Symmetry Push Pull
eliminates these two disadvantages and Amplifier)

retaining the advantages of push-pull configuration.

The input driver transformer is used to provide two signals 180° out-of-phase.
This is required to turn one transistor ON as the other transistor is being turned OFF and vice
versa.
However, if the same signal voltage is applied to the bases of two transistors, one a PNP and the
other an NPN, the actions on the two transistors are opposite.
During the positive half cycle, emitter base junction of the NPN transistor would be forward
biased, but emitter base junction of the PNP transistor is reverse biased.
The reverse will be the case during the negative half cycle thereby satisfying the required push-
pull action.
A Class B push-pull solid-state amplifier using the above principle is shown in figure.
For satisfactory working, both the transistors should be made with the same material and
technology, and have the same maximum rating.
In addition to reduced cost and weight the elimination of transformers extend both the high and
low frequency responses of the circuit.

3.6.1. Advantages:
The circuit is transformer less.
Due to common collector configuration, impedance matching is possible.
The frequency response improves due to transformer less class-B amplifier circuit.

3.6.2. Disadvantages:
The circuit needs two separate voltage supplies.
The output is distorted due to cross over distortion.

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3.7. Class AB Amplifier:

Class AB amplifier overcomes the
problem of crossover distortion
present in Class B amplifiers, in which a
small current flow even at zero input
signal level.
The circuit of a Class AB push-pull
amplifier is shown in figure.
The circuit, which is essentially the
same as that of Class B amplifier, has
additional RE resistors referred to as Figure 12( Class AB Amplifier)
the emitter-stabilizing resistors.
This biases the transistor away from Class B slightly towards Class A operation.
The transistors Q1 and Q2 are biased such that the Q point of Class AB is placed in between the
active region of Class A and cut-off region of Class B.
The transistors therefore conduct for more than 180°, so that the crossover distortion present
in Class B is eliminated.
The voltage drop across resistor R2 is approximately equal to the cut-in voltage of the
transistor.
When an ac signal is applied to the base, the collector current starts flowing immediately.
But there will be a decrease in the output power due to the negative feedback effect.
The efficiency of Class AB amplifier is greater than Class A amplifier and slightly less than Class
B amplifier.

3.8. Class C Power Amplifier:

Class C power amplifier is designed to
conduct only over a small part of
positive half cycle of the input
waveform.
The figure shows the class C amplifier,
where the negative supply voltage VBB
connected to the base circuit reverse
biases the base-emitter junction so that
it will conduct only when input signal
exceeds the reverse bias.
As a result the collector current lc will Figure 13(Class C amplifier)

be in the form of pulses.

Hence the class C amplifier is not used in the audio frequency but used in the radio frequency
range.
The tank circuit connected to the collector of the amplifier restores the sine wave of the input
signal, but complex audio waveform and rectangular waveforms cannot be restored.
Class C amplifiers are designed to ensure small conduction angle in order to maintain high
efficiency.
Hence a signal biasing arrangement is used so that the conduction angle is maintained constant
irrespective of varying amplitude of input signal.

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As shown in figure the conduction angle is less than 90° for

small input signal and more than 120° for large input signal.
Conduction angle more than 120° is too large and amplifier
efficiency will decrease.
Since large currents overheat the transistor, signal biasing is
used to overcome the problem and maintain the constant
conduction angle.
From circuit diagram, if the input signal of the self bias circuit
exceeds, average charge of the capacitor C1 increases, thereby Figure 14(Phase variation of
increasing the reverse bias of Base-Emitter junction, thus Signals)

maintaining the constant conduction angle.

Thus the effective reverse bias of base emitter junction automatically adjusts to the amplitude
of the input signal so that the transistor is switched ON over a constant conduction angle.
The figure shows the input and output waveforms of class C amplifier.

3.8.1. Efficiency of Class C Amplifier:

The class C amplifier model shown in the figure is used to derive an analytical expression for
the power conversion efficiency.
The corresponding output waveform is also shown, When the transistor is in OFF state i.e. the
switch is open, the collector voltage is given by
. = JK L + 1'M N.
When the transistor is in ON state i.e. the switch is closed, the collector voltage is given by
. = JK L
Since the dc resistance of the coil is approximately zero in the class C amplifier, the time-
average value of VC(t) will be zero.
1 Q
= P . -.
O R
Since VCEsat is very small when compared to Vm the above expression becomes
1 Q
= JK L + P . -.
O R
1 B
= JK L + P !#N. -.
2C R

= JK L + S−1'M [Link]
2C
= JK L S−1'M C − 1'M 0T
+
2C
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= JK L + S2T
2C
= JK L +
C
∴ =C − JK L
Hence the DC Power is
=
@A @A
Where Idc. is the average current. Due to the blocking capacitor, the same average current flows
through the transistor when it is in saturation.
The power dissipated by the transistor is
L = JK L @A
Hence, the a.c. output power is
A = @A − L
A = @A − JK L @A
A = @A − JK L
Therefore, the efficiency of the class C amplifier is
A @A − JK L @A
= =
@A @A
JK L
=1−

Since V CEsat is very small as compared to VCC, the efficiency of the class C amplifier is very
high i.e. above 90%.

3.9. Multistage Amplifiers:

If the voltage or power gain obtained from a single stage small signal amplifier is not
sufficient for a practical application, one have to use more than one stage of amplification to
achieve necessary voltage and power gain.
Such an amplifier is called a multistage amplifier.
In multistage amplifier, the output of one stage is fed as the input to the next as shown in the
figure.

Figure 15( Coupling of amplifier stages)

Such a connection is commonly referred to as cascading.

In amplifiers, cascading is also done to achieve correct input and output impedances for
specific applications.
Depending upon the type of amplifier used in individual stages, multistage amplifiers can be
classified into several types.
A multistage amplifier using two or more single stage common emitter amplifier is called as
cascaded amplifiers.

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A multistage amplifier with common emitter as the first stage and common base as the second
stage is called as cascode amplifier. Such cascade and cascode connections are also possible in
FET amplifiers.

3.10. Coupling:
Coupling is the process of connecting output of one amplifier stage to the input of its next stage.
When amplifiers are cascaded, it is necessary to use a coupling network between the output
of one amplifier and the input of the following amplifier.
This type of coupling is called inter stage coupling.
Basically, these coupling networks serve the following two purposes.
It transfers the AC output of one stage to the input of the next stage.
It isolates the DC conditions of one stage to the next.

3.11. Types of Coupling:

The three coupling schemes commonly used in multistage amplifiers are:

3.11.1. Resistance-capacitance (RC) coupling:

It is the most commonly used discrete device amplifiers as it is least expensive and has
satisfactory frequency response.
In this method, the signal developed across the collector resistor R, of each stage is
coupled through capacitor CC into the base of the next stage.
The coupling capacitor CC isolates the DC conditions of one stage from the following stage.
The amplifiers using this coupling scheme are called RC-coupled amplifiers.

3.11.2. Transformer coupling:

In this method, the primary winding of the transformer acts as a collector load and the
secondary winding transfers the AC output signal directly to the base of the next stage.
Such a coupling increases the overall circuit gain and the level of inter stage impedance
matching.
However, transformers with broad frequency response are very expensive and hence, this
type of coupling is restricted mostly to power amplifiers where efficient impedance
matching is a critical requirement for maximum power transfer and efficiency.
The amplifiers using this coupling scheme are called Transformer-coupled amplifiers.

3.11.3. Direct coupling:

In this method the AC output signal is fed directly to the next stage.
No reactance is included in the coupling network.
Special DC voltage level circuits are used to match the output DC levels.
It is used when amplification of low frequency signals is to be done.
Further, coupling devices such as capacitors, transformers cannot be used at low
frequencies because their size becomes very large.
The amplifiers using these coupling schemes are called direct-coupled amplifiers or DC
amplifiers.

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3.12. RC Coupled Amplifier:

Figure 16(Two Stage RC Coupled Amplifier)

The two stage RC coupled common emitter amplifier is shown in the figure.
The two transistors are identical and a common power supply is used.
RC is the collector (load) resistor.
Resistors R1, R2 and RE provide the required bias.
The bypass capacitor CE prevents loss of amplification due to negative feedback.
The output of the first stage gets coupled to the input of the second stage via coupling
capacitor C C which also serves as the blocking capacitor to keep the DC component of the
output of the first stage from reaching the input of the second stage and to pass AC
component.
3.12.1. Operation:
The ac input signal applied at the base is amplified by the transistor Q1 as shown in
Figure.
Its phase is reversed and the amplified output appears across its collector load R C.
The output of the first stage across Rc is given to the base of the second stage transistor Q2
through the coupling capacitor CC.
This signal at the base of Q2 is further amplified and its phase is again reversed.
Hence the output signal is the twice amplified replica of the input signal.
The output signal is in phase with the input signal because it has been reversed twice.
In the mid-frequency range, the gain is constant because the coupling and bypass capacitors
are as good as short circuits.
On both sides of the mid-frequency range, the gain decreases.
At high frequencies, the value β of the transistor decreases.
Hence, the reactance of the capacitor CC increases with the reduction in frequency of the signal,
the voltage gain of the amplifier reduces.
At very low and very high frequencies, the gain of the amplifier reduces to almost zero.
3.12.2. Frequency response:
An amplifier should operate irrespective of the frequency of the input signal.
But practically an amplifier does not magnify all frequency range of input signal with an equal
amount.
Practically, by using the reactive components, the gain will be decreased at low and high
frequency ranges and constant only at mid frequency ranges.
This behavior of the amplifier is briefly explained below.

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[Link]. Low frequency range:

At low frequencies, the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quit high and hence very low
amount of signal will pass from first stage to the second stage.
So gain will be reduced. Similarly, the reactance of the bypassing capacitor CE is very high
hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistor RE effectively.
These two factors reduce the voltage gain of the amplifier at low frequency at low frequency
range.
[Link]. High frequency range:
At high frequencies the reactance of the coupling capacitor is very low. Hence it behaves as a
short circuit.
This increases the loading effect of next stage.
Similarly, at high frequencies the reactance of bypassing capacitor CE is very low which
increases the base current.
This reduces the current amplification factor β.
These two factors reduce the voltage gain of the amplifier at high frequency range.
[Link]. Mid frequency range:
At mid frequencies the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant.
At this range the effect of coupling capacitor is to maintain a uniform voltage gain.
In this range as the frequency increases, the reactance of Cc decreases which tends to increase
the voltage gain.
However, at the same time, lower reactance means higher loading of the first stage tends to
decrease the voltage gain.
These two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform gain at mid frequency range.
[Link]. Frequency response characteristics (Load characteristic analysis):
The curve which shows the variations of
magnitude of gain with respect to
frequency is called Frequency response.
The frequency response characteristics of
a two stage RC coupled amplifier is shown
in the fig.
The gain is reduced at low and high
frequency ranges, and constant only at
mid frequency range.
From the response curve we will calculate
lower cut off frequency (fL), upper cut
Figure 17(Frequency response Curve)
off frequency (fU) and Bandwidth (BW).
Lower cut off frequency (fL): The frequency at which the voltage gain of the amplifier is
70.7% of maximum gain (average gain) on lower side of the frequency range is called lower cut
off frequency (fL).
Upper cut-off frequency (fU): The frequency at which the voltage gain of the amplifier is
70.7% of maximum gain (average gain) on the higher side of the frequency range is called
upper cut off frequency (fU).
Bandwidth (BW): The range of frequency over which the gain is equal to or greater than
70.7% of maximum gain is known as Bandwidth.
It is also defined as the frequency difference between the upper cut-off frequency and lower
cut-off frequency.
I. Balakrishnan, [Link]/E&C, | MCAS - Department of Electronics and Communication 15
 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

[Link]. Advantages:
Frequency response is excellent
Cost is low
Non-linear distortion is low
It is compact, light and small
[Link]. Disadvantages:
Low voltage and power gain
Noise is produced with age, particularly in moist climates.
Impedance matching is poor.
[Link]. Applications:
Used in initial stage of public addressing systems.
Used as a voltage amplifiers.

3.13. Transformer Coupled Amplifier:

Figure 18(Transformer Coupled Amplifier)

The figure shows the circuit diagram of a multistage transformer coupled amplifier.
A current source Is with shunt resistance Rs drives the amplifier through the input
transformer TR1.
The load resistor RL is connected to the output circuit of the second amplifier stage through
transformer TR3.
The transformer coupled amplifier may be used in the following three ways: (i) as input stage
usually driven by a microphone, (ii) as output stage feeding the load impedance, and (iii) as
intermediate stage.
The coupling of one stage to another may be made more effective by the use of transformers
to match the output impedance of one stage to the input impedance of the next.
This impedance matching results in increased power gain.
Further, this method of coupling isolates the load impedance circuit of the amplifier from DC
bias stabilisation network of the next stage.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

However, for good results it becomes necessary to shield the transformer against noise, hum
and unwanted signal pickups.
In the circuit, capacitors C1 and C2 permit complete input power to flow into the base circuit.
Given the load resistor RL, the circuit can be analyzed starting at the right obtaining RL2 by
taking into account the turns ratio of the output transformer TR3.
This will be the load for transistor Q2 and should be ideally equal to the output resistance of
Q2 for a maximum power transfer.
Next, the input resistance of Q2 equal to Ri2 would permit the determination of the load
across the inter stage transformer TR2, if the turns ratio of TR2 were known.
This would be the effective load RL1 for Q1.
Finally, the input resistance Rif to Q1 would allow the selection of driver transformer TR1,
based on the knowledge of source resistance Rs.
In general, transformers are not selected for their turns ratio, but for the impedances they are
to match and their power handling capacity.
However, these impedances would permit the determination of turns ratio for calculating
current gain and voltage gain.
3.13.1. Frequency Response:
The circuit will have a series resonant effect at
high frequencies.
But because of the usually large value of Rs, the
overall Q of the circuit will be low in the region of
0.5 to 2.
Thus the resonant effect is not pronounced but
the resonant frequency f where Xc = XL1 will give
an indication of the upper 3 dB frequency fH.
That is why fH is usually somewhat higher than fo

which is given by Figure 19(Frequency Response of Transformer

1
VW =
Coupled Amplifier)

2CX0< 1
The variation of the amplifier's voltage gain with frequency is shown in figure for different
values of Q.
3.13.2. Advantages:
An excellent impedance matching is provided.
Gain achieved is higher.
There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
Efficient in operation.
3.13.3. Disadvantages:
Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency.
Frequency distortion is higher.
Transformers tend to produce hum noise.
Transformers are bulky and costly.
3.13.4. Applications:
Mostly used for impedance matching purposes.
Used for Power amplification.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

3.14. Direct Coupled Amplifiers:

In the field of instrumentation and power
supplies, there are many signals that
change very slowly with time.
To process these signals, circuits must be
employed whose frequency response is
stretched flat down to DC.
This prevents the use of the inter stage
coupling elements, such as capacitors and
transformers, as these components
attenuate very low frequencies and
completely block DC signals. Figure 20(Direct Coupled Amplifier)
There are two basic techniques for amplifying such low frequency signals that change very
slowly with time.
One is to use direct coupled amplifiers and the second one requires chopping the DC signals
so as to change it to an AC signal which is then amplified using conventional AC amplifiers and
reconstructed at the output as DC
In the design of DC amplifiers, one should ensure that DC levels of each stage are compatible
with those of other circuits to which the stage is connected.

I. Balakrishnan, [Link]/E&C, | MCAS - Department of Electronics and Communication 18