IT Series > A Fundamental Study of Database Management Systems Database Development Process The development of complete database application is ferigihy and complicated process. Different strategies can be used to develop database applications which are as follows: 2.7.1 General Strategies ‘A database application is developed to satisfy the requirements of the user. It is very ‘important fo understand these requirements in detail. The application should be developed according to the expectation of user. Different techniques are used to find the requirements and needs of users such as interviews. The requirements should be defined as early as Possible in development process. There are two strategies to develop a database application: Top-Down Development 2. Button-tip Development ‘Top-Down Development ‘This strategy starts with general issues and moves to specific issues. First of all, itis important to find out general goals of organization and the means by which these goals can be achieved. The requirements are defined that must be satisfied to roach these goals. This study gives an abstract data model of the system. The uset moves to detailed and specific isues using this model, This process identifies «particular database and related application to be developed. Finally, high-level data model 5S transformed into low-level models. All identified systemis,databases and applications are eloped, 2. Bottom-Up Development [This strategy starts with specific issues and moves to general issues. The user begins by identifying a specific system to be developed. The requirements are found by studying the existing system and by interviewing different users. System Development Life Cycle System development lifecycle is a conventional way to develop an information system. It consists of many steps and involves different persons, The steps of SDLC are as follows: _/2-8: Preliminary Investigation Preliminary investigation is the first phase of SDLC. Its main objective is to identify deficiencies and requirements in the user's current environment. An important result of the Preliminary investigation is whether the system to be developed is feasible or not, Feasibility is determined on the following parameters: ‘Whether current technical resources or technology. is available in the developer's ‘organization or in the market that is capable of handling the user's requirements. + Whether the system is cost effective economically or financially. + _How effectively the user will operate this software once installed. Feasibility study report is produced at the end ofthis phase. A final acceptance of the Proposed system is taken from the user. The next phase is started when the proposed system is accepted,Chapter 2 => Database Environment 39 ‘rida sean J) ‘analynie Figure: Phases of System Development Life Cycle 2.8.2 Requirement Analysis In this phase, the current business system is studied in detail to find out how it works and where the improvements are required. It cludes a detailed study of various operations performed by the system and their relationship within and outside the syslem, The analyst ‘and user work closely during the complete analysis phase. A detailed document is prepared at the end ofthis phase called requirement specifications. 2.8.3 System Design ‘The requirement analysis phase provides the requirements of the system. The next phase is to design the new system to satisfy these requirements. The design phase states how a system will meet the requirements identified during systems analysis phase as mentioned in the requirements specifications. ‘Some activities performed during design phase are as follows: + Identification of data entry forms along with the data elements * Identification of reports and outputs of the new system ‘+ Design the form or display as expected in the system. This may be done on paper or on a computer display using any design tools. Identification of data elements and tables for database creation Procedures for deriving the output from given input ‘The document produced at the end of this activity is called design specification. The detailed design specification is given to the programmers to start software development. 2.8.4 Software Development In this phase, actual coding of the programs is done. Programs are tested wsing dummy data. Programmers also prepare the documentation related to programs. The documentation, explains how and why a certain procedure was coded in a specific way. \28.5 System Testing After the programs are tested individually, the system is tested as a whole, During system testing phase, all software modules are integrated and tested to ensure that they are running according to the specifications. Special test data is prepared as Input for processing. ‘The results are examined to ensure that they are correct.40 IT Series => A Fundamental Study of Database Management Systems 486 System Implementation In this phase, the developed system is installed for use. ‘The following activities are performed before the actual usage of the system: + User personnel are trained to operate the system: _/ +The data files needed by the system are constructed. «28.7 System Maintenance The system may become less useful if any change occurs in the user environment. The software may be modified for its effective use. The activity of system maintenance may vary depending on the scale of modifications and enhancements. 2.9 Staged Database Design Approach ‘Another way to design an information system is known as staged database design approach. It is a top-down approach. It begins by analyzing the general requirements of the organization. As the process continues, these problems are analyzed in more details. The ‘steps in this approach are as follows: 1. Analyze User Environment ‘The first step in designing a database is to understand and analyze the current user enyitonment. The designer should closely study the current system) and its outputs. He should also interview different users to know their current and future requirements. 2. Develop Logical Data Model ‘The designer develops a logical data model for the organization alter analyzing, the user environment. This data model consists of all entities, attributes and relationships. The designer also determines the following things: “Types of applications and transactions Types of databases access Volume of transactions Volume of data Frequency of databases access Budgetary restrictions + Performance requirements 3. Choose a DBMS The designer chooses a particular database management system on the basis of logical data model. The selected DBMS should satisfy all requirements and constrains identified in the logical data model. 4. Map Logical Model to DBMS ‘The designer maps the logical data model to available data structure of the selected database management system. 5. Develop Physical Model ‘The designer creates the exact layout of data according the facilities of selected DBMS and available resources of software and hardware.Chapter 2 => Database Environment a1 6. Evaluate Physical Model ‘The designer evaluates the physical model by checking the performance of applications and’transactions. The designer may implement a particular portion of database to validate the user views and performance effectively. 7. Perform Tuning ‘Tuning is performed to improve the performance of database. Different modifications are made to the physical model if required. 8. Implement Physical Model The designer implements the physical model if evaluation is satisfying, The database becomes functional ‘Analyze User Enviroment Develop Logical ‘Model ‘Map Logicel| A ‘Model to DEMS igure: Staged Database Design, “The above figure shows that different steps can be repeated at different stages of the development process, For example, the database designer can review the user environment uring the development of logical model. While mapping the logical model to physical model, he can change the selection of DBMS. Similarly, f an error occurs and he has to tune the system, he may need to change DBMS or remap the logical model, Even at the last step, ‘he may review all steps from the very beginning,IT Series -> A Fundamental Study of Database Management Systems ag 240 Design Tools Dest tools are used to describe the design process in a standard way) W standard tool fo seatgant because it provides standard notation for desingning specific systems, If there aedeandard tool, everyone may use different design-riouitions that can be aifficaie o Understand for others, This situation can resul*in more critical problem if both persons are working on the same system. 2.10.1 Data Flow Diagram \~— A data flow diagram shows the flow of data through an organization, Its wed ra design systems graphically. DED is very simple and it hides complexities ofthe system. 2.10.1.1 Advantages of DFD. DID provides the following advantages: * [provides the freedom from committing to the technical implementation of system too early. [Lhetps in further understanding of interrelationships of systems and subsystems. {tis helpful in communicating current system knowledge to users, becnapanalysis of proposed system to determine if aff the data and processes have been defined. 2.10.1.2 Limitations of DFD DED has the following limitations: {DED does not provide any way of expressing decision points. + _ DFDis only focused on the follow of information, 2.10.1.3 Symbols in DED Data flow diagram uses the following symbols: «Data Flow | [The data flow symbol is used to express the flow of information from one entity to Aaeanet entity in the system. Data flow is a pipiline through wich packets of infornate: flow. An arrow labeled with the name of data is used for dats flow: = 3 eee Store ‘The data store symbol is used as a repository for the storage of data, It indicates that S28 i permanently stored in the database. Itis expressed witha teclangle that ig ‘open on the ‘ight. The right width of the rectangel is drawn with double lines. Processer 2 = Database En wx External Entity X* An enlity that interacts with the system from outside the. system is called external ity. The external entities interact with the system in two ways. They may receive the deta from the system or may produce data fro the system. Il is expressed as rectangle: Vie Ex The collector symbol is used to express several data flow connection terminating at @ single location. It is used to show the convergence of data to a single point. The following symbol is used to represent a collector: = Cae The separator is used to separate data from a single source to multiple sinks. The following symbol is used to represent a separator: Context diagrams are also used to represent and depict 4 system. A DFD is a more detailed representation of the system. A contex\ diagram only deals with the boundary of the system. It gives the overall picture of a system It represents the software model as a single and large process with input and output data It is displayed by incoming and outgoing arrows respectively. It focuses on the main dataflow in a system. It establishes the relationships between extemal entities of a system and the system via the data (flows) that they exchange. To enable a DFD to start from a context diagram, single bubble of the context ‘diagram is partitioned into more bubbles to reveal the details of processing in the system. The dataflow diagrams are basically process-oriented. They are used to model the functions performed by a system. uirern rans tar grees! erent sor Sree Tal score Figure: A data flow diagram shows how data moves through the existing system.‘Series > A Fundamental Study of Database ‘Management Systems Sn Ya Database Administrator (DBA) DBA is an important person in the development of any information system. He is Seponsble for design, operation and management of dalsbons He must be technically negotiating agreements ete. 2.11.1 Functions of DBA ‘The main responsibilities of database administrator are as follows: 1. Preliminary Database Planning DBA may participate in preliminary database Planning if appointed early 2. Identifying User Requirements DBA identifies the current user environment. He: closely studies the current system and ‘Ss outputs. He also interviews diferent users to know thee, ‘current and future requirements, >: Peveloping & Maintaining Data Dictionary Data dictionary is a very useful collection of data about database, The DBA. stores data ltem-naines, sources, meanings and saage in data dictionary. The daty dictionary is revised ‘"epularly to update it as the project continues ~ 4. Designing Logical Model © ~~ After analyzing fhe user environment, the DBA ‘develops a logical data model for the organization. This data model consists of all entities, attributes and relationships. 5 Choosing a DBMS ‘The DBA chooses a particular databaso management system on the basis of logical data model, The selected DBMS should satisfy all requirements and constrains identified in the logical data model, Developing Physical Model ‘The DBA creates the ‘exact layout of data according, the facilities of selected DBMS and available resource of software and hardware, (7 Creating & Loading Database After developing physical model, the DBA creates the structure of database by using DBMS. He also loads the data into the database, 8. Developing User ViewsChapter 2 => Database Envitonment 45 ~~ 10. Developing & Enforcing Data Standard JPata in database must be inserted according tothe sfafdard required by organization. DBA ensures that the inserted data is always according to these standards. The user inirtace Should guide the user to insert proper data. For example, the text fields may contain derek Tear etae take it easy for the usr to judge the type of data tobe inscried. Integrity means {nat database must always satisfy the rues that apply to the real word. For exarple any Employees can only work in one department, database should not allow an employee to bo registered in two departments. Consistency means thal two different pieces of dais earner re ays fach olher. For example if date of birth of an employee is 7/8/78 atone place ond 11. Developing Operating Procedures DBA should establish procedures for different operations. ‘The Procedures include Security and authorization, recording hardware and software failures, taking performance measurements, shutting down database property, restarting and recovering afteriadion —12. Training the Users ‘The DBA should train end users, application programmers and othe? Users s0 thal they spent cy Sl ts ‘elping Database Users. JA V0 Ae) Wt ‘The database administrator helps the database users by: * Making sure that the data they require is available * Assisting them on using correctly the system ~14. Defining Backup and Recovery Procedures 11 any Portion of database is damaged by human error or by hardware, it should be serene 38 $000 a8 possible. Iti important to backup the information of the databeee an 6 backup server so that it may be recovered in case of emergency. “AS. Monitoring Performance Should tune it. He should add or change the indexes. In some tases the DBA may have to ‘change the physical model and reload the database. Fr Data Administrator (DA) ‘See a jhe need of data administrator atises in a very large organization where many We dency ny, ist Data administrator is responsible for the whole information resece, functions. He also controls and manages database, establishes data standards ‘communicates crests Prepares logical design, develops data dictionary, plans the development ot A Fundamental Study of Database Management Systems 213 Data Dictionary Data dictionary is a repository of information that describes the logical structure of the database. It contains record types, data item types and data aggregates etc. Data dictionaries in some systems store database schema and can be used to create and process database. Data dictionary contains metadata. Metadata i the data abou the date soci the da ee, 2.13.1 Uses of Data Dictionary Different uses of data dictionary are as follows: Ba ‘* Information about Data: It is used to collect and store information about data in a central location. It helps the management to get control over data as a resource, * Communication with Users: It provides great help in communication as it stores exact meanings of data items. An exact definition of each item should be stored in data dictionary that can be used in case of any problem. * Record of Change in Database Structure: It keeps track of changes to the database Structure. The changes such as creation of new data item or modification of data item descriptions should be record in data dictionary. * Determining the Impact of Change: Data dictionary records each item and its relationships. DBA can see the effects of a change. ‘> Recording Access Control Information: Data dictionary stores all information about different authorized users. It also contains the types of access for all users, * Audit Information: It can also keep record of each access to the database. This information can later be used for audit purposes. 2.13.2 Types of Data Dictionaries Different types data dictionaries are as follows! | Integrated Data Dictionary A data dictionary that is part of DBMS is called integrated data dictionary. It performs ‘many functions throughout the life of the database not only in design phase. There are two types of integrated data dictionary: * Active Data Dictionary: The integrated data dictionary is called active if it is checked by DEMS every time a database is accessed. It is always consistent with actual database structure. I is automatically maintained by the system. * Passive Data Dictionary: The integrated data dictionary is called passive if itis not used in day-to-day database processing, 2. Freestanding Data Dictionary A data dictionary that is available without a Particular DBMS is called freestanding slata dictionary. It can be a commercial product or a simple file developed by the designer. Many CASE packages provide a data dictionary toot: Ibis preferable in initial design stages before choosing, any particular DEMS. 2.14 Logical Database Design Neher ‘The logical database design contains the definition of the data to be stored in database, {also contains the rules and information about the structure and type of data. All entities, {heir attributes and their relationships are described in logical model. It is the complete description of data stored in database.Chapter 2 > Database Environment 47 2.14.1 Logical Database Design Process ~~ An overview of logical database design process is as follows: Reprecent Entities See SA eS Represent Relationships ¥ Merge the Relations ¥ ‘Normalize the Relations Figure: Logical Design trocess .. Represent Entities ——~ Each entity in a E-R diagram is represented as a relation in relational model. In this process, the name of entity becomes the nime of. relation. The identifier of entity type becomes the primary key of relation. The remuining attributes of the entity type become non- key attributes of the relation. Following example explains the process of converting an entity into a relation: A o were a AN EMPLOYEE, - a Sanh Figure: EMPLOYEE entity \ Letmptoyeetn [ame [address [oirthdate x wit Figure: EMPLOYEE Relation. ey In the above example, EMPLOYEE entity is converted into relation. The attributes of ty the entity are fields of the relation. The data model describes Employee!D as an identifier and is underlined. The above relation is using EmployeelD as primary key for the relation. ._& Represent Relationships _~ Each relationship in an E-R diagram must also be represented in relational model. The representation depends on the naluze of relationship. In some cases, a relationship is represented by making the primary key of one relation a foreign key of another relation. In some cases, a separate relation is created to represent a relationship. (ea al“ Tsien alge Src Se we Merge the Relations In some cases, there may be redundant relations. It means thal two or more relations ‘may describe the same entity type. The redundant relations must be merged to remove the redundancy. This process is also known as view integration. Suppose there are two relations as follows: EMP1 (EMPNO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE) EMP? (EMPNO, ENAME, EMP-ADDR, EMP_JOB CODE, EMP_DOB) ‘The above tables EMP1 and EMP2 describe the same entity EMPLOYEE. They can be ‘merged into one relation. The result of merging the above relations is as follows: EMP (EMPNO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE, EMP_JOB_CODE, EMP_DO8) ‘The new relation contains atthbutes of both relations without any repeating attributes. \A. Normalize the Relations ‘The relations created in step 1 and step 2 may have some unnecessary redundancy. Some certain anomalies or errors may arise while updating these relations. The process of normalization refines these relations to avoid these problems. 2.15-Physical Database Design Physical design is the last stage of database dedign process, The major objective of physical dataase design is to implement the databse as a set-of records, files, indexes and other data structures. 2.15:1 Major Inputs to Database Design Three major inputs to physical database design are as follows: 1, Logical Database Structure ‘These are developed during logical database design such as normalized relations. 2 User Processing Requirements I includes the size and frequency of database usage, response time, security, backup and recovery ete. 3. Characteristics of DBMS >“ It includes the characteristics of DBMS and other ee ‘of computer operating environment, 2.15.2 Components of Physical Database Design Different components of physical database desing are as follows: 1, Data Volume and Usage Analysis It is used to estimate the size or volume and usage pattems of database. The estimate of database size is used to select the physical storage devices: It is also used to determine the costs of storage. The estimate of usage patterns are used to select file organization and access methods, It is also used to plan for the use of indexes and a strategy for data distribution. 2. Data Distribution Strategy Many organizations are using distributed computer networks now a days. These organization face a significant problem in physical database design. The problem is that they have to decide and select nodes or sites in network at which data will be located physically,iapter 2 => Database Environment Tiie basic data distribution strategies areas follows: i Centralized ~~ In this strategy, all data is located at a single site-ILis simple and easy-to conduct. This strategy has three disadvantages: + Data stored at remote sites is not accessible r ‘© Data communication costs may be very high. ‘+ The database system fails totally when the central system fails ii, Partitioned In this strategy, the database is divided into partitions or fragments. Each partition is assigned to a particular site. The major advantage of this strategy is that data is moved closer to local user. Data becomes more easily accessible. iii, Replicated In this strategy, the full copy of the database is assigned to more than one site in the network. This strategy maximizes local access. But it creates update probelms because each database change must be reliably processed and synchronized at all sites, iv. Hybrid 7 In this strategy, the database is divided into critical and non-critical fragments. The ial fragments are stored at multiple sites. Tre non-critical fragments are stored at one site only. 3. File Organization File organization is a technique for physically arranging the records of a file on secondary devices. The system designer must recognize several r selecting a file organization. These constrains inlcude the following: * Physical characteristics of secondary storage devices * Available operating systems and file management software + User requirements for storing and accessing data Criteria to Select File Organization ‘The criteria for selecting a fle organization ate as follows: Fast access for data retrieval High throughput for processing transactions Efficient use of storage space Protection from failure or data loss Minimizing need for data re-organization Security from unauthorized use Organization Methods ‘The files are organized on storage media i the following methods: a. Sequential Files The records in sequential file organization are stored in sequence. A sequence means the records are stored one after the other. The records can be retrieved only in the sequence in ‘whieh they were stored. The principal storage media for sequential files is magnetic tape. ily.50 AT Series = A Fundamental Study of Database Management Systems The'major disadvantage of sequential acces is that itis very Slow: IF the the last record ‘sto be retrieved, all preceding record are read before reaching the last record. b. Direct or Random Files. OC ‘The records in direct file organization aré not stored in a particular sequence. A key value of a record is used to determine the location to store the record. Each record is accessed directly without going through the Preceding records. ‘This file organization is suitable for storing data on disk. Direct file organization is much faster than sequential file organization for finding a specific record. A problem may occur in this type of files known as synonym. The problem occurs if the same address is calculated to store two or more records, c. Indexed Sequential Files. ~~" In indexed sequential file organization, records are stored in ascending or order. The order is based on a value called key. Additionally, indexed file ‘organization maintains an index ina file. An index consists of key values and the corresponding disk address for each record in the file. Index refers to the place on a disk where a record is stored. The index file is updated whenever a record is added or deleted from the file. ‘The records in indexed file organization can be accessed in Sequential access as well as random access or direct access. The records in this file type tequire more space on storage ‘media. This method is slower than direct file organization as it requires to perform an index search, Xx 4. Indexes An index is a table that is used to determine the location of rows ina table. Indexes are used to speed up the sorting and searching process. The performance of database is improved with these indexes. The index may be created on primary key, secondary key and foreign key etc. 2 5. Integrity Constraints Database integrity means the correctness and consistency of data. It is another form of database protection. Integrity is related to the quality of data. Integrity is maintained with tne help of integrity constraints, These constraints are the rules that are designed to keep data consistent and correct. They act like a check on the incoming data. It is very important that 2 database maintains the quality of the data stored in it. DEMS provides several mechanisms to enforce integrity of the data.