UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

SCHULICH SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

ENCI 317: MECHANICS of SOLIDS (Fall 2022)

Lab 1: MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN UNIAXIAL TENSION AND

BENDING TESTS

Lab Section #:

Name (Last name, First Name):

UCID:

Date:
 PART A - MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN UNIAXIAL TENSION TEST

Objective

To demonstrate the behaviour of brittle and ductile materials in uniaxial tension

(Stress-Strain Diagram)

Introduction

The term tension test is usually attributed to a test in which a prepared specimen
is subjected to gradually increasing (i.e. "static") uniaxial load until failure. In a simple
tension test, the operation is accomplished by gripping opposite ends of the specimen and
pulling it apart. The test specimen elongates in a direction parallel to the applied load.

The specimens are typically cylindrical or prismatic in form and of approximately

constant cross section over the length within which measurements of extension are made.
Within the limits of practicability, the resultant load coincides with the longitudinal axis of
the specimen. Thus (with certain exceptions), an attempt is made to obtain a uniform
distribution of direct stress over cross sections normal to the direction of the load.

The static tension test is one of the most commonly performed and simplest of all
mechanical tests. Static compression tests are also simple and easy to perform for many
materials. The kind of test should be selected based on the nature of the material, i.e.
brittleness or ductility, and by the type of service to which the material is subjected to. For
example, steel generally exhibits relatively high ductility and are world-class material for
tensile loads.

Brittle materials such as cast iron, concrete, and mortar, which have low tensile
strengths compared with their compressive strengths, are principally employed to resist
compressive forces, so compression tests are significant for these sorts of materials.

Wood is an example of a material where both tensile and compressive strengths

are relatively high, but it cannot always be effectively utilized in structural members
because of low shear strength which causes failure before the full tensile resistance of
the member can be developed. With this material, the choice between tension or
compression tests is more difficult. The compression test is usually considered of greater
practical significance than the tension test, and it is also easier to perform.

What Is Expected to Learn

After this lab section, you are expected to know;

• What is a stress-strain diagram

 • What is the difference between brittle and ductile materials
• What parameters can be found from the stress-strain diagram

The Stress-Strain Diagram

It is often necessary to relate the loads on a structure, or a member in a structure,

to the deflection that the loads produce. Such information can be obtained by plotting
diagrams showing loads and deflections for each member and the type of loading in a
structure, but such diagrams vary with the dimensions of the loaded member.

By plotting the load per unit cross-sectional area (stress) against the elongation
per unit of length (strain), the behavior of each specimen may be represented on a "stress-
strain diagram" which has the great advantage that the plotted quantities are essentially
independent of the size and shape of the specimen.

The stress-strain diagram for a particular material is found to be a reproducible

relationship that is characteristic of that material. It is therefore possible to describe, both
qualitatively and quantitatively, the differences in behaviour between materials subjected
to tension by comparing their stress-strain diagrams.

The slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram is the modulus of
elasticity, E.

∆𝜎𝜎 (1)
𝐸𝐸 = tan 𝜃𝜃 =
∆𝜀𝜀

where E is the modulus of elasticity (MPa), σ is the applied stress (MPa), and ε is the
relative strain to the applied stress.

Stress is a defined concept, and is not directly measurable. Consequently,

experimental determination of the stresses in a complex structural member ordinarily
requires measurement of the strain and subsequent calculation of the stress from Hooke's
Law. For uniaxial stress, Hooke's Law is simply a revised form of equation (1):

𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (2)
 From equation 2, it is obvious that the percentage error in stress will be the same
as the error in E. Therefore, accurate values of the elastic modulus for structural materials
are very important.

Fig. 1 shows the stress-strain diagram for low-carbon steel and aluminum alloy.
From this graph, the behavior of different materials can be understood. For instance, the
modulus of elasticities is the slope of this graph where stress is linearly proportional to
strain value. Different regions can be observed in the stress-strain diagram. Region 1,
refers to the elastic behavior where the stress-strain plot is linear. Region 2, shows the
yielding where the object experiences large deformation for very small or almost
negligible stress. Before fracturing and after the yield point, most of the materials can
withstand additional stresses. The stress-strain diagram rises to a pick value called
ultimate stress. This rise in the diagram is called strain hardening behavior and the
ultimate stress is the highest stress that a material can experience before fracture or
failure. Region 5 shows necking where the cross-sectional area of the specimen
decreases uniformly and permanently. It is important to mention that necking just happens
in ductile materials and is not exhibited by brittle materials. Generally, ductile materials
break in cup-and-cone fractures. In the region of maximum necking, a circular fracture
surface forms at an angle of roughly 45 to the tensile axis. In contrast, brittle materials
often fracture on a flat surface that is oriented perpendicular to the tensile axis. The stress
at which the specimen breaks into two pieces is called fracture stress.

Figure 1. Stress-strain diagram for low-carbon steel and aluminum alloy [1]
 Does it seem odd that the fracture stress is less than the ultimate strength? If the
specimen did not break at the ultimate strength, why would it break at lower stress?

Look at Fig. 2 which compares the true stress and engineering stress. For
calculating the engineering stress we use the initial cross-section area of the object and
we do not consider the necking (decreasing the cross-section area). When we consider
the necking the fracture stress is higher than ultimate stress.

Figure 2. Comparison between true stress and engineering stress [1]

Tension Test Setup

To conduct the tension test, the specimen is held securely by grips while tension
force is applied by the testing machine. Fig. 3 shows the schematic figure of the tension
test setup. The lower grip is stationary and the upper grip moves upward, therefore
tension is applied to the specimen.
 Figure 3. Schematic picture of the tension test setup [1].

Before the test, the cross-sectional area of the specimen should be determined.
The normal stress is calculated by using the specimen’s area and the applied force. The
gage length of the extensometer should also be noted. Normal strain is calculated from
the axial elongation and the gage length. Upon the specimen is broken, the two halves of
the specimen are fitted together so that the final gage length and the diameter of the
cross-section at the fracture area can be measured. Due to the necking, the diameter of
the specimen is lower than its initial diameter and also initial area.

Apparatus in The Lab

We have a Tinius Olsen testing machine in the Lab. This machine consists of different parts:

(a) Loading Unit

The loading unit is a universal hydraulic testing machine with a load capacity
of 600kN, capable of performing static tension, compression, and transverse
tests on prepared test specimens. A built-in servo control provides continuous
feedback signals for precision control testing.
(b) Data System

The data system is on a computer with related components that can be

programmed to control tests and record data. Load-deformation or stress-
strain curves can be generated on the display screen.

Load-deformation data is obtained with the aid of an extensometer, which

consists of the main frame complete with knife-edge measuring points, a linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT), and a spring clamping device for
attaching the extensometer to round or rectangular specimens.
Procedure

During the laboratory period, two materials will be tested with a Tinius-Olson
Tension Test Apparatus. One material will be cast iron and the other one is mild steel.
The amount of elongation will be measured by the extensometer. Observe the generation
of a continuous load-deformation relationship as each specimen is loaded, and note
differences in the failure of the two materials! You will be provided with a graph for each
type of material where the y-axis is Load (kN) and the x-axis is elongation (mm).

The results recorded refer only to these particular specimens and, in the absence
of reliable data from other sources, it would be necessary to test additional specimens
before one could safely conclude that the results were an accurate measure of the
performance of the material.

The particular aspects of interest are those which tell us how close the material
comes to some idealization of its properties which may be used when designing the
calculations of strength or deformation.

Discussion

According to the plotted data for mild steel and cast iron specimens, re-label
and renumber the y and x axes to read stress and strain on the handout.

PLEASE NOTE: the original graph paper was 25cm on the y-axis but has
been reduced to fit standard letter size paper/

Mild Steel:

I. The initial y-axis full scale is 0-300kN.

a. Convert the y-axis to stress by dividing the load by the cross-

sectional area of the specimen.
b. Re-label the axis as stress with appropriate units (MPa).
c. Renumber the axis with the values as stress. Label every
second centimeter of chart paper within the elastic range.
 II. The x-axis is t h e elongation in 0.05mm increments per
centimeter of chart paper.
a. Convert the x-axis to strain by dividing each increment by the
Gauge Length (50mm)
b. Re-label the axis as strain.
c. Renumber the axis with the values as strain. Label only the
elastic range.

Cast Iron:

I. The initial y-axis full scale is 0-150kN.

a. Convert the y-axis to stress by dividing the load by the cross-

sectional area of the specimen.
b. Re-label the axis as stress with appropriate units (MPa)
c. Renumber the axis with the values as stress in the elastic
range.

II. The x-axis is the elongation in 0.05mm per centimeter of chart paper.
a. Convert the x-axis by dividing each increment by the Gauge
Length (50mm)
b. Re-label the axis as strain.
c. Renumber the axis with the values as strain in the elastic
range.

1) Does each material obey Hooke's Law? If so, at what stage of loading does it
cease to obey Hooke's Law?
2) Calculate E for both materials! Please show the calculations!

3) In which manner does each material fail (ductile or brittle) and what is the
failure stress?

4) Does each material exhibit a "yield plateau"? Please explain!

 PART B - MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN UNIAXIAL BENDING

Objective

To demonstrate the behaviour of mild steel in elastic bending.

Introduction

Although the uniaxial stresses measurable by loading a simply supported or

cantilever type of beam do not produce the complete stress-strain plateau for a ductile
material, the modulus of elasticity is easily obtained over a range of loading when the
material behaves elastically.
A mild steel cantilever beam will be provided in the lab for each group to strain
gauge. All participants must wear safety glasses and nitrile gloves as proper protective
equipment. You will be using a mild acid solution for preparing the specimen(gloves and
glasses will be provided).

What Is Expected to Learn

After conducting the experiment and completing the report, you are supposed to know;

• How you can calculate stress in a cantilever beam under a bending moment
• How to calculate the modulus of elasticity from the uniaxial bending test
• How the value obtained in the uniaxial bending test would be different from
the uniaxial tension test

Apparatus

A mild steel cantilever-type beam, 5 N laboratory weights for loading the beam, an
electrical resistance strain gauge attached to the beam, and a strain indicator (blue box).
Fig. 4 shows a schematic view of a cantilever beam setup. The system that we have in the
lab is somehow the same with minor differences, but conceptually the same.
 Figure 4. Schematic diagram of cantilever beam setup [2]

Procedure

1. Place gauged beam (Introduction) into the testing frame.

2. Attach the wiring as per the in-lab instruction.

3. Turn the strain indicator on (blue box) with the button in the bottom left-hand
corner.
.
4. With the beam unloaded (except by its weight and the weight of the loading
hook), balance the strain gauge to set the initial value to zero. Press the BAL
button twice (the second bank of buttons and the second from the top). Press
the REC button (above the BAL button).

5. Apply load in increments of 5 N each to a maximum of 25 N.

6. Record the total load and the strain reading after each 5 N increment is added.

7. Unload the beam in 5 N increments, again recording the load and strain at each
stage.
 8. Repeat this procedure until at least two sets of consistent measurements are
obtained.

Analysis and Presentation of Data

To calculate the beam stress, the cantilever beam flexure formula is employed (this formula
will be derived later in this course). The maximum flexural stress occurs at the top and
bottom faces of the specimen (tension at the top and compression at the bottom)

𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 6𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (3)

𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚 = = = 2
𝐼𝐼 2𝐼𝐼 𝑏𝑏𝑡𝑡

Where M is the bending moment at the gauge centerline (N*mm), y is the distance from
the neutral axis (mm), I is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section (mm4), P is load
(N), L is beam length (mm), b is the beam width (mm), t is the beam thickness (mm), and
𝑏𝑏𝑡𝑡 3
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 is the flexure stress (MPa). For the rectangular cross-section, 𝐼𝐼 = .
12
 For each load increment, and decrement, calculate the maximum flexural stress
from the above equation. Record the load, stress, and strain at each load level.

Load (N) Strain (µε) Set 1 Strain (µε) Set 2 Stress (MPa)

0
5
10
15
20
25
20
15
10
5
0

Discussion

1. Plot stress versus strain graph in Microsoft Excel (please bring your computer, we
have some computers in the lab). Only use one set of data and only values
associated with 0-25N loads. Calculate the value of E from the slope of the graph
(can use the trendline function).
 2. Compare the value of E for mild steel from Part A with the value obtained in Part
B and comment if there is a significant difference. Which one shows a higher
value?

3. Discuss the two probable sources of error for both Parts A and B and their relative
effects on the accuracy of the modulus of elasticity determined. The source of
these errors can be found in the experimental procedure.

References

[1] Philpot, Timothy A. "Mechanics of materials: an integrated learning system." (2008).

[2] Asyraf, M. R. M., M. R. Ishak, S. M. Sapuan, N. Yidris, and R. A. Ilyas. "Woods and
composites cantilever beam: A comprehensive review of experimental and numerical
creep methodologies." Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9, no. 3 (2020):
6759-6776.