a CAREER ENOEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS has taken due care in collecting the data and proviing the solutions, before putlshing nis Book Insp of his, f ery inaccuracy or ring erors ae there, CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS ‘owes no responsibly. CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS willbe grateful if you could point out any such error. Your suggestions wile highly appreciated. REST ateCONTENTS IVDDERN PHYSICS 1. Particle Properties of Wave 2. X-rays and Comptons Scattering 3. Wave Properties of Particles 4, Wave Functions and Operators 5. Bound State Problems 6. Potential Step and Potential Barrier .7. Linear Harmonic Oscillator 8. Nuclear Physics 9. Special Theory of Relativity 10, Atomic Physics 11. List of References 01-16 17-44 45-59 60-89 90-120 121-136 137-153 154-198 199-230 231-264 265-265Particle Properties of Wave 1.1: Blackbody radiation A significant hint ofthe failure of classical physics arose from investigations of thermal radiation (Planck, 1900) ‘According to Einstein (1905) electromagnetic radiation is quantized in photons, _ #-Photons and Planck’s quantum ofaction: Photons are the enerey quanta Photon energy (E,,) It isproport inelectron volts (eV), 2x ys 2 Eis thewavelength ‘The vector & points alony iation, Planck’s quantum of: MeV s. MUI? ‘Symbol | Unit | Quantity Esko, o=mf, TE : aan hed o rads~" | angular frequency ss tf el frequency A Js quantum of action Quantity ‘wave-number vector ‘quantum of action momentum vectorSe @ _ Particle Properties of Waves + Thermal radiation and the blackbody radiator: ‘Thermal radiation, temperature radiation, the electromagnetic radiation ofa body at finite temperature. The body also absorbs a fraction of the thermal radiation from its environment. There is @ permanent exchange of energy between the body and its environment, Inthe end, this process leads to temperature equilibrium. Blackbody rediator, a body withthe reflectance zero. A blackbody absorbs any incident radiation completely. (Figure 2.1: Motel of te backboey) Cavity radiator mode! ofa blackbody radiator (Fig. 2.1): Abox witha smallaperture in the wall. The wall is impenetrable for radiation from inside (ideally reflecting) and has a definite temperature. The probability that ‘aphotonenters the cavity through the aperture aid, afler multiple through the aperture again, is negligible absorptanset =D) Cavity radiation, the thermal radiation leaving the radiation energy density of the cavity radi According to Kirchhoff’s law (The ‘absorptance iS equal arbitrary thermaladiator may bef cect datgy a ‘Symbol. [ unit_] Quanity ua fu J/m? | radiant energy density Vilo J | radiant energy ¥ m_| volume a The iow docrint tenn a AREER ENDEAVOUR, density ofthe cavity radiation: a Symbot [Unit | Quantity Pees uf(fT) | Ism7> | spectral radian energy density aap af e msu! | speed of light MED = SS TaTaTy t =! | frequency h Is {quantum of action k JK-! | Bohzmann constant T K temperature + Connection between radiant energy density and frequency: ‘The dependence of the spectral radiant energy density of the cavity radiation on the angular frequency @ or ‘wavelength 2. reads as follows: we ot=u (fo Lu (ft),darticle Properties of Waves wslot yn ans Hs ('r)=n/(4.7) Lu, (72) mc e Ida 8ahe 1 et + Limiting cases of Planck’s formula: ‘Wien’s law: for hf >> kT 8xfth u(FT)=—S Rayleigh-Jeans law: for hf<< kT + Wien’s displacement law: With increasing temperature, the maximum of the spectral radiant energy density y (7) is shifted to higher photon energy, i, to higher sGUGHeIES HOME WaIREIES) (FIED 2)- Wien’s displacement lave L i ‘Symbot | Unit | Quantiey Pace = Tmax | om _ | wavelength at man. a p(T) ‘Wien's constant o tf @ 3.4 5 6 Wie (Figure 2.2: Radiant energy density u,(/; 7) for various temperatures according to Planck's radiation law. Dashed-dotted line: Rayleigh-Jeans law.) + Stefan-Boltzmann law: Integration of the spectral radiant energy density over all frequencies yields the total radiant flux @,, of radiation emitted byan area A. The total radiant fux g,, is proportionalto 74. Total radiant fux ~ temperature™ Symbol | Og =o-4-Tt 7 a =5.7051(19) A mt sot wines | 7 W/om?k4) | Stefan-Boltzmann Tr K semperacure@ f 1.2, Photoelectric effect ‘+ Lenard’s experiments To study the phenomenon, Lenard set up an apparatus similar to that illustrated in Figure given below. It Consists of an evactiated tube Thaving two plane metal plates C and D, Ciscoated with alkali metal and kept at anegative potential by means ofa battery B. A is another metal placed parallel to C inside the tube and is kept at zero potential. isthus positive relative to C. At the centre of A there isa smal hole through which the beam of negative ions emitted from C can pass. There is aside tube covered bya quartz window G through which UV-radiation is incident on the plate C, resulting inthe production of negative ions from C photoclectri- cally. The negative ionsare attracted to A and a part ofit, passing through the hole in A, is finally collected atthe collector D, The feeble electric current can be detected with an electrometer (not shown). Particle Properties of Waves iS Fig. dicular tothe plane of ol inp circular arcs so thatthe jetef:(not shown) records the correspondings current. Let V bethe p.d. between Cand field Fromthe relations (i) and Gi), Lenard’ measurements ofe/m ofthe negative ions established uniquely the identify ofthe ions tobe electrons. Lenard next observed that ifa positive potential isapplied to C, the eleciric éurrent recorded decreases with the increase of positive potential; a stage comes when the current becomes zer6. Thisis because electrons being negatively charged experience a repulsive force in going towards 4. IfV, be the potential difference between C and 4 when the current is zero, V, is called the stopping potential ~ because electrons of all velocities up to the maximum v, emitted fiom C are stopped from reaching A. Under this condition svt =e¥, 2 ¥, is usually ofthe order of few vols. Even ifthe intensity of the incident radiation is now increased, it will cause no electron to reach. However, on. making C negative w.rt; A, an increase in the intensity of illumination (the frequency and stopping potential remaining, the same) causes the current to increase,Particle Properties of Waves Tithe intensity is kept constant, but the frequency of he incident radiation is varied, itis observed that higher the frequency of radiation, greater isthe stopping potential and also the energy ofthe electrons. ‘Another very important observation that Lenard made during his experiment is thatthe photoclectriccurrent is independent of the frequency of light. It depends, asalready stated, only on the intensity of the ight used. ‘Subsquently, after Lenard, many other workers —notably O.W. Richardson, K.T. Compton confirmed the observations of Lenard Note 1: To explain the findings of Lenard on photoelectricity. Einstein in 1903 proposed his celebrated pho- toelectric equation based on the quantum ideas of Max Planck. Note2: The most outstanding series of experiments on photoelectrcity was however conducted in 1916 by Ru kan, which not only re-confirmed Lenard’s observations but also verified beyond doubt the validity of Einstein's equation. + Failure of the electromagnetic wave theory ‘The above experimental facts cannot be explained on the basis ofthe electromagnetic wave theory oflight. According to the electromagnetic theory, light radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields and they may exert forces to liberate electrons nite metal SiPRIOS ONTNS DARA light ofhigher intensity, consisting of stronger fields, should give liigher velocity (or énergy) to the emitted photoelectrons. So, according to the wave ))of electrons shouldnot depend ld be emitted ifit gets sufficient time to gather thenecessaf/eiefky for Eission.Furthey, if iti of tHe radiation be very weak, classi- cally longer time should ee se before Sesion gin tf eave the emittingsurface: Both the conclusions are in disagieement With observed facts— thE Ve electron is frequency dependent ‘and that there is no ot hs hldeijoe afraid iation and thelemission of photoelectron. ‘Also, according to electrot , giverisuflicient time’ lestons should be ableto collect the ‘energy required for emi sontherefore why the phiofeeléetric current should be intensity dependent, as is observed." 0 Suse te iy The wave theory thus compld ACER ENBERVOUR emission, wey 2 Pees + Einstein’s light quantuip Hyp Photoelectric. equation : Max Planck, in 1901, put forward a radically new hypothesis to explain the black body radiation thatemission and absorption of radiation is note continuous process but oceur discretely as an integral mulipleof a basic +, unit, called the quantum energy. Bach quantum carries a definite amount of localised energy proportional to the’ frequency v ofthe radiation, Therefore, “E= hv. \here / is a universal constant known as Planck's constant ofaction. Emission and absorption ofehergy take place in discrete steps of nhv, n =1,2, 3, Einstein’s light quantuim hypothesis — Einstein (1905) proposed the correct explanation ofthe photoelec- tric phenomenon by an extension of the quantum idea of Planck. This extension is known as Einstein's light quantum hypothesis. Einstein proposed the following postulates. 1. Radiation is not only emitted and absorbed in diserete quanta, called photons, having energy E = fv, but also travels in quanta with the speed of light. Each photon is a bundle of localised energy in space. 2. The energy hv ofa photon isso localised or concentrated that it can transfer the whole of its energy content to one electron (which thereby gains the quantum ofenergy) and that no fractional measures are allowed inthe process.Particle Properties of Waves Inexplaining the photoelectric effect, Einstein also postulated that electrons do not normally leave a metal surface of their own because they are bound in the metal. A certain minimum energy, called the work function. 4, is required to release an electron from the metal surface, + Photoelectric equation ‘When photons fall on a metallic surface, they can either (i) be reflected according to the laws of optics or else, Gi) be absorbed completely by an electron in being knocked out from the surface. In the latter case, the emission of electron is possible only when fy > g , and the balance of energy (hv — 4) is taken up by the emitted electron as its kinetic energy in emission. Those eléctrons which are ejecied from some depth below the surface expend some of their acquired energy in collisions with atoms. The energy lost inthis way isa variable quantity so that photoelectrons are emitted with a range of kinetic energies (velocities). Thus the ‘maximum kinetic energy ofthe emitted photoelectronsis given by 1. A ma shid eee rey ‘When the fullenergy of the photon is used up in releasing the efectron from the metal and nothing's left as the kinetic energy of the electron, Therefore, (@..The maximum kinetic energy inenstyoftheineient ight, @ Ifv v, >v,) - But the saturation current is independent ofthe frequency, being dependent only on the intensityBo Particle Properties of Waves Millikan next measured the variation of photocurrent with potential difference between C and Wusing incident light of different frequencies (or wavelengths), but of the same intensity. The saturation current f the same indicating that number of electrons emitted in each case isthe same, But the striking point is thatthe stopping potential has larger negative value for highest frequency. Thisis illustrated in figure where the topping potential is (more negative) as the incident frequency increases (v, > v, > v,). But the saturation current is independent ofthe frequency, being dependent only on the intensity. VanVegVy 0 > Fig. Photo current vs potential curve at different Fig, Graph of (KE) 88 2 function of v frequencies (same intensity) of radiation Millikan repeated the experiments by.fheasuring V7, for a range-of frequencies and for al the three surfaces. A sraph of KE), a8a function of v was obtained figure by Milikan "he graph was ast iat tena oy pibloccros nara arly with v.The straight line intercepted ofthe straight line is another. These experimental esul ‘Note 1: While measuring the vate rected by Millikan by’ introducing) a Note 2; It isto be noted that the. ne absorption ofone photon. But it ddesinot fol photon causes emission ofan ekectroneven . : i i ores abla a aeent . ifthe photon frequency v 2 v,, thé thre: ie might be involyed in many _ other alteriative processes to be distal eeetrat G ee Smilted electronsandthatof =” “the incident photons is much less thairunity=This ratio is called:the: ‘quantum yield and is of importance in the design of photoelectric devicesParticle Properties of Waves Bee) 3oln, 3oln. Find the wavelength and frequency ofa 1.0 keV photon. Wavelength ofthe photon A= x 3x10* 4 12.4x10" m Find the momentum ofa 12,0 MeV photon Frequency ofthe photon ¥= 2.42%10" Hz E Momentum ofthe photon p="==12MeV/e Monochromatic light of wavelength 3000 is incident normally on a surfac ofarea 4 on. Ifthe intensity of the light is 15107 Wim?, determine the rate. at whieh photons strike the surface. ‘The energy per photon is he _ (6.63x10™ Js) (310° ms) 2 ‘The total energy fluxis: WA=(L ilight ofwaveleath 3 30004 fallson 25eV ‘Whatis the Sa aGAR GER & NDEAVOUR From the photoelectric equation 2 ev,=hv-e% =" ME ge 25 cya LB4UOLeVA, 124010 ev A Ady 3000A Ry Solving, 4,, = 7590A ‘The emitter ina photoelectric tube has a threshold wavelength of 6000A. Determine the wavelength ofthe light incident on the tube ifthe stopping potential for this light is 2.5 V. he _124x10 eVA jc shy, === = 2.07 eV ‘The work functionis ¥, A G000A Ft The photoelectric equation then gives staiveet Boe, te 25ev=2RUPEA. sore Solving, A = 2713 ASoln. Soln, Soln. ka Particle Properties of Waves ‘The work function ofa particular emitter is 2.0 eV and light of wavelength 3000 A is used to causeemission. Find the stopping potential and the velocity ofmost energetic electrons. Light wavelength, 4 = 3000 A = 3000x10"°m he _6.62x10™ x3x10* 2x1 BR ae I = 6.62 x 10° = eV = 4. eV a 3000 «10 16x10 i Now, from the relation V,e = hv — , we get the stopping potential, V, = 4.14 ~2.0=2.14V Again, the kinetic energy oftheelectron, ; mv? =e Pe. (2214 %1,76x10" (> efm=1.76%10"Cikg) m = 8.68% 10° mV/s, ‘The wavelength of the photoclectric threshold oftungsten is 2300 A, Det ine the kinetic energy ofelectrons Therefore, @ = See eee ‘The energy ofthe incident radiatic Therefore, kinetic i E=Wm¢ “1 EARGGR GHDGAY I soe onit, what would The work function ofpotassium is; be (i) the threshold wavelength, (iit: inaximumkinetc energy ee and (il) the minimum retarding potential? Bytthe problem, fv, = 7 "eV he _ 6.62x10™ x3 10° Seem = 6.53 «107m eV 1.9x1.6x10"” Therefore, 4, Now, the maximum K-E., E, = hv —$ = fe 6.62 x10™ x 3x10" =1.9%1.6%10 45x 107 aren Therefore, z+ h (4.41 -3.04) x10"? J 31,3710 Minimum retarding potential Vs given by eV = E,,Particle Properties of Waves Gy 10. Arayofultraviolet light of wavelength 3000 A falling on the surface ofa material whose work function is 2.28 eV, ejects an electron. What will be the velocity of the emitted electron 2 Soln. Thework function, =228eV = 2.28% 16x10" IT - = 3.64810 Wavelengthoflight, 4 = 3000 A =3000%10-%m Frequency, y= 2 = — 210"! 2 3000%10" Now kinetic energy ofemitted electron is given by ; my? = 6.6210 x10" — 3.648% 10° =2.972x10° Soln. pat fvg= nao 6800 x]0- 2 LeRIO™: 5 800 x}0- REIN: ee LU tnt ARE EN NI a nas sti start the emission of photoelectrons: mis). Soln, Let v, be the threshold frequency of radiation. Therefore, work function, ¢ = hy, 5.0x10"s" Therefore, threshold wavelength, A =<-=3%!0! <2 = 6x10" em = 6000 A. vy 5x10 13, ~.- The maximum energy of photoelectrons emitted by a metal surface is 3.62 x 10°" J when the incident radia- tion is 3000 A. When the incident radiation is $000 A, the maximum encray of ejected electrons is 0.972 10™” J, Calculate the Planck’s constant and the threshold wavelength of metal. Soln, Fromthe photoelectric equation (K.E.)yu. = liv = A) Here, y, 0x10" Hz; Also, v, == —3e1e 06x10" He 4500010= Particle Properties of Waves Soln, 15. Soln, 16. Soln. From equation (i), we obtain 3.6210" = A(1.0x10")—9 and ree ae ‘Solving these two simultaneous equations h = 6,62 x 10™Js and ¢ =3.0% 107". 2.x 10 x 3x 10® ‘Threshold wavelength, A, = 6.62.x 107 m = 6620. ‘The work functions of tungsten and barium are 4,52 and 2.5 eV respectively. Calculate the wavelengthoflight ‘which can just eject electrons from tungsten and ffom barium. Which metal would you select for a photocell for use.with visible light ? ‘Since the work function ¢ = Av, where v, isthe threshold frequency, v, = 6/h. -. ‘Threshold wavelength, 4, =<-= $ (c= velocity of light) Yo For tungsten,.g = 4.52eV = 4.52x1.6x10°7 3x10" x 6.62 ‘Therefore, Ay = Forbarium, Ay Plainly, barium would be the met ‘The work function ofaluminium is the stopping potential and the cut! From Binstein’s photoelectric Z 6.6210 x Now, hv == a Curoftwavelengt, 2p = = “oe 2.91107? m= 2970 A. Calcite the fractional change inthe light intensity ofa beam of intensity 10°’ Js“, ifone photon isadded per second to the beam, the wavelength of light being 6000 A. 6.610 x3x10° c Th fa photon, E = hv = ho = 3x10 T 1e energy ofa photon, 6 Oo x Therefore, the number of photons persecin the beam is NV = =a 0.3010” 3x ‘Therefore, fractional change in the number of photons or the fractional change in intensity on addition of 1 photon persecond is,Particle Properties of Waves @ 17. Soin, 18, Soln. Soin. How many photonsof 4.= 5x 107m must fall per second ona blackened plate to produce a force of | dyne? Ifthe mass of the plate is 1 g and its specific heat 0.42 x 10°Jkg at what rate would its temperature rise ? Momentum ofa photon, p = h/A . Let m be the number of photons falling per second. Therefore, total momentum change per sec of incident photons = n(h/A). Since all the photons are completely absorbed by the plate, the change in momentum per sec = n(/h/2.) = force produced on the plate. n(hla) = - =10% (IL Newton = 10° dyne) 5x10" x10 = n= Ax107 A= = 7.55 x10" Energy absorbed by the plate per sec, Q= mhy = 2, If AT betherise in temps AT =msAT levm] [BHU 2010] @ 31eV 0 eV ‘The photonenergyis. = Correct option is (4) The photoelectric threshold for tungsten is 2300 A. The energy of the electrons emitted from the surface by the ultraviolet light of wavelength 1800 A incident on the tungsten (/1= 6.6310 J-sec) is (BAU 2011] (a) 239x107 joule (&) 239x107 joule (©) 1.48107" joule (d) 3.56x107" joule Kinetic energy of the emitted electrons will be he. _ 1240 eV —nm 1240 e¥-— nm AE 8 en EE 21S eV = 24x 2 dy 180mm 230 nm Correet option is (b)Particle Properties of Waves 20. Soln. 2h. Son; Soln, 23,77" Soln, “The photoelectrié equation is derived under the assumption that (BHU 2012] (@) electronsare associated with waves of wavelength 4.=, where P isthe momentum Pp (b) light is emitted only when electrons jump between the orbits (©) light is absorbed in quanta ofenergy E = hv (@) light behaves like a wave ‘The photoelectric equation considers the quantization of light, ie, ightis absorbed or removed only multiple of hy only. integral Correct option is (c) ‘The number ofelectrons emitted increases ifthe incident light has [BHU 2012) (@) higher frequency (FY higher wavelength’ (©) higher intensity (dl) lower frequeney er intensity, number of incident photons increases and hence number ofemitted electrons also increases. Correct option is (c) ‘The photoslectric threshold for anfetalis 3000 A.The kinetic energy ofan electron ejected from itby radiation of wavelength 1200 Ais (ee [BHU 2012) (@) 3.1eV (b) 12.6 5 7 i a Ad The kinetic energy ofun cto el NEE KE A, in a succession of collisions. The electrons also cause some ionisation and much (sometimes 99%) ofthe kinetic energy gets converted into heat energy. * Note 1. The above mechanism of emission of electromagnetic radiation from an accelerated or decelerated electron is called bremsstrahlung process and the emitted radiation bremsstrahlung (brems= brake, strahlung adiation, bremsstrahlung = brake-radiation i. radiation due to deceleration). Note 2, X-raysare often classified on the basis oftheir penetrating power. Most penetrating radiation iscalled hard X-radiation, the least perenne he sofl X-ray, te intermediate onethe medium radiation, 2.8. Origin of characteristi¢’ Inadditio to the smooth contin chatacteristic X-ray lines at suffice ‘Tiss in the inéerior ni thers appear, & have seen, some sharp, oftheir * energies are~ 10* eV or higher. C6 must have binding energies ~ 10" ; House the electrons: ‘According to Bohr, an atomofan| a round the nucleus in different shell r jantum orbitm= 1 and is called the K-shell by Kossel. The fwo'el i closest, to the mucleus require the greatest excitation energy for thejeremoyah Noxt, i Iwithn=2, M-shell with n=3,Neshel wth and so “IAG TOU energy vas forthe removal. : Leta target-atembe bombarded by high speed electrons anda electron which s tightly bound be knocked out. IfE,, be thé binding energy of K-cleotron, then the kinetic energy of the knocked out electron is din? =Ve- 2 “where Ye represents the Kinetic energy ofthe incident high speed electron. So the minimum energy of the incident electron to knock out a K-electro1 Now, on knocking out a K-electron, a vacancy is created in the lowest-lying K-shell and transition of an electron from the higher (and relatively loosely bound) L-shell ilsitup. The energy difference E,, — E,,,dueto the transition results in the emission of K,, -line of frequency v,, ,given by Wig, = Bg — So the frequency of K, -line (orits wavelength) isa characteristic of the target atom, Since the targets used in X-rays tubes are usually of high Z-values, the low-lying levels have binding energies~ keV. The emitted radiation is thus in keV region, and notin optical region,~rays and Comptons Scattering 24 (N-shell) i= n=3 (M-shell) Kea 5 v) 48. n=2 (shel) |g L-series nt: n= 1 (Khel) Fe Fig. 2-ergy level diagram representing x-radialion series of x-ray series spectra Ithoweveran electron from the M-shell fils up ihe'sald vacancy, the K, -ine is emitted and so on, forming the series lines, When an eléctron from the L-shell is knocked out (or falls nto the K-shell), electrons froms the MAN,... shells may fall into the-L-shellto fill up the vacancy and the L-series lines are emitted. Other series Fines also have a similar origin. The short wavelength cach series isgalled the corresponding absorption edge. fe ees 7 ‘The origin ofthe lines of different X-radiation series by orbital transitions is best understood and represented bby what is called Kossel diagram as show in Figure-7. The corresponding energy level diagram is presented inFigure-8. ua ao i 7 ‘Summifig up: 2s AREEREENDEAVOUR, Note 1: Theabove characteristic radiation may as well be generated by allowing the continuous X-radiationto be scattered from different elements outside the X-ray tube. These X-ray photons can knock out K-electrons, L-electronsete. of the scatterer ifthe energy of thé X-rayphotons hv is greater than, £,., E, ete. The excess energy is carried away by the characteristic X-ray photon. eee we OF Ay E, > Ey ete. itis obvious that vy >¥, > ¥, 2.9. Fine structure of characteristic X-ray limes (On détefilexmination, itis seen that the characteristic X-ray lines are not single but posses fire structure, Le. cachine consists of a numberof closely-spaced components. The origin ofthis fine structure ofXray lines can te explained on thebasis ofquantum numbers m, Jand j associated with each energy level ofthe electron. For a given, hich determines the electron shel (n= for K-shell n=? forL-shell ete), /ean assume values 12 01, 2...(0-~3). Fora given fagaln the otal quantum number j anhave only two values : door get-1por!= 2 2 “Themultipity ofthe level eomesponding to diferent, l/s are given below ina tabular form, js | however, j onlyAgain, the transition between the different levels are determined by certain selection rules, Theseare: (i) Al ‘The fine structureof X-ray levels and the allowed transitions between them are shown in Figure-9. It isob- » served that each K-line is a doublet : K,, and K,,,X, and K,,. While K,, is due to transition from K > Ly; X,, isdueto transition from K > L,,. The spliting of L.M., etc. lines are relatively more complex. Acomprehensive investigation of th 16 was 1¢ English Physicist H.G.J. Moseley (1913-14) who used ned dete cEattestag zefs in the X-ray tube, The radiation from each target was analysed.by:the single crystal X-ray.spectcopraphalsing a thin crystal of potas. im ferrooyanide. The spectrum was recorded ona photographie platc and the entire arrangement wasplaced -ia2 vacuum chamber in order to avoid the absorptiondflong wavelength X-rays in ait ‘The photographié plate, on development, showed traces of dark lines of varying intensities, each comrespond- ing to a characteristic line of the:given clement, The characteristic spectra could easily be divided into two distinct groups —a short wavelength group, generally less than Inm (K-series) and a long wavelength group, greater than I nm (L-series). The wavelengths of the L-series were roughly ten times as great as those of the K.series. Subsequent investigations confirmed the existence of two other series lines (M-series and N-series) oflonger wavelength in heavier atomic species (2.> 66).(rays and Comptons Scattering Atomic number Z Moseley demonstrated th ' spectra are much simpler in character consisting, as tl the same type imespective of the elements, except thatthe fi eWitl increasing atomioweight. The Moseley’s law —Moseley feat any particular line! vee Wi =a(z~pyawhitied, Bare ‘This is known as the oe CBE: BREIL uency of the line (say, the most intense of the K-series) agains foseley obtained (Figure-11) a straight line given by the aiebequalions The samé:linearrelation-was four to hold good for any line in any series, of course with different slopes. From Moseley’s diagram, b is the small intercept on the Z-axis. Atomié weight 920406080100 0 40 30] Wa a a ae a) Atomic number Z Fig. 11 Moseley diagram : v/a vs. Z-plot (also at. wt. plot)X-rays and Comptons Scattering In Figure-1i ‘crosses’ correspond to v/a vsatomic weight, while the ‘dots’ correspond to v/a vsatomic number Z. It is apparent from the plot that in so faras the frequency ofthe characteristic line isconcerned, the atomie number is more fundametal than the atomic weight. That isto say, the chemical identify ofanelement depends on the atomic number Z.and not on the atomic weight or mass number A. Importance of Moseley’s work—It was Moseley’s investigation which for the first time showed that it ‘would be more logical to arrange elements in the periodic table in the order on increasing atomic number instead of atomic weight. When this was done, it removed certain anomalies in the order of some elements in the old Periodic table of Mendeleev. For instance, argon of atomic weight 40 comes before potassium of ‘atomic weight 39 from the consideration of chemical properties ofthese two elements, The atomic numbers of ‘argon and potassium are however 18 and 19 respectively. So the arrangement is correct if made in the order of atomic number. Other such examples are cobalt nickel and tellurium iodine, Moseley’s work also helped (i) in the discovery of new ements in the missing gaps of atomic number43, 61, 72 and75 inthe Periodic table and (il) inthe determination of atomic numbers of rare-earth elemerts and fixing, their positions inthe petiodic table, Derivation of Moseley’s law — The general form of Moseley’s law can be easily derived from Bohr’s theory. Leta transition occur from state OD For K, -line, n, =1, 7, =2, coll tld The presence of the constant b in M aan luced fiom experimental ats, hasbeen interpreted as the shielding effect ofnucleus by the retaining electron¢in the fo wer eveland 1s known as the screening constant. For instance, for K,, - meant at ee AOE RIER earings singeclecronin K-shell. The negative charge of this ySsidaal Seetra isthe nul ‘ge+ Ze ofthe atom. The effective Coulomb force on the L-cleciron is thus due approximately to a net positive charge + (Z.— I)e. So instead of 2*in equation @), we should rather vite ZY thatisto sey, + Roe 1} or Wo (Zl where a” 3 Re, as before and b= 1 With this interpretation, we have the Moseley’s law Vv = a(Z 5). Note 1. For X,, -line the screening constant b= 1. A plot ofthe frequency Vv /a against Z (Figure-1) shows ffom the intercept ofthe Z-axis that as amatter of fact b~1 Note 2. We know that K,,, K-lines have doublet structure, a fact unknown atthe time of Moseley’s discov- ery. So in Moseley’s diagram the mean fiequencies of the doublet were plotted. Subsequent precise measure- ments showed that the Moseley diagram of K,, -lines actually consists of two very close straight lines with slightly different slopes,(rays and Comptons Scattering 2.12. Absorption of X-rays When a parallel beam of X-rays impinges on a slab of matter, most ofit is transmitted through the material, but ‘apart gets absorbed and the intensity ofthe beam emerging from the opposite side ofthe slab decreases. This absorption of X-rays leads to several phenomena. But they are collectively accounted for by what iscalled the absorption coefficients sand u/p. Absorption coefficients —Let /be the intensity ofa monochromatic X-ray beam that penetrates normally @ thickness dx ofa material. Then —di/dr is the rate of change of intensity with thickness and negative sign indicate that intensity decrease with thickness. But, experimentally, the rate of diminution of intensity is found to be proportional tothe intensity J. oer - ae ae dl : Assuming the material under discussion to be homogeneous, we get = — pl -@ where isa charaéteristic constant of the material concemed. The constant s1is know as the linear absorption coeflicient ofthe materia. de From equation (), we get ‘Thus ifs, is known, the co-efficients jz becomes known and x, is called half-value thickness... Farther, a plot of én J against x (Figure-b) would give a straight line the slope of which is — y. From a + «measurement of this slope also, pcan be evaluated. The dimension of is plainly the inverse of length, mr". al (2) Absorption of x-rays (b) én! vs. x plot Itis by the value of that the quality ofan X-ray beam is fixed. If is small and.xis large, the X-rays are Said tobehard, ifhowever jis large, they are called softXcrays and Comptons Scattering ‘Mass absorption co-efficients — It is found that jx varies rather widely for the same substance in their different physical states, e.g, ice, water and steam, due to the density factor. So tis nota true constant for the substance. A true material constant, independent ofits physical state, in this respect is the concept of mass absorption co-efficients as defined below. Let p be the density, s the surface area, x the thickness and m the mass of the absorbing material. Then, n 2 x ‘Therefore, from (i), we obtain: = I,e-%™"? ao Ai Plainly, m/sis the mass per unit area of the absorber and the quantity s1/p (=J4,).is called the mass absorption co-eficients of the absorber. Tinear absorption coefficient abs ic 4 i boy > a Therefore, Massabsorptiono-efcens fy =" ofthe material makes practical use ote ia eee its Secondary radiations —As already sited he abso: pion ofX-rays by attr fst ‘The part ofthe radiation remo spare en ‘beami (i.e. amount secondary radiations consisting) 1e 1. Photoeleetrons — The X-ra by electrons which are thereby ejected ph speed Th'process SH usually accompanied by thé emission of characteristilf fiat om outer'shélls, The net effect of the process is gradual anit 2 Scattered X-rays—The indent. tered X-rays of practically thes 3. Characteristic X-rays —whi ofthe een bam oP SPaREERENDSNVOUR Pretec ‘At higher energies, there could be photo-nuslear and olfer effecis fo attenuale the energy of X-radiation in its passage through the absorbers. i 2.13. Variation of ,, with wavelength : Absorption edges ‘The mass absorption coefficients, 1, o Z* where Zis the atomic numberof the material, So as Zineréase’s Hp, increases rapidly, as has already been stated. H,, also depends on the wavelength of X-radiation and the relation is 4, «c 2°. So.as 2 increases, 41, also increases rapidly. The variation of 1, with A is represented graphically in (Figure-13), where in itis observed that as A. increases, 1, increases contintiously up to acertain A-value, followed by a sudden decrease in 1, at adefinite wavelength A, = 2, .'The 14, again tises continuously with A followed again by a sudden decrease at another definite wavelength 2, = 2,, , and immediétely thereafter two more discontinuous—oneat 4 = 4,, and another at A, = 4,,,. The pattern gets more or less similarly repeated as A increases.‘rays and Comptons Scattering 04 08 12 16 A ea Fig.13 Variation of pig with % ‘Theviaicenath 2, comesponding tobe first discontinuity in .,-A. curve isknownas the K-absorption edge. “The following discontinuities at 4, ,%,, and 4,, arerespectivelycalled 2, 2,, and A, -absorption edges. “The wavelengths 6f the different absorption edges are dependent on the absorber. Obviously, Ae Ay, < ay : ”) ~ Substracting (iv) from (v), sel) GARE ENDEAVD me’ \-3)F =-2n els CAREER EN Mkt or, mc! =-2hvv'(1— cos cz) + 2myc*h(v —v") + meet (- m=m,[i-¥ ie) “. UPvv'(—cos) =2meth(y =v) of (I= cos a) = Me =v) nes *) ov) how hh But dA=A’'-As= h 7 : da=—*_ (cos a) =—* 2sin?® o/2, using (vi), = 24, sin? a/2 Avi) where A, =/h/mgc is a universal constant as it involves the fundamental constants h, c and m,, It has the dimension of length and is known as the Compton wavelength ofthe electron having a value 0.024 A.X-tays and Comptons Scattering Dicussion— The equation (vii) shows that the Compton shift d2 isa function of a, the angle of scattering and is independent of the wavelength 2 of the incident radiation and also the nature of the scatterer. The main features of the phenomenon are thus established. Ifa: =90°, the expression gives dA = h/m,c = 0.024 A in agreement with the experimental value obtained by Compton. When a =0,d4=0; and when a = 180°, d= 2A, possible shift. It therefore follows fom (vi) that the Compton shift is most readily detected for radiation where isnot greater than few angstrom. For 4 = 5A, d2.=1%; for A=1A, d2 = 5% . Compton effect is also shown by y-rays. ‘Unmodified line —The above treatment holds for a free electron, not bound to an atom. Ifthe X-radiation éollides witha bound electrons, the whole atom recoils asa result of Compton scattering andm, in the formula isto be replaced by AZ,, the mass of the atom when it isseen from (vi that 2 —> 0 for all values of e since ‘M_, > mg. This gives ise to the unmodified line observed by Compton. This conclusion has been verified by Rossusing different elements as scatterer. Note, We assumed fi developing the relation (vi thatthe electron isnot ony fee but is also at rest. however, the electron be not at rest biti We x Compton wavelength and that is the maximum \CAREEH END "seem ell Coramarmarne ‘This gives the energy of the scattered photon in terms of the angle: ofseeinga aitd the theineident photon. ~ Kinetic energy of recoil electron —Since the gain in electron energy is equal to the loss in photon energy, the kinetic energy of the recoil electron is given by by + using equation (i) > (1~cos a) = cosa) 14% (1-cos.a) me me cos a) which is the expression for the kinetic energy ofrecoil electron.~rays and Comptons Scattering When a: = 180°, EQ ne (oa) Relation between angle of scattering and angle of deviation — From the set of equations (iii) visina _ sina. Ai) tan B= S82 = vovicosa v/v'—cosa Again, Let 44 cosa) voy ime 1 =tf1+ A a-eoren} (142asin® 2), vt me! tan B= ——_—2__2 1+ 2asin® $ ~ cosa ‘Which is the relation betWwéen the angle of scattering 8 mandi le of deviation Bofthe recoil electron. CAREER ENDEAVOUR,X-rays and Comptons Scattering Sone wanes) 1. An X-ray tube operates at 30 kV. Calculate the shortest wavelength ofthe emitted X-rays. Soln, Energy of electrons generating the X-rays™= Ve. When the above energy is completely converted to X-rays, ‘maximum frequency v, or minimum wavelength Ay is obtained. _he he Ve=hvy Aya -s Now, V = 30x10" volt, h=6.62x 10 Js, €=1.602x10°C y ig = SERIO 31026153210" 0.41324 1.602107 30% 10° Blectrons bombarding the anode of Coolidge tube produce X-rays of wavelength 1A. Find the energy ofeach electri at the moment ofimpact. Soln, Let vbe the electron velocity atthe time of impact with the anode, ‘Therefore, energy ofeelectro Soln, 84x10 4. An X-rayphoton of wavelength 0.1 A isreftected at an angle 90° with its original direction after collision with an clectron at rest. Find the energy it loses on collision. <0.0244 Soln. Incident wavelength, d Inge ‘Therefore, wavelength of scattered radiation, 2.'=0.1+0.024 = 0.1244 =0.124x107 m Incident frequency, ya f= 3xt0F/0. 1x10“ =3x 10H Scattered frequency, v'= = = 3x108 /0.124x 10"? = 2.419510 Heia X-rays and Comptons Scattering Soin, Soln. Soln. ‘Therefore, energy loss in collision is AZ = hy—hy'=h(v— 5.6104 (32.419) x10 = 6.6x0.581x107 FJ = 2.39108 Find the critical voltage that must be applied to an X-ray tube to excite the K-series of copper, given that the K-absorption limitis 1 380A «Here, Api =1.380x10"!9mn . From the relation, Ye = = Ye — ie. __6:6210 3x10" eA 1,602x10"? x1.38% Calculate the fractional change in the wavelength of an X-ray of wavelength 0.400 A that undergoesa 90° ‘Compton scattering froman electron. (1-cos@) = (0.0243 A)(t-c0s90*) = 898K .0243A ana LA _ 0.0243 A K, =1.59keV riwave length 2. arerelated Moc If the incident photon have: wavelength 2 dx10%m and =90°, ‘deduce (i tie wavelength ofthe scattered photon (il) the energy of the recoil electron and (Gi the angle at which the recoil electron appeats. IfA! and are the wavelengths of scattered and incident photons, we have 6.6x107* 9.1x10 . h yo) PeseatecoatoUeniasad : = (1-08 90°) 3x10" 3 6.6x10" 1-0)=2.4x10"?m.= 0.024 A “91x10 3x10Soln, (4 X-rays and Comptons Scattering Gi Neglecting the binding energy of the recoil electron thé energy ofthe recoil electron isgivenby T=(m-m,)c? =hv-hv'=h(v-v') =he| aA 10 ae} 60 ani ep 6.610 3 x108 x 0.024 x10" 2.024x 107 x 2x10" =L17* 107) (Gil) The angle @ at which the recoitelectron appears is given by 2.00107 2 =2.0x10c0s90 2.204%107 "2.024 tan@= 0.9980; @= tan"! (0.9980); 9= 44°57" dsing 2.0%10" sin90° 2 Reosp 2.024x10" tan@= ‘A beam of gamma radiation having photon enerayof5 10 keV-isineident on-'fol ofaluminium. Calculate the wavelength of the radiation incident: 90nd dbo unenery anda ithe stron . = 2426x107 4241710? = 4.84910" em ‘The energy of recoil electron is given by 6.6107 x 3x 108 x 2417x107 2.426% 4.843107 11 E=hv-hv'=h(v-v')=he| —-— |= v'eh(v-v4) ty 4) 10" joules, ‘The direction ofrecoil electron @is given by Asinp ___2.426x10" sing0°_2.426x10"!? _ 2.426. tand = ae ee Koos} 4843x107 =2.426c0890" 4843x107 4.843, tan 8 = 0.5008; O=tan™' (0.5008); 0 = 26°36"i-tays and Comptons Scattering aa 10. soln. Soin, Soin: 13. ce * In Compton scattering, wavelength shift is towards [BHU 2010] @ shorter wavelength (b) longer wavelength (©) shorter or longer depending on the angle of scattering (© shorter or longer side depending on photon energy “The incident photon loses its energy to the target particle and hence its wavelength increases. Correct option is (b) ‘X-rays of 10.0 p.m. arc scattered ftom a target. The maximum energy ofthe recoil electron (i/me forelectron is2.426%10" m) is, [BHU 2011] (@ 327x107 joules (©) 6.54x10-" joules (©) 5.64x107" joules d) 237x107 joules Energy of the incident x-ray photon hy = 2€ = !1240eV—nm _ 194 poy : A 10x10" nm sngth 0.180 nm (given that Rydberg constant R = 1. [B.H.U-2011] (@)27 Using Moseley’s la, 3R(z-of d) 54 where 7 isthe wave number and ois, fale ENDER ne Por RS EAVOUR Pt coer 1 a — 13g 097107 (2-1 * 0.180.107 4 ey = (i 4x10" 0.180%3x 1.09710" => (Z-1)' 67524 = (Z-1)=25.98=26 > Z=27 Correct option is (a) Photons of wavelength 2 scatter elastically from free protons initially at rest. The wavelength ofthe protons scattered at 90?is increased by [BHU 2012] 2 int ne ® 7 One ©O.m,C @o where m, and m, are the rest mass ofthe électron and proton.a = X-rays and Comptons Scattering Soin, The shiftinthe wavelength is Ah= aa cos®), when @=90°, An= me ay Correct option is (e) 14, According to Moseley’s aw, the relation between the atomic number Zand frequency v is given by @ va (Z—-b) O vez ©) va(Z-y (@) v<(Z—b) [B.H.U-2013] Soln. According to Moseley’s law, ved 4ke(Z-0y° where vis the frequency, R isthe Rydberg constant, cis the speed of light, c isthe screening constant andZ. is the atom number. vac(Z-b) Correct option is (d) 15. The Compton shift in X: ry wma @) Scattering angle only 5 Scattering ana! (©) Wavelength of X-ray only of X-ray both [B.H.U-2014] Soln. ‘The Compton shift in X-ray wave having wavelength of0.1537 ng @2% 24 Cored anenatR | [B.H.U-2015] Soin. According to Moseley’s law: Fe (Z-o} Tee ce where ¥ isthe wave number and ois screening constant i 2 Loge 1<(z-0) Forstrong K, line i 2 — 1 «(27-1 j 0.1785 wm * 27-1) “@ For weak K, line 1 2 peel er 5 T1s37 mm * (2—)) ~@ linesw-rays and Comptons Scattering 2 _ 26° «0.1785, Z-1 = XO = 785.075 > 2-15 = = (Z-1) 01537 => Z-1n28 => Z=29 Correct option is (a) 7. Ducto Compton scattering, the change in wavelength is [BHU 2015] (a) dependent on electron charge (b) dependent on electron mass and charge (©) dependent on electron mass and scattering angle both (@ dependent on scattering angle only join, The'change in wavelength in Compton scattering is an=—Ld-c0s9)" ge Where my isthe rests. the electron and is the scattering angle Correct option is (c) 8. Thechange in the wavelength ofthe scattered light inthe. on.scattering is equal to the Compton wave- length ofthe electron when: [BHU 2016] Correct option is (a) ae 9. Themaximum value of the chan} ase of Compton scattering is: (@) 0.024A () 6. ey ete 072A [BHU 2016] ioln, ‘The change would be maximum when cos 8 2h ‘Therefore, (AM max =—— = 0.088 A mae @) Ina Compton scattering experiment, the recoil electron has to be : (@) relativistic (b) nonrelativistic [BHU 2016] (©) Sometimes relativistic (@) Sometimes non-relativistic Correct option 3oln, In Compton scattering experiment, the incident photon has energy oforder of keV and hence the recoil elec- tron also hasthe kinetic energy of order of keV. Moreover, the rest mass energy ofthe electron isoforder of keV. So the rest mess energy of the electron is comparable to its kinetic energy. This is why the recoil electron is relativistic in nature. Correct option is (a)21. Soin, Soin, 23. Soln, 24, Soin, X-tays and Comptons Scattering Ifthe incident photon has a wavelength equal is 2A and its angle of deflection is 90°, the Kineticenergy of the recoil electron in the Compton scattering would be [BHU 2016] @) 1.17x10 ergs (b) 1.1710" joules © 117x107 KeV @ 1.17x10-" ev he _1240e¥ —nm Energy ofthe incident photon /v = =6.2 keV O2nm Kinetic energy ofthe recoil electron a? 2) 2 (1-cosa) So A mae Spey a4. ev = 1.1810 7 a z(I-cosa) 1+2"(I-0) me si Correct option is (b) Inthe Comptonscattering there @) ‘inelastic colision ofa photons (b) inelastic colision of a photon Wj (© inelastic colision of a photon Wy (d) inelastic collisionofa Fa photons [BHU 2016) me Correct option is(a) Inthe case of Rutherford scattering the a-particle would be bythe: [B.1.U-2016] 2 @ Aigle >. () Angl eZ Incase of Rutherford scattering, impact parameter bis piven by, where Zs the atomic number of target nuclei, k = Re +e is the electron charge, K.E, isthe kinetic energy te, of o-particle and @ isthe scattering angle. Now, b=0 = cot®=0 3 92% = o=n 2 22 Correct optionis (c) Rutherford scattéring is important because it shes light on [B.11-0-2016) (@) thestructure ofthe molecule (b) the size ofthe molecule (©) the quantum nature of the moiecule @ thestructure of the atom Conclusions drawn froin Rutherford scattering experiment: @ anatomwas much more than just empty space and scattered electron. Gi an atom must have a positively charged center that contains most of its mass. ‘Therefore, Rutherford scattering is important because it sheds light on the structure of he atom, Correct option is (d)<-tays and Comptons Scattering 25. Separate Compton effect experiments are carried out using visible light and X-rays. Ifthe scattered radiation is observed at the same scattering angie, then [HCU 2012) (@) the X-rays have greater shift in wavelength and greater change in photon energy. (b) the two radiations have the same shift in wavelength and X-rays have a greater change in photon energy. (©) the two radiations have the same shift in wavelength and visible light has greater change in photonenergy (4) the two radiations have the same shift in wavelength and the same change in photon energy. Soin. The change inthe wavelength of the incident radiation is n= (-cos6) ge Since the change depends only on the scattering angle, the change in the wavelength of both the radiation would be same. 7 : h = hy-ay=—* (1-c0s8) moe h ——(1-cos 8 = (1-cos8) on) Ae 2 hobk, i i+ A2) 26. Soin. = y= xto= 652x107 __ mc 9.110! x3x108 = 0.24% 10" m = 0.024 nm. Correct option is (4)fa X-rays and Comptons Scattering 1. What is the wavelength of X-ray emitted when 100 kV electrons strike a target? What is the frequency? (0.124A; 24.2105] 2. The mass absorption coefficient of silver is 3.8 m’kg” for X-rays of 4 =0.4A.. find the atomic mass absorption coefficient of silver. (6.087*10 m’/atom] 3. Determine the maximum speed attained by electrons in an X-ray tube operating at 10 kV. [5.964% 10? m/s] 4, A photon with energy 0.46 MeV is scattered at an angle 120° by a free electron at rest. Find (i) the energy of the scattered photon and (i) the energy transferred to the electron. [0.20 MeV; 0.26 MeV] 5. When photons of wavelength 0.024A are incident on a target, scattered photons are detected at an angle 60°. Calculate the wavelength of ihr iWave Properties of Particle 3.1 Wave particle Duality: d According to classical mechanics, the particle can behave as a particle and wave can behave like a waves Particle is characterized by energy and momentum and wave is characterized byamplitude and wave vector. 41923, De-brogle postulated that a moving particle can behave asa wave. The de-broglie wavelength associated witha particle ofrest ‘This hypothesisis experimentally verified by. is nent to size 2 ofthe pee, the annot be detected experimentally. ea single plane wave but is like { wavelengths and frequencies, Phase Velocity: + +. Aplane wave travelling along positive ditebtion of xeaxis can bereprestrited.as, fae v (/GARGERENDEAYDUR / where, a isthe angular frequency, v is the velocity and 4 is the amplitude of the wave. The phase ¢ ofthe wave at anytime” ata distance ‘x’ fromthe origins $ (x,£) = (ct —kx).. Phase velocity +, ofthe wave isthe velocity with which displacement ofa given phase, moves inthe forward direction, [tis _algo the velocity of a monochromatic wave with which crest or trough ofthe weve travels in amediumn. In a dispersive medium, v, isdifferent for different wavelengths. The phase velocity ofthe propagating monochromatic pH o_E waveis given by, Ys === Fromthe relativistic mass energy relation, ¥:= Since, the phase velocity ofa de-broglie wave is always greater than the velocity of ligt in freespace. But according tothe special theory ofrelatiovity, no energy can be transmitted with velocity greater than c.(os Wave Properties of Particle This suggests thet the phase velocity has no physical significance and we can not respresent the wave nature of amoving particle bya single plane wave. Group velocity: ‘A.wave group or wave packet is described as the superposition of individual waves of different wavelengths. ‘These waves interfere with each other and results in variation of amplitude. These defines the wave group shape. Ifthe medium is non-dispersive, then phase velocity of the individual waves will not change with wavelength. As aresult, wave packet travels with common phase velocity. But, in adispersive medium, phase velocity of individual waves will be different. As a result, wave | packet moves with a different velocity than, Phase velocity which is known as group velocity‘, Let, the wave group is formed by the superposition oftwo monochromatic waves having same amplitudebut differing in angular frequency by an amount “Ac” and in wave number‘ Ak? ie yj, = Asin (wt — ke) W2 =Asin[(o+ Aa)t—(k-+Ak)x] © @ Figuré : Superposition of two sinusoidal waves of slightly different frecuncies [(@)and (6)] Curve (6) represents the resultant motion, ‘The resultant wave i.e. wave packet can be written as, oe 24coy 2 (Aor i ta) sin (t-te) Now, group velocity is the velocity with which maximum amplitude or the envelope of the wave packet movesNave Properties of Particle From the relativistic mass-energy relation : Bi = pie mie! aE ‘Therefore, ap EL yey ay, Relation between Phase velocity and Group velocity: ¥, = ¥,— 4-7 a, For, non- dispersive medium, all waves travel with same phase velocity: —>- Dispersive medium are of two types: ay, Normal dispersive medium: FF = +¥e= Ye

ht Here, ag isthe uncertainty in the measurement of energy of Ay , the corresponding uncertainty in the mea- surement oftime. If AE be the maximum uncertainty in the determination energy of system in a particular statesthen AL is the minimum, i.., the system remains for a minimum time in the state. On the other hand, ifa system remains in a particular state fora maximum interval oftime, then the uncertainty in the measurement of energy isthe mini- mun,