CHAPTER SIX

Systems design
6.1 Introduction

The analysis phase of the systems development process helps analysts know what must be done to
solve the problem but has not yet determined how to do it. This unit takes a much closer look at the
system design phase that help analysts how to solve a problem.
Analysis is concerned with doing the right thing.
Design is concerned with doing the things right. Thus, whereas system analysis emphasized on the
problem, system design focuses on the technical or implementation concerns of the system.
Therefore, this unit will describe this concept in detail.

6.2 What is a system Design?

Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object or a system (as

in architectural blueprints, engineering drawings, business processes, circuit diagrams and sewing
patterns). Another definition for design is a roadmap or a strategic approach for someone to achieve a
unique expectation. It defines the specifications, plans, parameters, costs, activities, processes and
how and what to do within legal, political, social, environmental, safety and economic constraints in
achieving that objective.

During design the analyst’s focus shifts from the logical to the physical. Processes are converted to
manual procedures or computer programs. Data elements are grouped to form physical data
structures, screens, reports, files, and databases. The hardware components that support the programs
and the data are defined.

Logical design
The logical design of a system pertains to an abstract representation of the data flows, inputs and
outputs of the system. This is often conducted via modelling, using an over-abstract (and sometimes
graphical) model of the actual system.

Physical design
The physical design relates to the actual input and output processes of the system. This is explained in
terms of how data is input into a system, how it is verified/ authenticated, how it is processed, and
how it is displayed as Physical design.

Stages of system design

Pre-production design
Design brief – an early (often the beginning) statement of design goals
Analysis – analysis of current design goals
Research – investigating similar design solutions in the field or related topics
Specification – specifying requirements of a design solution for a product (product design
specification)[19] or service.
Problem solving – conceptualizing and documenting design solutions
Presentation – presenting design solutions

Design during production

Development – continuation and improvement of a designed solution

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 Testing – testing a designed solution
Post-production design feedback for future designs
Implementation – introducing the designed solution into the environment
Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and
suggestions for future improvements

Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before,
during, or after production.

Principles of Good Design 

There are six basic principles of good input/output design:
User Involvement
User first, computers last
Minimize human efforts
Remember human limitations
Convention standardization
Cultural bias

User Involvement
The users interact with a system through the interfaces (input/output).
To increase the satisfaction of the user, the analyst should consult the user throughout the design of
the user interfaces.
If the design is good, the users perform their task easily and make few mistakes.  If the design is bad,
the users grumble and make mistakes.

User First, Computers Last 

The design choices must be made to create the best design for the users rather than the easiest design
for the programmers to code.
The interfaces must be formulated to assist the user, but if the system performance will be severely
degraded, compromises may be necessary.

Minimize Human Efforts

Whenever possible, the interaction of the human with the computer should be minimized.
The number of key stokes by the user should be minimal. 

Remember Human Limitations

Humans are prone to errors, and hence checks should be placed in the system to prevent the entry of
erroneous data. 

Convention Standardization
If other systems of an organization have some standard that the users are used to, implement the same
to the new system.
Standardization assists the user by eliminating the need to remember many operating procedures.
For example, if function F1 is used to display help features of other information systems, adopt the
same for the new system.

Cultural Bias
Design of input and output should be consistent with the natural human expectation.
Screens, forms, and reports should follow data representation from left to right and then from top to
bottom.

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6.3 Basic Activities of systems Design
System analysis and design involves basic activities; which includes developing and evaluating
alternatives design, designing the system in terms of the building blocks and completing the general
design report. In the sections below these activities are discussed briefly.

6.3.1 Developing and Evaluating Design Alternatives

There are three design alternatives: centralized, decentralized and distributed.
1. Centralized Design – in this types of design all the processing will be undertaken centrally. Data
entry and retrieval could be under taken from the user department using terminals to the central
facility.

Accounting Production

Central
processing
Personnel Marketing

Fig. 6.1 Centralized Design

Centralized system design has advantages and disadvantages.

Disadvantages:
- Lack of accountability
- Delays
- Higher costs when you have geographically dispersed departments or users.

Advantage
 Cost effectiveness
 Coordination and control
 Establishing and maintaining standards
 Improved used support
 Reduced personnel to operate the processing

2. Decentralized Design
In this case there are separate facilities for each of the user departments which can be used to develop
the alternative designs. The size of each facility is determined by the processing requirements of the
department it serves. Small departments usually requires small facility and vice versa.
The main advantages are:
 This system is better able to meet departmental information needs.
 It helps to match hardware and software to local departmental needs.
 Use less sophisticated and less expensive hardware and software and other communication
equipment.
Disadvantages/Problems
 Difficult to obtain consolidated companywide management information because each unit or
department has its own key data and information stored on its own computer.
 Duplication of hardware, software, data and personnel to run the facilities in the operation
system.

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3. Distributed Design
Distributed design is the combination of centralized and decentralized systems which exploits the
advantages of both, while minimizing the weakness of both systems. In this design system, users can
use their own processing facilities by themselves and can access the larger system for common
applications and databases. The figure below shows how departments interact each other and with the
centralized processing system.

Accounting Production

Central
processing

Personnel Marketing

Fig. 6.2 Distributed Design

This design currently has larger application. Distributed systems are inherently more complicated and
more difficult to implement that centralized systems. But the trend is toward distributed system.
Because:
Modern businesses are already distributed and, thus, they need distributed system solutions.
Distributed computing moves information and similes closer to the users
Distributed computing consolidates the incredible power made possible by the proliferation of PCs
across an enterprise and society in general.
Distributed system solutions are more user-friendly because they utilize the PC as the user interface
processor.
PCs and network servers are much cheaper than mainframes. However, it has the following
weaknesses and strengths.
Advantage:
- high degree of user involvement
- corporate processing needs
- fewer personnel requirement
- less coordinating problem
- cost allocation
Disadvantages
- Network data traffic can cause congestion that actually slows performance.
- Data security and integrity can also be more easily compromised in this system.
6.4 System design areas
The main building blocks of systems design are:
 output design
 input design
The best place to start the design process is with the system output.  This is because the output
requirements describe what the system must do to meet business needs.  The design of input, data
files or database, program structure, and system architecture will follow; but activities can run in
parallel.

A. Output Design
Output is information delivered to the users through the information system. The output of
information system must be clear, precise and informative. All other design is performed at the end to

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 have output. Output must be designed based on the requirements or purpose which are identified in
the analysis phase.

Output Design Objectives

Because output is essential to ensuring the use and acceptance of the information system, there are six
objectives that the systems analyst tries to attain when designing output:

1. Designing output to serve the intended purpose.

2. Designing output to fit the user.
3. Delivering the appropriate quantity of output.
4. Making sure the output is where it is needed.
5. Providing the output on time.
6. Choosing the right output method.

B. Input Design
Input facilities the entry of data into the computer system. Input design involves the selection of the
best strategy for getting data into the computer system at the right time and as accurately as possible.
This is because the most difficult aspect of input design in accuracy .The use of well-defined
documents can encourage users to record data accurately without omission.
Input design must capture all the data that the system needs, without introducing any errors. Input
errors can be greatly reduced when inputting directly by using appropriate forms for data capture and
well designed computer screen layout.

The quality of systems input determines the quality of systems output. Information is the function of
data and processing. Therefore, in input design phase, the following issues should be considered:
 Collection of data itself
 Data entry and
 Data validation
The input design elements are: form design, design input screens and records, design methods and
procedures for getting the data in to the computer.

The objectives of input design are:

 Effectiveness
 Accuracy
 Consistency
 Simplicity and attractiveness.
When we design input we have to ask the following questions or we have to consider the following
points:

a) What sort of program run? Will it be undertaken?

The decision to be made at this point is to use simple batch inputs versus on-line inputs. In batch
processing, transactions are accumulated into batch processing; transactions are accumulated into
batches for periodic processing. The batch inputs are processed to update databases and produce
appropriate outputs.
Majority of systems have slowly evolved from batch processing to on-line or real-time processing.
On-line inputs and outputs provide for a more conversational dialogue between the user and computer
applications. They also provide near immediate feedback in response to transactions, problems, and
inquiries. In today’s fast-paced economy, most business transactions and inquires are best processed
as soon as possible. Errors are identified and corrected more quickly because there is no time lapse
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between data entry and input. Furthermore, on-line methods permit greater human interaction in
decision-making.
b) Is it possible to input data directly by machine, by using bar code readers or magnetic ink
character readers?
c) What volume of data input needed?
d) Will data need to be transcribed from its original source before it is input?
e) Is some part of the data already entered in to the system?
f) How should the accuracy of the data be ensured?
Input methods and implementation
Different inputs devices can be used to enter data some these are:
1. Keyboard – Keyboard data entry remains the most common form of input.
2. Mouse – is a pointing device used in conjunction with graphical user interfaces (GUI)
3. Touch screen
4. Point-of-sale
5. Sound and speech
6. Magnetic ink
7. Smart cards

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