‘constitutes the basic movement of a de ammeter. basic movement is small and light, it can carry only large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to current through a resistance ealled a shunt, as shown of shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit of the movement, ‘current of the movement of the ammeter + shunt (i total current) ‘is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage ‘must be the same,Ammeters 65 Example 8.1(8) 4 1 ma meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 is to be converted into a 0 ~ 100 mA. Calculate the value of shunt resistance required. Solution Given R,,~ 1002.1," L mA, f= 100 mA, otal SAO mA UE it 1-1, 99mA oma 9 The shunt resistance used with a basic movement may consist of a length of constant temperature resistance wire within the case of the instrument. Alternatively, there may be an extemal (manganin or constantan) shunt having very low resistance. ‘The general requirements of a shunt are as follows. 1. The temperature coefficients of the shunt and instrument should be low and nearly identical 2. The resistance of the shunt should not vary with time. 3. Itshould carry the current without excessive temperature rise. 4, Itshould have a low thermal emf. Manganin is usually used as a shunt for de instruments, since it gives a low value of thermal emf with copper. Constantan is a useful material for ac circuits, since it’s comparatively high thermal emf, being unidirectional, is ineffective on the these circuits. ‘Shunt for low current are enclosed in the meter casing, while for currents above 200 A, they are mounted separately. Example 3.1 (b) 4.100 24 meter movement with an internal resistance of 500 82s 10 be used in a 0~ 100 mA Ammeter. Find the value of the required shunt. Solution ‘The shunt can also be determined by considering current J to be ‘n’ times larger than /,,. This is called a multiplying factor and relates the total current and meter current. Therefore 1=nIy ‘Therefore the equation for Aw ltl Tain _ doe THIy Ay ty Igi—1) (aD) Given: /,,= 100 BA and R,, 500.0 1 _100mA Step I: n-te = 1000 od i, YOO RA Step 2: Sq. 5002 _ 500g 590 Ry = G1) 1000-1 999 0: wore Eaygie66 _Elecronie Instrumentation MULTIRANGE AMMETERS The current range of the de ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected by a range switeh, Such a meter is called a multirange ammeter, shown in Fig. 3.2 The circuit has four shunts Ry, Ry, and Ry, Which can be placed in parallel the movement to give four different current ranges. Switch $ is « mattiposition switch, fig. 32. Multrange ammeter (having low contact resistance and high current carrying capacity, since its contacts are in series with low resistance shunts). Make before break type switch is used for range changing. This switch protects the meter movement from being damaged without a shunt during range changing, If we use an ordinary switch for range changing, the meter does not have any shunt in parallel while the range is being changed, and hence full current passes through the meter movement, damaging the movement. Hence a make before break type switch is used. The switch is so designed that when the switch position is changed, it makes contact with the next terminal (range) before breaking contact with the previous terminal. Therefore the meter movement is never left unprotected. Multirange ammeters are used for ranges up to SOA. When using a multirange ammeter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the range until good upscale reading is obtained. The resistance used for the various ranges are of very high precision values, hence the cost of the meter increases. R, Example 8.2 4 1 m4 meter movemem having an internal resistance of 100 Q is used to convert into a multirange ammeter having the range 0-10 ‘mA, 0-20 mA and 0-80 mA. Determine the value of the shunt resistance required. Solution Given Iy=1mAand R,,= 100.0 Case 1: For the range 0 ~ 10 mA Given Ry, Ima x100 1-1, 10mA-1mA Case 2: For the range 0-20 mA mA x100__ 100. Given R,, 20 20mA-ImA 19 Given Ryy = 2B = _HmA x 100 11, 50mA=1mA 0: wore EaygieAmmeters 67 Example 3.3 ° Design a muttirange ammeter with range of 0-1 A, 5A and 10 A employing individual shunt in each A D’Arsonval movement with an internal resistance of 500 [Link] a full scale deflection of 10 mA is available. Solution Given /,,= 10 mA and R,, = 500.2 Case | : For the range 0~ 1A, ic, 1000 mA, R, 10mA x 500 5000 TJ, “3000 mA —10mA ~ 999 ~ 2°52 Given Ry = Case 2 : For the range 0 ~ 5A, i.e, 5000 mA 1omA x500___ 5000 5000 mA—10mA 4990 002.2 Case 3 : For the range 0 ~ 10A, i.e, 10000 mA IneRy ___10mAx500____5000 7-1, 10000mA-10mA 99990 Given Ry = 0.0502 Hence the values of shunt resistances are 5.05 Q, 1,002 Q and 0.050 Q. ‘THE ARYTON SHUNT OR UNIVERSAL SHUNT 3. The Aryton shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit without a shunt. This advantage is gained at the price of slightly higher overall resistance, Figure 3.3 shows a circuit of an mmeter. In this circuit, when position “I”, resistance R,, Re is in parallel with the series combination of R, Rand the meter movement. Hence | s__ [> lk the current through the shunt is more than Ry D)Rm the current through the meter movement, t aera thereby protecting the meter movement Movement and redueing its sensitivity. If the switch Fe is connected to position “2”, resistance R, and R, are together in parallel with the series combination of R, and the meter movement, Now the current through the ‘meter is more than the current through the shunt resistance. If the switeh is connected to position “3” &,, R, and R, are together in parallel with the meter. Hence maximum current flows through the meter movement and very little through the shunt. This increases the sensitivity fig.33_Aryton shunt 0: wore Eaygie68-_Elecronc Inctrumentation Example 8.4 (@) Design an Aryron shunt (Fig. 3-4) t0 provide an ammeter with a current range of 1 md, 10 mA, 50 mA and 100 md. A D'Arsonvat ‘movement with an internal resistance of 100 [Link] full scale current of 50 [1A is used. + mA ——— 50,mA 100 mA] mAZ Re wl, ) D'Arsonval < Movement Re R Fig-34(a) For Example 3.4(a) Solution Given R,,= 100 Q, 1,, = 50 BA. For 0-1 mA range Tap Rey = bey Row J 950 WA (R, +R, + Ry + Ry) = $0 A x 100. ce RY ER, + Ry + Ry= SOHAX100 | 5000 5 26.0 G1) 950A 950 For 0-10 mA 9950 WA (R, + Ry + Ry) = 50 WA - (100+ Ry) G2) For 0-50 mA 49950 WA (Ry + Ra) = 50 HA (100 + Ry + Ra) 63) For 0-100 ma 99950 HA (R,) = 50 HA (100+ Rs + Ry + Ry) G4) But R, + Ry + Ry=5.26—R,, Substituting in Bq. 3.2, we have 9950 HA (3.26 — R,) = 50 WA (100 + R,) 9950 WA x 5.269950 HA x R, = 5000 HA * 50 MA Ry (9950 WA x 5.26 ~ $000 1A) = 9950 WA Ry +50 HAR, _ 9950 WA x5.26~S000HA _ 47377 HA 10mA 10mA Therefore Ry 4.7370Ammeters 69 749 In Eq. 3.1, substituting for R, we get Ri +R) +Rs=5.26-4.74=0.52 3 Ry +R, =0.52—Ry Substituting in Eq. 3.3, we have 49950 WA (0.52 — Ry) = 50 WA (RR, + 4.74 + 100) 49950 [A x 0.52 49950 WAX Ry 50 HA xR; +50 WAX 4.74 +50 WAX 100 49950 WA x 0.52 ~ 50 WA x 4.74 = 49950 WA x Ry +50 WAX Ry + 5000 WA (25974 237) HA = 50 mA x Ry + 5000 HA 25737 HA = 50 mA x R; + 5000 BA 25737 WA ~ $000 HA _ 20737 HA Ry 50mA ‘50mA Ry= 0.4147 = 0.42.0 But Ry +Ry=0.52—Ry * Ry + Ry= 0.52 0.4147 = 0.10526 Therefore = 0.10526 — Ry G3) From Eq. 3.4 99950 WA (R,) = 50 HA x (100+ Ry + Ry + Ry) But Ry +Ry+Ry=5.26-R, (from Eq. 3.1) Substituting in Eq. 3.4 99950 WA x Ry = $0 HA x (100 + 5.26 ~ R) 99950 WA x Ry = $000 WA + (50 HA x 5.26) ~ (Ry x $0 A) 99950 WA x Ry +50 WA x R = S000 HA + $0 HA x 5.26 (99950 WA + 50 HA) R, = 5000 HA + 263 WA 100 mA x Ry = 5263 WA 5263 HA ‘100 mA. 0.05263 0 0.95263 Therefore R From Eq. 3.5, we have 0.10526 R, = 0.10526 ~ 0.05263 = 0.05263 Hones the value of shunts are 05263 0 :R, = 0.05263 2 4147; Ry=474.070 Electronic Instumenteton Example 3.4 (b) catcutare the value of the shunt resistors for the circuit shown below. mA 10m Fig. 34(0) For Example 3.4(b) Solution The total shunt resistance R,, is determined by R, a where = I/l,, co) Given /,,= 100 WA and R,,= 1000 2 Step 1: For 10 mA range: 1 _10mA _ n= 100 7, 100pA 10002 _ 1000 _ 19 19 @-1) 100-199 Step 2: When the meter is set on the 100 mA range, the resistance R, and R, provides the shunt. ‘The shunt can be found from the equation In(Ry + Ry) _ 100 WA (10.1 + 1000) Ry, = (Ry + R= uy = (Ry +R) : ee 019 Step 3: The resistor which provides the shunt resistance on the 1 range can be found from the equation Jn(Ra, + Ry) _ 100 A (10.1+1000) RT 1000mA 1019 Step 4: But R, +R, = 1.01.9 Ry= 1.01 R,= 1.010.101 2= 0.909 2 Stop 5: Resistor R, is found by Rem Rig (Ry R™ 10.1 ~ 0.909 + 101) 2 =10.1- 1.01.0Ammeters 71 090 Hence R= 9.09 2. Ry REQUIREMENTS OF A SHUNT 34 ‘The type of material that should be used to join the shunts should have two main properties. 1. Minimum Thermo Dielectrie Voltage Drop Soldering of joint should not cause a voltage drop. 2. olderability Resistance of different sizes and values must be soldered with minimum change in value. The following precautions should be observed when using an ammeter for ‘measurement. 1, Never connect an ammeter across a source of emf. Because of its low resistance it would draw a high current and destroy the movement. Always connect an ammeter in series with a load capable of limiting the current. 2. Observe the correct polarity. Reverse polarity causes the meter to deflect against the mechanical stopper, which may damage the pointer. 3. When using a multirange meter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the current range until substantial deflection is obtained. To increase the accuracy use the range that will give a reading as near full scale as possible EXTENDING OF AMMETER RANGES 3.5, The range of an ammeter can be extended to measure high current values by using external shunts connected to the basic meter movement (usually the lowest current range), as given in Fig. 3.5. Test Meter Set T cee tat SE nexnal avert 2Shunt Range * Fig 35 Extending of ammerers Note that the range of the basic meter movement cannot be lowered. (For ex- ample, if'a 100 A movement with 100 scale division is used to measure | WA, the meter will deflect by only one division. Hence ranges lower than the basic range are not practically possible.) 0: wore EaygieT2_ Electronic Instumentetion RF AMMETER (THERMOCOUPLE) 3.6.1 Thermocouple instruments Thermocouples consists of a junction of two dissimilar wires, so chosen that a voltage is generated by heating the junction. The output of a thermocouple is delivered to a sensitive de microammeter. (Calibration is made with de or with a low frequency, such as 50 cycles, and applies for all frequeneies for whieh the skin effect inthe heater is not appreciable. ‘Thermocouple instruments are the standard means for measuring eurrent at radio Frequencies.) The generation of de voltage by heating the junction is called thermoelectric action and the device is called a thermocouple. 3.6.2 Different Types of Thermocouples In a thermocouple instrument, the current to be measured is used to heat the junction of two metals, These two metals form a thermocouple and they have the property that when the junction is heated it produces a voltage proportional to the heating effect. This output voltage drives a sensitive de microammeter, giving a reading proportional to the magnitude of the ac input. The alternating current heats the junction; the heating effect is the same for both half cycles of the ac, because the direction of potential drop (or polarity) is always be the same. The various types of thermocouples are as follows. ‘Mutual Type (Fig. 3.6 (a))_ In this type, the alternating current passes through the thermocouple itself and not through a heater wire. It has the disadvantages that the meter shunts the thermocouple. Contact Type (Fig. 3.6 (6)) This is less sensitive than the mutual type. In the contact type there are separate thermocouple leads which conduct away the heat from the heater wire. Separate Heater Type (Fig. 3.6 (€))_ In this arrangement, the thermocouple is held near the heater, but insulated from it by a glass bead. This makes the instrument sluggish and also less sensitive because of temperature drop in the glass bead. The separate type is useful for certain applications, like RF current measurements. To avoid loss of heat by radiation, the thermocouple arrangement is placed in a vacuum in order to inerease its sensitivity. Bridge Type (Fig.3.6(4)) This has the high sensitivity of the mutual type and yet avoids the shunting effect of the microammeter. The sensitivity of a thermocouple is increased by placing it in a vacuum since loss of heat by conduction is avoided, and the absence of oxygen permits operation ‘ata much higher temperature. A vacuum thermocouple can be designed to give a full scale deflection of approximately 1 mA. A similar bridge arrangement in air would require about 100 mA for full scale deflection. 0: wore EaygieAmmeters 73 Ammeter © @ Fig. 28 (a) Mutual type (b) Contact type (c) Separate heater type (@) Bridge type thermocouple Material commonly used to form a thermocouple are constantan against copper, manganin or a platinum alloy. Such a junction gives a thermal emf of approximately 45 wV/°C. ‘The heating element of open air heaters is typically a non-corroding platinum alloy. Carbon filament heaters are used in vacuum type. Thermocouple heaters operate 50 close to the bumout point under normal conditions, that they can withstand only small overloads without damage, commonly up to 50%. This is one of the limitations of the thermocouple instrument, (Commonly used metal combinations are copper-constantan, iron-constantan, chromel-constantan, chromel-alumel, and platinum-rhodium. Tables are available that show the voltages produced by each of the various metal combination at specific temperatures.) LIMITATIONS OF THERMOCOUPLES 3.7 Following are the limitations of thermocouples 1, Heaters can stand only small overload. 2. Arise in temperature (higher operating temperatures) causes a change i the resistance of the heater Presence of harmonics changes meter reading, because the heating effect is proportional to the square of current. This can be understood by the following example, 0: wore EaygieTA_ Electronic Instumentetion The effective value of input wave is, Pee Re where f, is the fundamental J, is second harmonic Jy is third harmonic 1£20% harmonies are present, then [= 3 Therefore, the error in the current reading if 20% harmonies is present, is calculated as follows. Therefore, effective value of input wave if) 26 72 = loa 25 = 1.02 1, = 1, + 0.021, But 0.02 = 2%. Hence 20% harmonies increase the error by 2%. EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON CALIBRATION 3.8 The frequency effect arises because of various factors such a 1. Skin effect 2. Non uniform distribution of current along the heater wires 3. Spurious capacitive currents 1. Skin Effect The skin effect causes a higher reading at higher frequencies, especially if the heater wire is small. A low current instrument with a circular cross-section, used in vacuum, may have a skin effect error of less than 1% at frequencies up to 30,000 MHz. Ribbon heaters are often used for large currents, but they have larger skin effects. Solid wire, and better still hollow conductors are ideal with a view to minimising the skin effect, Calibration done with de or low frequency as such as 50 Hz for which the skin effect of the heater is not appreciable, Accuracy can be as high as 1% for frequencies up to 50 MHz. For this reason, thermocouple instruments are classified ay RF instruments, Above 50 MHz the skin effect forces the current to the outer surface of the conductor, increasing the effective resistance of the heating wire and reducing the instrument's accuracy. For small eurrents of up to 3 A, the heating wire should be solid and very thin, Above 3 A the heating element should be hollow and tubular in design to reduce the skin effect. 2,Non-uniform Distribution of Current This occurs at frequencies where the heater length is of the order of fraction ofa wavelength (magnitude of one wavelength). 0: wore EaygieAmmeters 75 ‘The current distribution along the heater is not uniform and the meter indication is uncertain. Hence to avoid this the heater length and its associated leads should be less than 1/10th of a wavelength, 3. Spurious Capacitive Currents These occur when the thermocouple instrament is connected in such a manner that both terminals are at a potential above ground. As the frequency is increased, a large current flows through the capacitance formed by the thermocouple leads, with the meter acting as one electrode and the ground as the other. To avoid this, proper shielding of the instrument should be provided, The catibration of a thermocouple is reasonably permanent. When catibrating Contact and Mutual with de, itis always necessary to reverse the polarity to take the average reading. This is because of the resistance drop in the heater at the contact may eause a small amount of de-current to flow; reversing the calibrating current averages out this effect. MEASUREMENTS OF VERY LARGE CURRENTS BY THERMOCOUPLES 3.9 ‘Thermocouples instruments with heaters large enough to carry very large currents ‘may have an excessive skin effect. Ordinary shunts cannot be used because the shunting ratio will be affected by the relative inductance and resistance, resulting in a frequency effect. One solution to this problem consists of minimising the skin effect by employing a heater, which is a tube of large diameter, but with very thin walls, Another consists of employing an array of shunts of identical resistance arranged symmetrically as shown in Fig. 3.7 (a) In Fig. 3.7 (a) each filament of wire has the same inductance, so that the inductance causes the current to divide at high frequencies, in the same way as does the resistance at low frequencies. In Fig. 3.7 (b) the condensor shunt is used such that the current divides between the two parallel capacitors proportional to their capacitance, and maintains this ratio independent of frequency, as long as the capacitor that is in series with the thermocouple has a higher impedance than the thermocouple heater and the lead inductance is inversely proportional to the capacitances. In Fig. 3.7 (¢) the current transformer is used to measure very large RF currents at Jow and moderate frequencies using a thermocouple instrument of ordinary range. Such transformers generally use a magnetic cust core, The current ratio is given by Primary Current _ 1 fs ff Secondary Current K YZ, where, sceondary inductance 1, = primary inductance K = coefficient of coupling between Lp and Ls 1r,= resistance of secondary, including meter resistance 0: wore EaygieTo Electronic Instumentetion Q,= eb Jr, = Q of the secondary circuit taking into account meter resistance JH ‘Shunt Condaneer "Thermocouple iMster sj ‘Seiies Condéreer jo) =e a u Current be megsured 2 Thermocouple eter ° Fig.3.7 (a) Array of shunts (b) Condenser shunt (c) Current transformer If Q of the secondary winding is appreciable (i.e. greater than 5), the transformation ratio is independent of frequency. A current ratio of 1000 or more can be obtained at low and moderate RF by using a many turn secondary wound on a toroidal ring. Review Questions 5. 1. ExplainwithadiagramhowaPMMC 9, Explain the construction and work- can be used as an ammeter. ing of a thermocouple measuring 2. What are the requirements ofa shunt? instrument, State the limitations of a How can a basic ammeter be convert- ‘thermocouple instruments, ced into a multirange ammeter? 10. Why is a thermocouple measuring 3. ‘What are the limitations of a multi. instrument classified as an RF instru- range ammeter, How is it overcome? ment? 4. State the precautions to be observed 1, State different types of thermocou- ‘when using an ammeter. ples used for current measurement 5. Explain with 2 diagram the operation Explain each one in brief. ‘ofan ayrion shunt 12. How is a large current measured us- 6. State the advantages of an Ayrton ing a thermocouple? shunt ammeter over a multimange 13, What are the effects af frequency on ammeter. the calibration ofa thermocouple? 7. How is current in the RF range mea- 14. Explain with a diagram how a eur sured? rent transformer can be used to mea 8. Why is a thermocouple used in RF sure large RF cursents. measurement of current? 0: wore EaygieAmmeters 77 Multiple Choice Questions 5 1. The insirument required to measure 5. Curent in the RF range is measured by currents an () simple ammeter G@)voletsr (by ammeter (b) ammeter using thermocouples. (©) wattmeter —_(@) ohmmeter ©) multirange ammeter. 2. AD"Arsoaval movement is (@)aryton shunt (@) taut band 16. Large current in RF range at low mod: (&) plmme ‘erate frequencies is measured by (c) eleetrodynamometer (a) simple ammeter (@) moving iron type (6) ammeter using thermocouples. 3. To select the ange, a multirange am- (6) using a current transformer meter uses a (@) using Aryton shunt (@) double pole double throw switch 7. To minimize skin effect at high RF (©) make before break type switch range (©) single pole double throw switch (@) inductance is used (@ simple switch (©) array of Shunts are used 4. To select a range , the Aryton shunt (6) dielectric material i used ses a (€) aryton shunt is used (@) double pole double throw switch 8. At low and moderate RF using a see- (©) make before break type switeh ondary wound on a torrdal ring, a (6) single pole double throw switch current rato is obtained (@) simple switch (a) $00 () 1000 (©) 2000 (@) $000 Practice Problems 5 1. Calculate the value of shunt resis- an intemal resistance of 730 9 and tance required for using a SO wA a fall scale current of $ mA is avail- ‘meter movement having an intemal able resistance of 100 2 for measuring $. Design an Ayrion shunt to provide an current in the range of 0-250 mA. ammeter with current ranges of O-1 2. What value of shunt resistance is e- mA, 5 mA, 20 mA and 50 mA, us- quired for using $0 A meter move- ing a D'Arsonval movement having ‘ment having an internal resistance of | _internal resistance of $0 and a full 250 2 for measuring current in the scale current of 100 HA. range of 0-500 mA? 6. Designan Ayrton shunt to provide an 3. Design multizange ammeter with ammeter with eurrent ranges of 0-1 ranges of 0-100 mA, 0-200 ma, tA, 10 mA, $0 mA and 100 mA, ws 0-500 mA, 0-1 A employing int ing a D'ArSonval movement having dividual shunts for cach range. A intemal resistance of 100 O and D’Arsonval movernent with an in- full scale current of $0. femal resisance of $000 and a foll 7. Design an Aytton shunt to provide scale curren’ of 100 uA is available an ammeter with current ranges oF 4. Design a multitange ammeter with 0-100 mA, 500 mA, 1A, using a ranges of 0-1 A, 5 A, 25, 125 A D'Arsonval movement having inter- cmploying individual shunts For cach tal resistance of $00 anda full seale [Link]'Arsonval movement with eurrent of Ima13 Electronic Instrumentation Further Reading B ‘Terman and Petit, Elecironic Mea- surements, McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York, 1952, Sol. D. Prensky. Electronic Inseru- ‘mentation, Prentice-Hall of India, 1963. John. H. Fasal, Simplified Electronic Measuremems, Hayden Book Co. Ine., Mumbai, 2971 4. Lamy. D. Jones and A. Foster Chin Electronic Instruments and Measure ‘ments, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1987. 5. W.D. Copper and A.D. Helftick, Electronic Instrumentation and Mea surements Techniques, 318 Edition, Prentice-Hall of India, 1985.