Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Jacques Dupont-Roc, Gilbert Grynberg PHOTONS AND ATOMS INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS Contents Preface Introduction I CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS: THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS, AND THE DYNAMICAL VARIABLES Introduction A. The Fundamental Equations in Real Space 1. The Maxwell-Lorentz Equations 2. Some Important Constants of the Motion 3. Potentials—Gauge Invariance B. Electrodynamics in Reciprocal Space 1. The Fourier Spatial Transformation—Notation 2. The Field Equations in Reciprocal Space 3. Longitudinal and Transverse Vector Fields 4, Longitudinal Electric and Magnetic Fields 5. Contribution of the Longitudinal Electric Field to the Total Energy, to the Total Momentum, and to the Total Angular Momentum—a. The Total Energy, b. The Total Momentum, c. The Total Angular Momentum 6. Equations of Motion for the Transverse Fields C. Normal Variables 1. Introduction 2. Definition of the Normal Variables 3. Evolution of the Normal Variables 4. The Expressions for the Physical Observables of the Transverse Field as a Function of the Normal Variables—a. The Energy Htrans of the Transverse Field, b. The Momentum Ptrans and the Angular Momentum J trans of the Transverse Field, c. Transverse Electric and Magnetic Fields in Real Space, d. The Transverse Vector Potential A,(r,1) 5. Similarities and Differences between the Normal Variables and the Wave Function of a Spin-I Particle in Reciprocal Space 6. Periodic Boundary Conditions. Simplified Notation D. Conclusion: Discussion of Various Possible Quantization Schemes 1. Elementary Approach 2. Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Approach Complement Ai— The "Transverse" Delta Function 1. Definition in Reciprocal Space—a. Cartesian Coordinates. Transverse and Longitudinal Componenis, b. Projection on the Subspace of Transverse Fields 2. The Expression for the Transverse Delta Function in Real Space— a. Regularization of 8; (p). b. Calculation of g(p). c. Evaluation of the 21 23 23 23 26 30 31 33 33 34 36 38Derivatives of g(p). d. Discussion of the Expression for 8; (p) 3. Application to the Evaluation of the Magnetic Field Created by a 42 Magnetization Distribution. Contact Interaction Complement Bi —Angular Momentum of the Electromagnetic Field. Multipole Waves Introduction 45, 1. Contribution of the Longitudinal Electric Field to the Total Angular 45, Momentum 2. Angular Momentum of the Transverse Field—a. J trans in Reciprocal 47 Space. b. Strans in Terms of Normal Variables, c. Analogy with the Mean Value of the Total Angular Momentum of a Spin-1 Particle 3. Set of Vector Functions of k "Adapted" to the Angular Momentum: 51 General Idea. b. Method for Constructing Vector Eigenfunctions for 3? and Jz,. ¢. Longitudinal Eigenfunctions. d. Transverse Eigenfunctions 4, Application: Multipole Waves in Real Space—a. Evaluation of Some 55 Fourier Transforms, b. Electric Multipole Waves, c. Magnetic Multipole Waves Complement Ci —Exercises 1. H and P as Constants of the Motion 61 2. Transformation from the Coulomb Gauge to the Lorentz Gauge 63 3. Cancellation of the Longitudinal Electric Field by the Instantaneous 64 Transverse Field 4, Normal Variables and Retarded Potentials 66 5. Field Created by a Charged Particle at Its Own Position. Radiation 68 Reaction 6, Field Produced by an Oscillating Electric Dipole u 7. Cross-section for Scattering of Radiation by a Classical Elastically Bound 74 Electron II LAGRANGIAN AND HAMILTONIAN APPROACH TO ELECTRODYNAMICS. THE STANDARD LAGRANGIAN AND THE COULOMB GAUGE Introduction 19 A. Review of the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 81 1, Systems Having a Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom—a. Dynamical 81 Variables, the Lagrangian, and the Action, b. Lagrange's Equations, c. Equivalent Lagrangians. d. Conjugate Momenta and the Hamiltonian. e. Change of Dynamical Variables, f. Use of Complex Generalized Coordinates, g. Coordinates, Momenta, and Hamiltonian in Quantum Mechanics 2. A System with a Continuous Ensemble of Degrees of Freedom— a. 90 Dynamical Variables, b. The Lagrangian. c. Lagrange's Equations d. Conjugate Momenta and the Hamiltonian, e. Quantization. f. Lagrangian Formalism with Complex Fields, g. Hamiltonian Formalism andQuantization with Complex Fields B. The Standard Lagrangian of Classical Electrodynamics 1. The Expression for the Standard Lagrangian—a. The Standard Lagrangian in Real Space, b. The Standard Lagrangian in Reciprocal Space 2. ‘The Derivation of the Classical Electrodynamic Equations from the Standard Lagangian—a. Lagrange's Equation for Particles, b. The Lagrange Equation Relative to the Scalar Potential, c. The Lagrange Equation Relative to the Vector Potential 3. General Properties of the Standard Lagrangian—a. Global Symmetries. b. Gauge Invariance. c. Redundancy of the Dynamical Variables C. Electrodynamics in the Coulomb Gauge 1. Elimination of the Redundant Dynamical Variables from the Standard Lagrangian—a, Elimination of the Scalar Potential, b. The Choice of the Longitudinal Component of the Vector Potential 2. The Lagrangian in the Coulomb Gauge 3. Hamiltonian Formalism—a. Conjugate Particle Momenta, b. Conjugate Momenta for the Field Variables, c. The Hamiltonian in the Coulomb Gauge, d. The Physical Variables 4, Canonical Quantization in the Coulomb Gauge—a, Fundamental Commutation Relations, b. The Importance of Transuersability in the Case of the Electromagnetic Field, c. Creation and Annihilation Operators 5. Conclusion: Some Important Characteristics of Electrodynamics in the Coulomb Gauge—a. The Dynamical Variables Are Independent. b. The Electric Field Is Split into a Coulomb Field and a Transverse Field, c. The Formalism Is Not Manifesily Covariant. d. The Interaction of the Particles with Relativistic Modes Is Not Correctly Described Complement Au — Functional Derivative. Introduction and a Few Applications 1. From a Discrete to a Continuous System. The Limit of Partial Derivatives 2. Functional Derivative 3. Functional Derivative of the Action and the Lagrange Equations 4, Functional Derivative of the Lagrangian for a Continuous System 5. Functional Derivative of the Hamiltonian for a Continuous System Complement Bn —Symmetries of the Lagrangian in the Coulomb Gauge and the Constants of the Motion 1. The Variation of the Action between Two Infinitesimally Close Real Motions 2. Constants of the Motion in a Simple Case 3. Conservation of Energy for the System Charges + Field 4, Conservation of the Total Momentum 5. Conservation of the Total Angular Momentum Complement Cu —Blectrodynamics in the Presence of an External Field 1. Separation of the External Field 2. The Lagrangian in the Presence of an External Field—a. Introduction of a Lagrangian, b. The Lagrangian in the Coulomb Gauge 100 100 103 105 ul i 113 11s 118 121 126 128 128 130 132 134 136 137 138 139 141 1423. The Hamiltonian in the Presence of an External Field—a. Conjugate Momenta, b. The Hamiltonian. c. Quantization Complement Dn —Exercises 1, An Example of a Hamiltonian Different from the Energy 2. From a Discrete to a Continuous System: Introduction of the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Densities 3. Lagrange’s Equations for the Components of the Electromagnetic Field in Real Space 4, Lagrange’s Equations for the Standard Lagrangian in the Coulomb Gauge 5. Momentum and Angular Momentum of an Arbitrary Field 6. A Lagrangian Using Complex Variables and Linear in Velocity 7. Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Descriptions of the Schrodinger Matter Field 8. Quantization of the Schrodinger Field 9. Schrodinger Equation of a Particle in an Electromagnetic Field: Arbitrariness of Phase and Gauge Invariance Ill QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS IN THE COULOMB GAUGE Introduction ‘A. The General Framework 1, Fundamental Dynamical Variables. Commutation Relations 2. The Operators Associated with the Various Physical Variables of the System 3. State Space B. Time Evolution 1. The Schrodinger Picture 2. The Heisenberg Picture. The Quantized Maxwell-Lorentz Equations—a. The Heisenberg Equations for Particles, b. The Heisenberg Equations for Fields, c. The Advantages of the Heisenberg Point of View C. Observables and States of the Quantized Free Field 1. Review of Various Observables of the Free Field—a. Total Energy and Total Momentum of the Field, b. The Fields at a Given Point r of Space, c. Observables Corresponding to Photoelectric Measurements 2. Elementary Excitations of the Quantized Free Field. Photons— a. Eigenstates of the Total Energy and the Total Momentum, b. The Interpretation in Terms of Photons, c. Single-Photon States. Propagation 3. Some Properties of the Vacuum—a. Qualitative Discussion, b. Mean Values and Variances of the Vacuum Field, c. Vacuum Fluctuations 4, Quasi-classical States— a. Introducing the Quasi-classical States. b. Characterization of the Quasi-classical States, c. Some Properties of the Quasi-classical States, d. The Translation Operator for a and a* D. The Hamiltonian for the Interaction between Particles and Fields 1, Particle Hamiltonian, Radiation Field Hamiltonian, Interaction Hamiltonian 2. Orders of Magnitude of the Various Interactions Terms for Systems of Bound Particles 143 146 147 150 151 152 154, 157 161 167 169 171 71 171 175 176 176 176 183 183 186 189 192 197 197 1983. Selection Rules 4, Introduction of a Cutoff Complement Am —The Analysis of Interference Phenomena in the Quantum Theory of Radiation Introduction 1. A Simple Model 2. Interference Phenomena Observable with Single Photodetection Signals — a. The General Case. b. Quasi-classical States, c. Factored States. d. Single-Photon States 3. Interference Phenomena Observable with Double Photodetection Signals—a, Quasi-classical States, b. Single-Photon States, c. Two-Photon States 4, Physical Interpretation in Terms of Interference between Transition Amplitudes 5. Conclusion: The Wave-Particle Duality in the Quantum Theory of Radiation Complement Bui —Quantum Field Radiated by Classical Sources 1. Assumptions about the Sources 2. Evolution of the Fields in the Heisenberg Picture 3. The Schrodinger Point of View. The Quantum State of the Field at Time ¢ Complement Cm —Commutation Relations for Free Fields at Different Times. Susceptibilities and Correlation Functions of the Fields in the Vacuum Introduction 1. Preliminary Calculations 2. Field Commutators—a. Reduction of the Expressions in Terms of D. b. Explicit Expressions for the Commutators, c. Properties of the Commutators 3, Symmetric Correlation Functions of the Fields in the Vacuum Complement Dm—Exercises 1. Commutators of A, E, , and B in the Coulomb Gauge 2. Hamiltonian of a System of Two Particles with Opposite Charges Coupled to the Electromagnetic Field 3. Commutation Relations for the Total Momentum P with Hr, Hr and Hr 4. Bose-Einstein Distribution 5. Quasi-Probabihty Densities and Characteristic Functions 6. Quadrature Components of a Single-Mode Field. Graphical Representation of the State of the Field 7. Squeezed States of the Radiation Field 8. Generation of Squeezed States by Two-Photon Interactions 9. Quasi-Probability Density of a Squeezed State IV OTHER EQUIVALENT FORMULATIONS OF ELECTRODYNAMICS, Introduction A, How to Get Other Equivalent Formulations of Electrodynamics 199 200 204 205 206 209 217 217 219 221 222 223 227 230 232 233 234 236 241 246 248 250 253 2551. Change of Gauge and of Lagrangian 2. Changes of Lagrangian and the Associated Unitary Transformation—a. Changing the Lagrangian. b. The Two Quantum Descriptions. c. The Correspondence between the Two Quantum Descriptions. d. Application to the Electromagnetic Field 3. The General Unitary Transformation, The Equivalence between the Different Formulations of Quantum Electrodynamics B, Simple Examples Dealing with Charges Coupled to an External Field 1, The Lagrangian and Hamiltonian of the System 2. Simple Gauge Change; Gauge Invariance—a. The New Description. b. The Unitary Transformation Relating the Two Descriptions—Gauge Invariance 3. The Goppert-Mayer Transformation—a, The Long-Wavelength Approximation. b. Gauge Change Giving Rise to the Electric Dipole Interaction, c. The Advantages of the New Point of View. d. The Equivalence between the Interaction Hamiltonians A * p and E +r. e. Generalizations 4, A Transformation Which Does Not Reduce to a Change of Lagrangian: The Henneberger Transformation—a. Motivation, b. Determination of the Unitary Transformation. Transforms of the Various Operators, c. Physical Interpretation, d. Generalization to a Quantized Field: The Pauli-Fierz- Kramers Transformation C. The Power-Zienau-Woolley Transformation: The Multipole Form of the Interaction between Charges and Field 1. Description of the Sources in Terms of a Polarization and a Magnetization Density—a, The Polarization Density Associated with a System of Charges, b. The Displacement, c. Polarization Current and Magnetization Current Changing the Lagrangian—a. The Power-Zienau-Woolley Transformation. b. The New Lagrangian. c. Multipole Expansion of the Interaction between the Charged Particles and the Field 3. The New Conjugate Momenta and the New Hamiltonian—a. The Expressions for These Quantities, b. The Physical Significance of the New Conjugate Momenta, c. The Structure of the New Hamiltonian 4, Quantum Electrodynamics from the New Point of View—a. Quantization. b. The Expressions for the Various Physical Variables 5. The Equivalence of the Two Points of View. A Few Traps to Avoid D. Simplified Form of Equivalence for the Scattering S-Matrix 1, Introduction of the S-Matrix 2. The S-Matrix from Another Point of View. An Examination of the Equivalence 3. Comments on the Use of the Equivalence between the 5-Matrices Complement Av —Elementary Introduction to the Electric Dipole Hamiltonian Introduction 1. The Electric Dipole Hamiltonian for a Localized System of Charges Coupled to an External Field—a. The Unitary Transformation Suggested by 255 256 262 266 266 267 269 275 280 280 286 293 296 298 298 300 302 304, 304the Long- Wavelength Approximation, b. The Transformed Hamiltonian. c. The Velocity Operator in the New Representation 2. The Electric Dipole Hamiltonian for a Localized System of Charges Coupled to Quantized Radiation—a. The Unitary Transformation, b. Transformation of the Physical Variables, c. Polarization Density and Displacement. d. The Hamiltonian in the New Representation 3. Extensions—a. The Case of Two Separated Systems of Charges, b. The Case of a Quantized Field Coupled to Classical Sources Complement Biv —One-Photon and Two-Photon Processes: The Equivalence Between the Interaction Hamiltonians A +p And E ¢r Introduction 1. Notations. Principles of Calculations 2. Calculation of the Transition Amplitudes in the Two Representations— a. The Interaction Hamiltonian A * p. b. The Interaction Hamiltonian E +t. c. Direct Verification of the Identity of the Two Amplitudes 3. Generalizations—a. Extension to Other Processes, b. Nonresonant Processes Complement Civ —Interaction of Two Localized Systemsof Charges from the Power-Zienau-Woolley Point of View Introduction. 1. Notation 2. The Hamiltonian Complement Div — The Power-Zienau-Woolley Transformation and the Poincare Gauge Introduction 1. The Power-Zienau-Woolley Transformation Considered as a Gauge Change 2. Properties of the Vector Potential in the New Gauge 3. The Potentials in the Poincare Gauge Complement Ew—Exercises 1. An Example of the Effect Produced by Sudden Variations of the Vector Potential 2. Two-Photon Excitation of the Hydrogen Atom. Approximate Results Obtained with the Hamiltonians A ¢ p and E +r 3. The Electric Dipole Hamiltonian for an Ion Coupled to an External Field 4. Scattering of a Particle by a Potential in the Presence of Laser Radiation 5. The Equivalence between the Interaction Hamiltonians A * p and Z-VV for the Calculation of Transition Amplitudes 6. Linear Response and Susceptibility. Application to the Calculation of the Radiation from a Dipole 7. Nonresonant Scattering. Direct Verification of the Equality of the Transition Amplitudes Calculated from the Hamiltonians A + p and E +r V INTRODUCTION TO THE COVARIANT FORMULATION OF QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS 312 316 316 317 328 328 329 331 331 332 333 336 338 342 344, 349 352 356Introduction ‘A. Classical Electrodynamics in the Lorentz Gauge 1, Lagrangian Formalism—a. Covariant Notation. Ordinary Notation. b. Selection of a New Lagrangian for the Field, c. Lagrange Equations for the Field, d. The Subsidiary Condition, e. The Lagrangian Density in Reciprocal Space 1, Hamiltonian Formalism—a. Conjugate Momenta of the Potentials. b. The Hamiltonian of the Field, c. Hamilton-Jacobi Equations for the Free Field 3. Normal Variables of the Classical Field—a. Definition, b. Expansion of the Potential in Normal Variables, c. Form of the Subsidiary Condition for the Free Classical Field. Gauge Arbitrariness, d. Expression of the Field Hamiltonian B. Difficulties Raised by the Quantization of the Free Field 1, Canonical Quantization —a, Canonical Commutation Relations. b. Annihilation and Creation Operators, c. Covariant Commutation Relations between the Free Potentials in the Heisenberg Picture 2. Problems of Physical Interpretation Raised by Covariant Quantization —a. The Form of the Subsidiary Condition in Quantum Theory. h. Problems Raised bv the Construction of State Space C. Covariant Quantization with an Indefinite Metric 1. Indefinite Metric in Hilbert Space 2. Choice of the New Metric for Covariant Quantization 3. Construction of the Physical Kets 4. Mean Values of the Physical Variables in a Physical Ket—a. Mean Values of the Potentials and the Fields, b. Gauge Arbitrariness and Arbitrariness of the Kets Associated with a Physical State, c. Mean Value of the Hamiltonian D. A Simple Example of Interaction: A Quantized Field Coupled to Two Fixed External Charges 1. Hamiltonian for the Problem 2. Energy Shift of the Ground State of the Field. Reinterpretation of Coulomb's Law—a. Perturbative Calculation of the Energy Shift. b. Physical Discussion. Exchange of Scalar Photons between the Two Charges, c. Exact Calculation 3. Some Properties of the New Ground State of the Field—a. The Subsidiary Condition in the Presence of the Interaction. The Physical Character of the New Ground State, b. The Mean Value of the Scalar Potential in the New Ground State of the Field 4, Conclusion and Generalization Complement Av —An Elementary Introduction to the Theory of the Electron- Positron Field Coupled to the Photon Field in the Lorentz Gauge Introduction 1. A Brief Review of the Dirac Equation—a. Dirac Matrices, b. The Dirac Hamiltonian. Charge and Current Density, c. Connection with the 361 364 364 369 371 380 380 383 387 387 390 393 396 400 401 405 407 408 408Covariant Notation, d. Energy Spectrum of the Free Particle, e. Negative- Energy States. Hole Theory 2. Quantization of the Dirac Field—a. Second Quantization, b. The Hamiltonian of the Quantized Field. Energy Levels, c. Temporal and Spatial Translations 3. The Interacting Dirac and Maxwell Fields—a. The Hamiltonian of the Total System. The Interaction Hamiltonian. b. Heisenberg Equations for the Fields, c. The Form of the Subsidiary Condition in the Presence of Interaction Complement Bv —Justification of the Nonrelativistic Theory in the Coulomb Gauge Starting from Relativistic Quantum Electrodynamics Introduction 1, Transition from the Lorentz, Gauge to the Coulomb Gauge in Relativistic Quantum Electrodynamics—a. Transformation on the Scalar Photons Yielding the Coulomb Interaction, b. Effect of the Transformation on the Other Terms of the Hamiltonian in the Lorentz Gauge, c. Subsidiary Condition. Absence of Physical Effects of the Scalar and Longitudinal Photons. d. Conclusion: The Relatiuistic Quantum Electrodynamics Hamiltonian in the Coulomb Gauge 2. The Nonrelativistic Limit in Coulomb Gauge: Justification of the Pauli Hamiltonian for the Particles—a. The Dominant Term Hy of the Hamiltonian in the Nonrelativistic Limit: Rest Mass Energy of the Particles, b. The Effective Hamiltonian inside a Manifold, c. Discussion Complement Cv —Exercises 1, Other Covariant Lagrangians of the Electromagnetic Field 2. Annihilation and Creation Operators for Scalar Photons: Can One Interchange Their Meanings? 3. Some Properties of the Indefinite Metric 4, Translation Operator for the Creation and Annihilation Operators of a Scalar Photon 5. Lagrangian of the Dirac Field. The Connection between the Phase of the Dirac Field and the Gauge of the Electromagnetic Field 6. The Lagrangian and Hamiltonian of the Coupled Dirac and Maxwell Fields 7. Dirac Field Operators and Charge Density. A Study of Some Commutation Relations References Index Index, References to Exercises are distinguished by an "e" after the page number. A Absorption (of photons), 316, 325, 338e, 344e, 348e, 349e Action: 414 418 424 425 432 441 443 445 446 449 451 454 457 459for a discrete system, 81 fora field, 92 functional derivative, 128 principle of least action, 79, 81 for a real motion, 134, 152e Adiabatic (switching on), 299 Adjoint (relativistic), 411 Angular momentum, see also Multipole, expansion conservation, 8, 139, 200 contribution of the longitudinal electric field, 20, 45 eigenfunctions for a spin-I particle, 53 for the field + particle systems, 8, 20, 118, 174, 200 for a general field, 152e for a spinless particle, 137 for a spin-1 particle, 49 of the transverse field, 20, 27, 47 Annihilation and creation operators, see also Expansion in a and at; Translation operator a, and a, operators, 394, 429 a, and @, operators, 391 anticommutation relations, 163¢, 414 commutation relations, 121, 171, 391 for electrons and positrons, 414, 433 evolution equation, 179, 217, 249e, 420 for photons, 33, 121, 294 for scalar photons, 381, 391, 443e, 446¢ Antibunching, 211 Anticommutation relations: for a complex field, 98 for the Dirac field, 414, 415, 453e, 454e and positivity of energy, 99, 416, 440, 453e for the Schrodinger field, 99, 162¢ Antihermiticity, see Scalar potential Antiparticle, 187, 413, 433 Approximation: long wavelength, 202, 269, 275, 304, 342e nonrelativistic, 103, 122, 200 Autocorrelation, 229 B Basis: in reciprocal space, 25, 36 of vector functions, 51, 55 Bessel:Bessel functions, 345¢ spherical Bessel functions, 56, 71e Born expansion, 300 Bose-Einstein distribution, 234e, 238e Bosons, 99, 161e, 187 Boundary conditions, see Periodic boundary conditions ie Canonical (commutation relations), see also Commutation relations: Quantization (general) for a discrete system, 89, 90, 147e, 155e, 258 fora field, 94, 98, 148e, 158e, 380 Center of mass, 232¢, 342e Change, see also Gauge: Lagrangian (general); Transformation of coordinates, 84, 88 of dynamical variables, 86, 260 of quantum representation, 260, 262 Characteristic functions, 236¢ Charge, see also Density conservation, 7, 12, 108, 368, 411, 416, 421 total, 416 Charge conjugation, 438 Classical electrodynamics: in the Coulomb gauge, 111, 121 in the Lorentz gauge, 364 in the Power-Zienau-Woolley picture, 286 in real space, 7 in reciprocal space, 11 standard Lagrangian, 100 Coherent state, see Quasi-classical states of the field Commutation relations: canonical commutation relations for an arbitrary field, 94, 98, 148¢ canonical commutation relations for a discrete system, 89, 147e, 155e, 258 covariant commutation relations, 381, 382, 391 for electromagnetic fields in real space, 120,173, 230e for electromagnetic fields in reciprocal space, 119, 145, 380 of the fields with the energy and the momentum, 233e, 383, 417 for free fields in the Heinsenberg picture, 223, 355e, 382 for the operators a and at, 34, 171, 241e, 391, 394, 443 for the operators a and @, 391, 395 for the particles, 34, 118, 145, 171 Complex, see Dynamical variables: Fields (in general) Compton: scattering, 198wavelength, 202 Conjugate momenta of the electromagnetic potentials: in the Coulomb gauge, 115, 116, 143 in the Lorentz gauge, 369 in the Power-Zienau-Woolley representation, 289, 291, 294 Conjugate momenta of the particle coordinates: in the Coulomb gauge, 20, 115, 143 in the Goppert-Mayer representation, 270 in the Henneberger representation, 276 for the matter field, 157e in the Power-Zienau-Woolley representation, 289,290, 293 transformation in a gauge change, 267 Conjugate momentum (general): of a complex generalized coordinate, 88, 96,154e of a discrete generalized coordinate, 83, 147e, 256 of a field, 93, 96, 148e in quantum mechanics, 258, 266 transformation in a change of generalized coordinates, 85 transformation in a change of Lagrangian, 257 Conservation: of angular momentum, 8, 139, 200 of charge, 7, 12, 108, 368, 411, 416, 421 of energy, 8, 6le, 137, 200 of momentum, 8, 61e, 138, 200, 232e Constant of the motion, 8, 6le, 134, 152e, 200, 370 Contact interaction, 42 Continuous limit (for a discrete system), 126, 147e Convolution product, 11 Correlation function, 181, 191, 227, See also Intensity correlations Correlation time, 191 Coulomb, see also Coulomb gauge; Energy: Scalar photons field, 16, 122, 172, 295 interaction, 18, 122, 330, 401, 426, 435 interaction by exchange of photons, 403 potential, 16, 67e, 172, 407 self-energy, 18, 7le, 201 Coulomb gauge, see also Hamiltonian (total): Lagrangians for electrodynamics: ‘Transformation definition, 10, 113 electrodynamics in the Coulomb gauge, 10, 113, 121,169,439 relativistic QED. in the Coulomb gauge, 424, 431 Counting signals, see Photodetection signals Covariant: commutation relations, 391formulation, 361 notation and equations, 10, 17, 364, 411, 449e Covariant Lagrangians: for classical particles, 106 for coupled electromagnetic and Dirac fields, 451¢ for the Dirac field, 449¢ for the electromagnetic field (standard Lagrangian), 106, 365 Fermi Lagrangian, 366 interaction Lagrangian, 106, 365 in the Lorentz gauge, 365, 369, 441e Creation operator, see Annihilation and creation operators Cross-section, see Scattering Current: density, 7, 101, 115, 410, 419 four-vector, 10, 365, 411 of magnetization, 284 of polarization, 284 Cutoff, 124, 190, 200, 287 D d’Alambertian, 10, 367 Damping (radiative), 7le, 76e Darwin term, 440 Delta function (transverse), 14, 36, 38, 42, 64e, 120, 173, 231¢ Density, see also Quasi-probability density of charge, 7, 101, 309, 410, 419, 434, 454e of current, 7, 101, 115, 410, 419 Hamiltonian, 93, 106, 147e, 158¢, 370 Lagrangian, 91, 101, 106, 113, 147e, 157e, 167e, 365, 369, 441e of magnetization, 42, 284, 285, 292 of polarization, 281, 292, 308, 329 Diamagnetic energy, 290, 293 Dipole-dipole interaction: electric, 313 magnetic, 43 Dipole moment, see Electric dipole: Magnetic dipole moment Dirac, see also Matter field; Spinors delta function, 94 equation, 408, 449e, 452¢ Hamiltonian, 410 matrices, 409 Discretization, 31 Dispacement, 282, 291, 292, 308, 310 Dynamical variables: canonically conjugate, 34, 86, 93, 257, 258, 369change of dynamical variables in the Hamiltonian, 86, 260 change of dynamical variables in the Lagrangian, 84 complex dynamical variables, 87, 90 for a discrete system, 81 fora field, 90 redundancy,109, 113, 154e, 157e, 362 E Effective (Hamiltonian), 435, 438 Einstein, 204 Electric dipole: approximation, 270 interaction, 270, 288, 304, 306, 312, 313, 342 moment, 270, 288, 306, 343 self-energy, 312 wave, Tle Electric field, see also Electromagnetic field: Expansion in the Coulomb gauge, 117, 122, 172 longitudinal, 15, 64e, 117, 172, 283 of an oscillating dipole moment, 7le, 353e in the Power-Zienau-Woolley picture, 295 total, 66e, 117, 172, 291, 295, 310, 330, 355¢ transverse, 21, 24, 27, 32, 64e, 117, 171, 287, 295, 310 Electromagnetic field, see also Expansion in normal variables: External field: Quantization of the electromagnetic field associated with a particle, 68e free, 28, 58, 181, 221, 230e, 241e mean value in the indefinite metric, 396 in real space, 7 in reciprocal space, 12 tensor F'” , 17, 106, 365, 378 Electromagnetic potentials, see also Free (fields, potential): Gauge covariant commutation reactions, 382 definition and gauge transformation, 9 evolution equations, 9, 10, 366, 367 four-vector potential, 10, 364, 376 mean value in the indefinite metric, 396, 406 retarded, 66e Electron, see also Matter field classical radius, 75¢ elastically bound, 74e g-factor, 439 Electron-positron pairs, 123, 413, 417 Elimination:of a dynamical variable, 85, 154e, 157e of the scalar potential, 111 Emission (of photons), 344e, 348e, 349e Energy, see also Hamiltonian; Self-energy conservation of, 8, 61¢, 137, 200 Coulomb energy, 18, 114, 173, 283, 401, 403, 426 of the free field, 183, 378 negative energy states, 413 of the system field + particles, 8, 19, 116 of the transverse field, 26, 31 Equations, see Dirac; Hamilton's equations; Heisenberg: Lagrange's equations: Maxwell equations; Newton-Lorentz equations; Poisson; Schrodinger Equivalence: between the A +p and E r pictures, 272, 296, 316, 321, 337e, 356e between the A +p and Z#VV pictures, 349¢ between relativistic Q.E.D. in the Lorentz and the Coulomb gauges, 424 between the various formulations of electrodynamics, 253, 300, 302 Expansion in a and a* (or in a and @): of the electric and magnetic fields, 171, 241e of the four-vector potential, 391 of the Hamiltonian and momentum in the Lorentz gauge, 382, 391 of the Hamiltonian and momentum of the transverse field, 172 of the transverse vector potential, 171 Expansion in normal variables: of the electric and magnetic fields, 27, 28, 32 of the four-vector potential, 372, 376 of the Hamiltonian and momentum in the Lorentz gauge, 378, 379 of the transverse field angular momentum, 27, 48 of the transverse field Hamiltonian, 27, 31 of the transverse field momentum, 27, 31 of the transverse vector potential, 29, 31 External field, 141, 172, 178, 180, 198, See also Hamiltonian for particles in an external field: Lagrangians for electrodynamics Extemal sources (for radiation), 24, 219, 314, 370, 372, 400, 418 F Factored states, 207 Fermi: golden rule, 323 Lagrangian, 366 Fermion, 99, 161¢, 413,414 Fields (in general), see also Angular momentum: Energy; Hamiltonian (general considerations); Lagrangian (general); Momentum; Quantization (general) complex, 95real, 90 transverse and longitudinal, 13, 37 Fierz, see Pauli-Fierz-Kramers transformation Final, see Initial and final states of a process Fock space, 31, 175 Fourier transform, 11, 12, 15, 56, 97 Four-vector: current, 10, 365, 411 field energy-momentum, 379 potential, 10, 364, 376 Free (fields, potentials), 28, 58, 183, 205, 373, 376, 382,414 Fresnel mirror, 208 Functional derivative, 92, 126 G Gauge, see also Coulomb gauge; Lorentz gauge; Poincare gauge gauge transformation and phase of the matter field, 167e, 449e invariance, 8, 17, 107, 269 transformation, 9, 13, 108, 255, 267, 270, 331, 368, 375, 397 Generalized coordinates: change of, 86, 260 complex, 87, 8 real, 81, 84 Goppert-Mayer transformation, 269, 275, 304 Ground state: of the quantized Dirac field, 417 of the radiation field, 186, 189, 252¢, 385, 386, 394 H Hamiltonian (general considerations), see also Effective, (Hamiltonian) with complex dynamical variables, 88, 97, 154e, 157¢ for a discrete system, 83, 147 for a field, 93, 97, 148e Hamiltonian and energy, 83, 136, 146e in quantum theory, 89, 259 transformation of, 258, 261, 263 Hamiltonian of the particles: Dirac Hamiltonian, 410 expression of, 144, 197 Pauli Hamiltonian, 432 physical meaning in various representations, 271, 297 of the quantized Dirac Field, 415 for two particles with opposite charges, 232e for two separated systems of charges, 313, 328, Hamiltonian for particles in an external field: for a Dirac particle, 410electric dipole representation (E * r), 271, 304, 320 Henneberger picture, 277 for an ion, 342e for the quantized Dirac field, 419 standard representation (A * p), 144, 198, 266, 317 Hamiltonian for radiation coupled to external sources: in the Couilomb gauge, 218 in the electric dipole representation, 314, 353e in the Lorentz gauge, 370, 400, 418 Hamiltonian (total): in the Coulomb gauge, 20, 33, 116, 138, 173, 439 in the Coulomb gauge with external fields, 144, 174,198 of coupled Dirac and Maxwell fields, 419, 431, 451e in the Power-Zienau-Wooley picture, 289, 292, 295, 329 Hamilton's equations: for a discrete system, 83 for a field, 94, 132, 371 Heaviside function, 226 Heisenberg: equation, 89 equations for a and at 179, 217, 249e, 420 equations for the matter fields, 99, 161e, 420 equations for the particle, 177 picture, 89, 176, 185, 218, 221, 382 telations, 241e, 248e Henneberger transformation, 275, 344e, 349e Hilbert space, 89, 387 Hole theory, 413 Hydrogen atom: Lamb transition, 327 1s-2s two-photon transition, 324, 338e I Indefinite metric, see also Scalar potential definition and properties, 387, 391, 445¢ and probabilistic interpretation, 390, 392 Independent variables, 95, 109, 121, 362, See also Redundancy of dynamical variables Initial and final states of a process, 264, 271, 296, 300, 302, 317, 326, 337e Instantaneous, see also Nonlocality Coulomb field and transverse field, 16, 21, 64e, 67e, 122, 291, 292 interactions, 18, 122, 313, 330 Intensity correlations, 186 Intensity of light, 185 Interaction Hamiltonian between particles and radiation: in the Coulomb gauge, 197, 232e in the electric dipole representation, 271, 307, 312, 315in the Power-Zienau-Woolley representation, 290, 292, 296, 329 in relativistic QE.D., 419 Interactions, see Contact interaction; Coulomb: Dipole-dipole interaction; Electric dipole; Instantaneous: Magnetic dipole moment: Quadrupole electric (momentum and interaction): Retarded: Hamiltonian Interference phenomena: with one photon, 208, 210 quantum theory of light interference, 204 with two laser beams, 208, 212 with two photons, 209, 211 Interferences for transition amplitude, 213 Invariance, see also Covariant gauge invariance, 9, 107, 167e, 267 relativistic invariance, 10, 15, 106, 114 translational and rotational, 134, 153e, 200, 370 Ton (interaction Hamiltonian with the radiation field), 342¢ K Kramers, see Pauli-Fierz-Kramers transformation Kronecker (delta symbol), 94, 148¢ L Lagrange’s equations: with complex dynamical variables, 87, 96, 154e for a discrete system, 82, 129, 147e for the electromagnetic potentials, 104, 142, 150e, 151e, 366 for a field, 92, 96, 131, 147e, 150e for a matter field, 1S7e, 167e, 367, 449e for the particles, 103, 142, 151e Lagrangian (general), see also Density, Lagrangian: Functional derivative: Matter field with complex dynamical variables, 87, 95, 154e, 157e of a discrete system, 81, 147e elimination of a redundant dynamical variable, 84, 154e, 157e equivalent Lagrangians, 82, 92, 108, 256 of a field, 91, 95, 147e formalism, 79, 81 linear in velocities, 154e, I57e Lagrangians for electrodynamics, see also Covariant Lagrangians; Standard Lagrangian in the Coulomb gauge, 113, 137 with external fields, 142, 143, 266, 271, 449e in the Power-Zienau-Woolley picture, 287 transition, 327 Least-action principle, 79, 81 Light intensity, 185 Linear response, 221, 352eLinear susceptibility, 221, 352e Locality, 12, 14, 15, 21, 103, 291, See also Instantaneous; Nonlocality Localized systems of charges, 281, 304, 307 Longitudinal: basis of longitudinal vector functions, 53 contribution of the longitudinal electric field to the energy, momentum and angular momentum, 17, 19, 20 electric field, 15, 64e, 172, 283 normal variables, 374 photons, 384, 430 vector fields, 13 vector potential, 112, 255 Longitudinal vector potential: in the Coulomb gauge, 16, 113 in the Lorentz gauge, 22 in the Poincare gauge, 332 Lorentz equation, 104, 178, See also Lorentz gauge: Subsidiary condition Lorentz gauge, see also Subsidiary condition classical electrodynamics in the Lorentz gauge, 364 definition, 9 relativistic QE.D. in the Lorentz, gauge, 361, 419, 424, 453¢ M Magnetic dipole moment: interaction, 43, 288 orbital, 288 spin, 44, 197, 439 Magnetic field, 21, 24, 27, 32, 42, 118, 171, See also Expansion Magnetization: current, 284 density, 42, 284, 292 Mass: correction, 69e rest mass energy, 432 Matter field: Dirac matter field, 107, 366, 408, 414, 433, 451e, 454e quantization, 98, 16le, 361,414 Schrodinger matter field, 157e, 161e, 167e Maxwell equations, see also Heinsenberg: Normal variables of the radiation covariant form, 17, 366 for the potentials, 9, 10, 366 quantum Maxwell equations, 179 in real space, 7 in reciprocal space, 12, 21 Mean value in the indefinite metric, 389, 396, 398, 406 Mechanical momentum, 20, 177, 271, 290Mode, 24, 27, 374, See also Normal mode, Normal variables of the radiation: Expansion Momentum, see also Commutation: Expansion in normal variables: Expansion in a and at (or ina and 7) conservation, 8, 6le, 138, 200 contribution of the longitudinal field, 19, 20 of the Dirac field, 451e of the electromagnetic field in the Lorentz gauge, 370, 379 of a general field, 152 momentum and velocity, 20, 177, 271, 290 for a particle, 20, 177 of the particle + field system, 8, 20, 118, 139, 174, 199 of the Schrodinger field, 158e of the transverse field, 19, 27, 31, 172, 193, 188 Multiphoton amplitudes (calculations in various representations), 316, 325, 338e, 344e, 348c, 349 Multipole: expansion, 287 waves, 45, 55, 58, 60 N Negative energy states, 413 Negative frequency components, 29, 184, 193,422 Newton-Lorentz. equations, 7, 104, 178 Nonrelativistic: approximation, 103, 122, 200 limit, 424, 432, 439 Nonresonant processes, 325, 356e Nonlocality, 14, 15, 21, 151e, See also Instantaneous; Locality Norm: in the indefinite metric, 388, 45e, 447¢ negative, 385 Normal mode, 24, 27, 374, See also Normal variables of the radiation: Expanion Normal order, 185, 195, 237e Normal variables of the radiation, see also Expansion in normal variables a, and a, normal variables, 375, 376, 378 analogy with a wavefunction, 30 definition and expression, 23, 25, 29, 371 discretization, 31 evolution equation, 24, 26, 32, 66¢, 219, 371, 372 Lorentz subsidiary condition, 374 quantization, 33, 171 scalar and longitudinal normal variables, 372, 374, 379 transverse normal variables, 25, 29, 374° Observables, see Physical variables Operators in the indefinite metric: adjoint, 388 eigenvalues and eigenfunctions, 389, 445¢ hermitian, 388, 445¢ Order: antinormal, 237e normal, 185, 195, 238e P Parseval-Plancherel identity, 11 Particles see Conjugate momenta of the particle coordinates; Matter field: Hamiltonian for particles in an external field Particle velocities: in the Coulomb gauge, 117, 177 in the Goppert-Mayer approach, 271, 306 in the Henneberger approach, 277 in the Power-Zienau-Woolley approach, 290, 295 Pauli: exclusion principle, 163e, 413, 416 Hamiltonian, 432 matrices, 410, 437 Pauli-Fierz-Kramers transformation, 278, 429 Periodic boundary conditions, 31 Phase: of an electromagnetic field mode, 208, 212, 243e of a matter field and gauge invariance, 167e, 449e Photodetection signals, see also Interference phenomena double counting signals, 185, 209, 214 single counting signals, 184, 188, 206, 213 Photon, see also Annihilation and creation operators: Bose-Einstein distribution: Interference phenomena; S-matrix: States of the radiation field; Wave-particle duality as an elementary excitation of the quantized radiation field, 30, 187 longitudinal and scalar photons, 384, 392, 403, 425, 430, 443e, 446e nonexistence of a position operator, 30, 50, 188 photon number operator, 187 single-photon states, 187, 205, 208, 210, 385 transverse photons, 186, 385 wavefunction in reciprocal space, 30 Physical meaning of operators: general, 259, 269 in the Goppert-Mayer approach, 271, 306, 310 in the Henneberger approach, 277, 345¢in the Power-Zienau-Woolley approach, 290, 292 Physical states, 384, 394, 396, 405, 423, 430, 443e, See also Physical meaning of, operators: Physical variables; Subsidiary condition Physical variables, see also Angular momentum: Electric field: Energy; Magnetic field: Momentum; Particle velocities: Photodetection signals: Physical meaning of operators; Position operator in classical theory, 257 corresponding operators in various representations, 116, 117, 271, 277, 294, 306, 310 mean value in the indefinite metric, 396 in quantum theory, 259, 296 transformation of the corresponding operators, 260, 263 Planck, 1 Poincare gauge, 331, 333 Poisson: brackets, 86 equation, 10, 345¢ Polarization: current, 284 density, 281, 292, 308, 329 Polarization of the radiation: polarization vector, 25, 376 sum over transverse polarizations, 36 Position operator, see also Photon; Translation operator in the Henneberger approach, 276, 345e for the particles, 33, 118, 258 Positive: positive energy slates, 412 positive frequency components, 29, 184, 193,422 Positron, 408, 413 Potential, see Longitudinal vector potential; Scalar potenti Power-Zienau-Woolley transformation, 280,286, 328, 331 P-representation, 195, 206, 211, 236e, 251e Processes, see Absorption (of photons); Emission (of photons): Multiphoton (amplitudes (calculations in various representations): Nonresonant processes; Resonant, processes: Scattering: S-matrix ransverse vector potential Q Quadrupole electric (momentum and interaction), 288 Quantization (general), see also Matter field with anticommutators, 98, 162¢, 453 canonical quantization, 34, 89, 258, 380 for a complex field, 98, 99, 161e for a real field, 94, 148¢ second quantization, 414, 439Quantization of the electromagnetic field: canonical quantization in the Coulomb gauge, 119, 144 canonical quantization in the Power-Zienau-Woolley representation, 294 covariant quantization in the Lorentz gauge, 380, 383, 387, 391 elementary approach, 33 methods, 33, 34 Quantum electrodynamics (Q.E.D.): in the Coulomb gauge, 169 in the Power-Zienau-Woolley picture, 293 rclativistic QELD. in the Coulomb gauge, 424,431 relativistic QE.D. in the Lorentz, gauge, 361,419, 424, 453e Quasi-classical states of the field, see also Photodetection signals; Quasi-probability density definition, 192 graphical representation, 242¢ interferences with, 207, 209 production by external sources, 217, 404 properties, 194, 47 Quasi-probability density: suited to antinormal order, 236e, 250e suited to normal order, 195, 206, 211, 236e, 250¢ R Radiation emitted by an oscillating dipole, Tle, 352¢ Radiation Hamiltonian: eigenstates of, 186 as a function of a and a+ 172, 197, 241e, 296, 382 asa function of a and 7, 391 as a function of the conjugate variables, 116, 144, 290, 296, 370 as a function of the fields, 18, 312 as a function of the normal variables, 27, 31, 378 in the Lorentz gauge, 370, 378, 382, 391, 398 physical meaning, 292, 312 Radiation reaction, 68¢, 74e Radiative damping, 7le, 76e Raman scattering, 326 Rayleigh scattering, 75e, 198, 326 Reciprocal: half-space, 102 space, 11, 36 Redundancy of dynamical variables, 109, 113, 154e, 157e, 362, See also independent variables Relativistic, see also Covariant; Covariant Lagrangian: Quantum electrodynamics QED.)description of classical particles, 107 Dirac field, 366, 408, 414, 433, 451¢, 454e modes, 123 Resonant: processes, 316, 326, 349e scattering, 75e Retarded, see also Instantaneous field, 21, 310, 330 potential, 66¢ s Scalar photons, 384,392,403,425,430,443e, 446¢ Scalar potential, see also Expansion in a and a* (or ina and @), Expansion in normal variables absence of a conjugate momentum with the standard Lagrangian, 109, 362 antihermiticity in the Lorentz gauge, 392 conjugate momentum in the Lorentz gauge, 369 in the Coulomb gauge, 16, 22, 67e elimination from the standard Lagrangian, 111 in the Poincare gauge, 333 Scalar product: in a Hilbert space, 387 with the indefinite metric, 387, 395, 445e Scattering, see also Compton: Raman scattering; Rayleigh scattering: Thomson scattering: Transition amplitudes cross section, 74e, 346e nonresonant scattering, 356e in presence of radiation, 344e process, 326 resonant scattering, 75e Schrodinger: equation, 89, 157e, 167e, 176, 261, 263 representation, 89, 176, 219 Schrodinger field: Lagrangian and Hamiltonian, 157e, 167e quantization, 161¢ Schwarzchild, 79 Second quantization, 414 Selection rules, 199, 233e Self-energy Coulomb, 18, 7le, 201 dipole, 312 of the transverse polarization, 290, 329 S-matrix:definition, 299, 317 equivalence in different representations, 298, 302, 321, 349e, 356¢ for one- and two-photon processes, 317, 349e Sources (classical or external), 24, 217, 314, 370, 372, 400, 418 Spectral density, 191 Spin: magnetic moment, 44, 197, 439 spin-statistics theorem, 99 in-1 particle, 49 orbit interaction, 440 Spinors: Dirac spinors, 409, 412, 433 two-component Pauli spinors, 434 Squeezed states, 245e, 246e, 248, 250 Standard Lagrangian: difficulties for the quantization, 109 expression, 100 symmetries, 105 State space, see also Subsidiary condition in the Coulomb gauge, 175 in the covariant formulation, 385 for scalar photons, 392, 443e States of the radiation field, see also Physical states: Quasi-classical states of the field: Vacuum factored states, 205, 207 graphical representation, 241e single-photon states, 187, 205, 208, 210, 385 squeezed states, 243e, 246, 248e, 250e two-photon states, 211 Subsidiary condition: in classical electrodynamics, 9, 10, 22, 368, 370, 374, 442e,443e in presence of interaction, 406, 421, 430 for the quantum free field, 384, 386, 394 Sudden switching-on of the potential, 264, 336¢ Symmetries and conservation laws, 134 of the standard Lagrangian, 105 T Thomson scattering, 75e, 198 ‘Transformation, see also Physical variables; Unitary transformation; entries under Gauge; Hamiltonian; Lagrangian of coordinates and velocities, 85 from the Coulomb gauge to the Lorentz. gauge (or vice versa), 63e, 425 Goppert-Mayer transformation, 269, 304Henneberger transformation, 275, 344e, 349e Pauli-Fierz-Kramers transformation, 278,429 Power-Zienau-Woolley transformation, 280, 287, 32: of the state vector, 261, 263, 268 ‘Transition amplitudes definition and calculation, 176, 271, 316, 337e, 338, 346c identity in different pictures, 264, 269, 273, 297, 316, 321, 349e, 356e interference between, 213 ‘Transition matrix, 300, 356e Transition rate, 323 Translation operator: for the a and a* operators, 195, 308 for the a and @ operators, 404, 425, 446¢ infinitesimal generators, 163e, 199, 383, 417 for the momentum of a particle, 305 for the position of a particle, 276 Transverse, see also Expansion; Instantaneous: Nonlocality: Photon basis of transverse vector functions, 25, 37, 53 commutation relation for the transverse field, 119, 223, 230e delta function, 14, 36, 38, 42, 64e, 120, 173, 231e displacement, 283, 291, 295, 310 energy, momentum and angular momentum of the transverse field, 18, 19, 20, 27, 47, 48, 174, 312 equations of motion of the transverse field, 21 electric field, 21, 24, 27, 32, 64e, 117, 171, 287, 295, 310 magnetic field, 21, 24, 27, 32, 42, 118, 171 projector onto the subspace of transverse fields, 37 summation over transverse polarizations, 36 vector field, 13, 50 vector potential, 17, 29, 31, 119, 171, 223, 294, 377, 396 Transverse vector potential, see also Expansion: Instantaneous: Nonlocality commutation relations, 119, 223, 230e conjugate momentum, 115, 289 gauge invariance, 17 U Unitary transformation, see also Translation operator associated with a change of Lagrangian, 260, 262, 296 associated with a gauge transformation, 268, 271 on the Hamiltonian, 262, 276, 304, 343e v Vacuum, 186, 189, 252¢, 385, 386, 394 Vacuum fluctuations, 191, 199, 279 331Vector potential, see Longitudinal vector potential: Transverse vector potential Velocity, see Particle velocities w Wavefunction of the photon, 30, 50, See also Photon Wavelength scale, 202, See also Approximation: Compton Wave-particle duality, 204, 215 Waves: multipole waves, 45, 55 traveling plane waves, 28 Woolley, see Power-Zienau-Woolley transformation Zz Zienau, .see Power-Zienau-Woolley transformationIntroduction The electromagnetic field plays a prominent part in physics. Without going back 1 Maxwell, one can recall for example that it is from the study of light that the Planck constant and the ideas of wave-particle duality arose for the first time in physics. More recently, the electromagnetic field has appeared as the prototype of quantum gauge fields. It is therefore important to develop a good understanding of the dynamics of the electromagnetic field coupled to charged particles, and in particular of its quantum aspects. To this end, one must explain how the electromagnetic field can be quantized and how the concept of photon arises. One must also specify the observables and the states which describe the various aspects of radiation, and analyze the Hamiltonian which governs the coupled evolution of photons and atoms. It is to the study of these problems that this volume is devoted. The quantization of the electromagnetic field is the central problem around which the various chapters are organized. Such a quantization requires some caution, owing to the gauge arbitrariness and to the redun- dancy associated with the vector and scalar potentials. As a result, we will treat these problems at several levels of increasing difficulty. In Chapter I, we begin with the Maxwell-Lorentz equations which describe the evolution of an ensemble of charged particles coupled to the electromagnetic field and show that a spatial Fourier transformation of the field allows one to see more clearly the actual independent degrees of freedom of the field. We introduce in this way the normal variables which describe the normal vibrational modes of the field in the absence of sources. Quantization then is achieved in an elementary fashion by quan- tizing the harmonic oscillators associated with each normal mode, the normal variables becoming the creation and annihilation operators for a photon. ‘The problem is treated again in a more thorough and rigorous fashion in Chapter II, starting with the Lagrangian and the Hamiltonian formula- tion of electrodynamics. One such approach allows one to define unam- biguously the canonically conjugate field variables. This provides also a straightforward method of quantization, the canonical quantization: two operators whose commutator equals if then represent the two correspond-Preface The spectacular development of new sources of electromagnetic radia- tion spanning the range of frequencies from rf to the far ultraviolet (lasers, masers, synchrotron sources, etc.) has generated considerable interest in the interaction processes between photons and atoms. New methods have been developed, leading to a more precise understanding of the structure and dynamics of atoms and molecules, to better control of their internal and external degrees of freedom, and also to the realization of novel radiation sources. This explains the growing interest in the low-energy interaction between matter and radiation on the part of an increasing number of researchers drawn from physics, chemistry, and engineering This work is designed to provide them with the necessary background to understand this area of research, beginning with elementary quantum theory and classical electrodynamic: Such a program is actually twofold. One has first to set up the theoretical framework for a quantum description of the dynamics of the total system (electromagnetic field and nonrelativistic charged particies), and to discuss the physical content of the theory and its various possible formulations. This is the subject of the present volume, entitled Photons and Atoms— Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics. One has also to describe the interaction processes between radiation and matter (emission, absorption, scattering of photons by atoms, etc.) and to present various theoretical methods which can be used to analyze these processes (per- turbative methods, partial resummations of the perturbation series, master equations, optical Bloch equations, the dressed-atom approach, ete), These questions are examined in another volume entitled Interaction Processes between Photons and Atoms, The objectives of these two volumes are thus clearly distinct, and according to his interests and to his needs, the reader may use one volume, the other, or both. ‘An examination of the topics presented here clearly shows that this book is not organized along the same lines as other works treating quantum electrodynamics. In fact, the majority of the latter are addressed to an audience of field theorists for whom such ideas as covariance, relativistic invariance, matter fields, and renormalization, to name a few, are considered as fundamentals. On the other hand, most of the books dealing with quantum optics, and in particular with laser optics, treat the XVIIXvi Preface fundamentals of electrodynamics, as well as the problems posed by quantization of radiation, rather succinctly. We have chosen here an approach between these two, since there seems to be a real need for such an intermediate treatment of this subject. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book is an outcome of our teaching and research, which we have worked at over a period of many years at the College de France, at the University P. et M. Curie, and at the Laboratoire de Physique de I'Ecole Normale Superieure. We would like to express our thanks here to our friends and coworkers who have participated in our research and who have made us the beneficiaries of their ideas. We want to thank particularly Jean Dalibard, who has been of such great help in the development of the exercises.2 Introduction ing classical conjugate variables. We show nevertheless that such a theoret- ical approach is not directly applicable to the most commonly used Lagrangian, the standard Lagrangian. This is due to the fact that the dynamical variables of this Lagrangian, the vector and scalar potentials, are redundant. The most simple way of resolving this problem, and then quantizing the theory, is to choose the Coulomb gauge. Other possibilities exist, each having their advantages and disadvantages; these are examined later in Chapter IV (Poincaré gauge) and Chapter V (Lorentz gauge). Many of the essential aspects of quantum electrodynamics in the Coulomb gauge are discussed in detail in Chapter III. These include the quantum equations of motion for the coupled system charges + field; the study of the states and observables of the free quantized field, of the properties of the vacuum, and of coherent states; and the analysis of interference and wave-particle duality in the quantum theory of radiation. We also examine in detail the properties of the Hamiltonian which describes the coupling between particles and photons. This last subject is treated in more detail in Chapter IV, which is devoted to other equivalent formulations of electrodynamics derived from the Coulomb gauge. We show how it is possible to get other descriptions of electrodynamics, better adapted to this or that type of problem, either by changing the gauge or by adding to the standard Lagrangian in the Coulomb gauge the total derivative of a function of the generalized coordinates of the system, or else by directly performing a unitary transformation on the Coulomb-gauge Hamiltonian. Emphasis is placed on the physical significance the various mathematical operators have in the different representations and on the equivalence of the physical predictions derived from these various formulations. It is here that a satisfactory understanding of the fundamentals of quantum electrodynam- ics is essential if one is to avoid faulty interpretations, concerning for example the interaction Hamiltonians A - p or E - r. From the point of view adopted in Chapters II and IV, the symmetry between the four components of the potential four-veetor is not main- tained. The corresponding formulations are thus not adaptable to a covariant quantization of the field. These problems are dealt with in Chapter V, which treats the quantization of the field in the Lorentz. gauge. We explain the difficulties which arise whenever the four components of the potential are treated as independent variables. We point out also how it is possible to resolve this problem by selecting, using the Lorentz condition, a subspace of physical states from the space of the radiation states. We mention finally that, with the exception of the complements of Chapter V, the particles are treated nonrelativistically and are described by Schrédinger wave functions or Pauli spinors. Such an approximation is generally sufficient for the low-energy domain treated here, In addition,Introduction 3 the choice of the Coulomb gauge, which explicitly yields the Coulomb interaction between particles which is predominant at low energy. is very convenient for the study of bound states of charged particles, such atoms and molecules. This advantage holds also for the other formulations derived from the Coulomb gauge and treated in Chapter IV. A quantum, relativistic description of particles requires that one consider them as elementary excitations of a relativistic matter field, such as the Dirac field for electrons and positrons. We deal with these problems in two comple- ments in Chapter V. We show in these complements that it is possible to justify the nonrelativistic Hamiltonians used in this volume by considering them as “effective Hamiltonians” acting inside manifolds with a fixed number of particles and derived from the Hamiltonian of relativistic quantum electrodynamics, in which the number of particles, like the number of photons, is indeterminate. This volume consists of five chapters and nineteen complements. The complements have a variety of objectives. They give more precision to the physical or mathematical concepts introduced in the chapter to which they are joined, or they expand the chapter by giving examples of applications, by introducing other points of view, or by taking up problems not studied in the chapter. The last complement in each chapter contains worked exercises. A short, nonexhaustive bibliography is given, either in the form of general references at the end of the chapter or complement, or in the form of more specialized references at the foot of the page. A detailed list of the books, cited by the author's name alone in the text, appears at the end of the volume. It is possible to read this volume serially from beginning to end. It is also possible, however, to skip certain chapters and complements in a first study. If one wishes to get a flavor of field quantization in its simplest form, and to understand the particle and wave aspects of radiation and the dynamics of the system field + particles, one can read Chapter I, then Chapter III and its Complement Aj. Reading Complements Ayy and By can also give one a simple idea of the electric dipole approximation and of the equivalence of the interaction Hamiltonians A+ p and Er for the study of one- or two-photon processes A graduate student or researcher wanting to deepen his understanding of the structure of quantum electrodynamics and of the problems tied t0 the gauge arbitrariness, should extend his reading to Chapters II, IV, and V and choose those complements which relate best to his needs and his area of interest.CHAPTER I Classical Electrodynamics: The Fundamental Equations and the Dynamical Variables ‘The purpose for this first chapter is to review the basic equations of classical electrodynamics and to introduce a set of dynamical variables allowing one to characterize simply the state of the global system field + particles at a given instant ‘The chapter begins (Part A) with a review of the Maxwell—Lorentz equations which describe the joint evolution of the electromagnetic field and of a set of charged particles. Some important results concerning the constants of motion, the potentials, and gauge invariance are also reviewed With a view to subsequent developments, notably quantization, one then shows (Part B) that classical electrodynamics has a simpler form in reciprocal space, after a Fourier transformation of the field. Such a transformation allows a simple decomposition of the electromagnetic field into its longitudinal and transverse components. It is then evident that the longitudinal electric field is not a true dynamical variable of the system, since it can be expressed as a function of the positions of the particles. The following part (Part C) introduces linear combinations of the transverse electric and magnetic fields in reciprocal space which have the important property of evolving independently in the absence of particles, and which then describe the normal vibrational modes of the free field These new dynamical variables, called normai variables, play a central role in the theory, since they become, after quantization, the creation and annihilation operators for photons. All the field observables can be ex- pressed as a function of these normal variables (and the particle variables). ‘The chapter ends finally (Part D) with a discussion of the various possible strategies for quantizing the foregoing theory, One simple, eco- nomic method, albeit not very rigorous, consists of quantizing each of the “harmonic oscillators” associated with the various normal modes of vibration of the field. One then gets all the fundamental commutation 56 aassical Electrodynamics, i relations necessary for Chapter III, The problem is approached in a more rigorous manner in Chapter II, beginning with a Lagrangian and Hamilto- nian formulation of electrodynamics. Finally, Complement B, compiles some results relative to the angular momentum of the electromagnetic field and to the multipole expansion of the field.LAL ‘The Fundamental Equations in Real Space 7 A—THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS IN REAL SPACE 1. The Maxwell-Lorentz Equations The basic equations are grouped into two sets. First, the Maxwell equations relate the electric field Er. 1) and the magnetic field B(r, 1) to the charge density p(r, ) and the current j(r, 1): Ve E(t) = : plr. 1) (A.1.a) V+ Bi.) =0 (A.1.b) Vx En =—- (A.1.0) ¥ x Bint) = 0 eed UE) (A. 1.4) eu fe Next, the Newson-Lorentz equations describe the dynamics of each parti- cle a, having mass m,, charge q,, position r,(7), and velocity v,(/), under the influence of electric and magnetic forces exerted by the fields @ mm atl) = 4, [E(r,(0)..) + v0) x BO). 0] (A.2) The equations (A.2) are valid only for slow, nonrelativistic particles (uy <0). From (A.1.a) and (A.1.d) one can show that Am + Veil = (A.3) Such an equation of continuity expresses the local conservation of the global electric charge, 2 = [ernen. (A.4) The expression of p and j as a function of the particle variables is ptr) = ¥ 4. 6[r — £9] (A a) ie) =Yav(o ofr - (0) (A.5.b) One can show that Equations (A.5) satisfy the equation of continuity (A3).8 Qaassical Electrodynamics TA2 Equations (A.1) and (A.2) form two sets of coupled equatio evolution of the field depends on the particles through p and j. The motion of the particles depends on the fields E and B, The equations (A.1) are first-order partial differential equations, while the equations (A.2) are sccond-order ordinary differential equations. It follows that the state of the global system, field + particles, is determined at some instant ty by giving the fields E and B at all points r of space and the position and velocity r, and y, of each particle a { EG, to), BOY, fo), (79). Vato) } (A.6) It is important to note that in the Maxwell equations (A.1), ris not a dynamical variable (like r,) but a continuous parameter labeling the field variables. 2. Some Important Constants of the Motion Starting with Equations (A.1) and (A.2) and the expressions (A.5) for and j, one can show (see Exercise 1) that the following functions of E, B, Tay and Vy: 1 HS 5mviy) + 3 fone 11) + 2 Bn 1)] (A.7) P= m,vAt) + & for E(r, 1) x Bir, 1) (A.8) J=L eo x mv + ws [are x [Et 1) x Bir s)] (A.9) are constants of the motion, that is, independent of 7. H is the total energy of the global system field + particles, P is the soral momentum, and J the total angular momentum. The fact that these quantities are constants of the motion results from the invariance of the equations of motion with respect to changes in the time origin, the coordinate origin, and the orientation of the coordinate axes. (The connec- tion between the constants of the motion and the invariance properties of the Lagrangian of electrodynamics will be analyzed in Complement By). 3. Potenti — Gauge Invariance Equations (A.1.b) and (A.1.c) suggest that the fields E and B can always be written in the formLAB ‘The Fundamental Equations in Real Space 9 Bo) = V x At) (A.10.a) En.) = — Lac. 1) VU.) (A.10.b) where A is a vector field, called the vector potential, and U a scalar field called the scolar potential. A first advantage in introducing A and U is that the two Maxwell equations (A.1.b) and (A.1.c) are automatically satisfied. Other advantages will appear in the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formu- lations of electrodynamics (see Chapter Il). Substituting (A.10) in Maxwell’s equations (A.1.a) and (A.1.d), one gets the equations of motion for A and U avin = — pin) -V Alt, 1) (A. 11.a) ae 4) A(t. 1) = jinn sexes «| (A.11.b) which are second-order partial differential equations and no longer first- order as in (A.1), Actually, since @7U/dt? does not appear in (A.11.a), this equation is not an equation of motion for U, but rather relates U to A/@1 at each instant. The state of the field is now fixed by giving A(r, to) and AA(r, f9)/A¢ for all r. It follows from (A.10) that E and B are invariants under the following gauge transformation: Art) > A(r 1) = Alt.) + VFO) (A.12.a) UE) + UD =UEN- LAE (A.12.b) where F(r, 1) is an arbitrary function of r and ¢. There is then a certain redundancy in these potentials, since the same physical fields E and B can be written with many different potentials A and U. This redundancy can be reduced by the choice of one gauge condition which fixes 7 - A (the value of y x A is already determined by (A.10.a)). The two most commonly used gauges are the Lorentz gauge and the Coulomb gauge. (i) The Lorentz gauge is defined by van +s Lunn =0 (A.13)10 Classical Electrodynamies LA3 One can prove that it is always possible to choose in (A.12) a function F such that (A.13) will be satisfied for A’ and U’. In the Lorentz gauge, the equations (A.11) take a more symmetric form: Ue. 1) = = pir.) (A.14.a) DAC, 1) = — jr) (A.14.b) where O = 02/c? dr? ~ A is the d’Alembertian operator. This is due to the fact that the Maxwell’s equations on one hand and the Lorentz condition on the other are relativistically invariant, that is, they keep the same form after a Lorentz transformation, Using covariant notation, Equations (A.13) and (A.14) can be written re,A"= 0 (A.15) with and (A.16) with i= (ep) where A" and j are the four-vectors associated with the potential and the current respectively. (ii) The Coulomb (or radiation) gauge is defined by V- Ar 1) =0 (A.17) Equations (A.11) then become AU(r, 1) 1 = ptr.) (A. 18.a) £0 DAG, 1) = i.) — U(r. 1). (A. 18.b) Equation (A.18.a) is Poisson's equation for U. The covariance is lost, but other advantages of the Coulomb gauge will be seen in the subsequent chaptersLBA Electrodynamics in Reciprocal Space uw B—ELECTRODYNAMICS IN RECIPROCAL SPACE 1. The Fourier Spatial Transformation—Notation Let &(k, 1) be the Fourier spatial transform of E(r, 1). Then E and & are related through the following equations: (kK 1) : (ar Be. Dea (B.1.a) a | 1 ¢ a E(r.) Bk (keh (B.1.b) In Table I the notations used for the Fourier transforms of various other physical quantities are shown, Block letiers are used for the quantities in real space, and script ones for the same quantities in reciprocal space. TaBLe tT noéky Ber, 1) + Alk, 1) A(t, 1) elk, 1) UE (kD) pl. 1) pk) in) ofthe n)- Since E(r, £) is real, it follows that E(k) =(—Kk 1). (B.2) In this treatment one frequently uses the Parseval~Plancherel identity Jers *(7) Gin) = fer F Mk) {k) (B.3) where ¥ and @ are the Fourier transforms of F and G. as well as the fact that the Fourier transform of a product of two functions is proportional to the convolution product of the Fourier transforms of these two functions 1 Qxy YF) Gr ~ 1) > Fk) GW) (B.4)n ‘Classical Electrodynamics 1B2 Table II lists some Fourier transforms that are used throughout this book ‘TABLE IT pelle ipaealaele dar (20)? ae eee ae Qn? r 4 nr ; ae orn) one Finally, to simplify the notation, we write i, in place of dr,(1)/dt, E in place of JF(r, 1)/dz, é in place of 476(k, t)/4t?,..., whenever there is no chance of confusion 2. The Field Equations in Reciprocal Space Since the gradient operator 7 in real space transforms into multiplica~ tion by ik in reciprocal space, Maxwell’s equations (A.1) in reciprocal space become (B.S.a) (B (B es (B.S.d) It is apparent in (B.5) that &(k) and @(k) depend only on the values of &(k), B(k), p(k), and 4(k) at the same point k, Maxwell's equations, which are partial differential equations in real space, become strictly local in reciprocal space, which introduces a great simplification, ‘The equation of continuity (A.3) is now written ike j+p=0. (B.6) ‘The relationships between the fields and potentials become [anus (B.7.2) & =— oJ ~ikw (B.7.b)