CHAPTER 9

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT

9.1
INTRODUCTION:
When two more disturbances arrive at a point in space
to the
simultaneously the resultant disturbance at that point, according
sum of the disturbances
principle of superposition, is given by the vector Eq. (8.3-l)
which are aSsumed to be small. The differential wave
in the form a wave is a
governing the propagation of a disturbance and U, are two
second order, linear homogeneous equation. If s,
this equation. It is in
solutions then V,+ y, is also a solution to important consequence
An
accordance with the principle of superposition.
that when two beams of light
principle of superposition is the
of the is completely unaffected by
intersect, the propagation of each beam
the region of crossing both the beams
presence of the other. However, in change in intensity. A case of utmost
expect a
act simultaneously a. we monochromatic waves of light from two sources
importance occurs when superpose at a point either
the same direction and
proceed almost in the intensity of light at that point
opposite phase. Then point
in same or in minimum according as the waves meet the
will be maximum or phenomenon is known as
opposite phase. This
in the same or in phenomenon requires for its
explanation that
Lnterference of light. This
nature.
light must have a wave

9.2 THEORY OF INTERFERENCE : monochromatic light of

S is illuminated with
Suppose a narrow slit slits S, and S, equidistant from S.
wavelength A. There are two other
cylindrical wavelets spread out from
According to Huygens' principle at the same
the wavelets will reach S, and S,
the slit S. As SS, = SSo, secondary waveletS will start from S, and S,
ume instant. Hence new These wavelets start with equal phase
ahd diverge towards the screen. us
considered as coherent sources. Let
arid hence S. and S, may be
complex disturbances constituting light waves at S, by
tepresent the
...(9.2-1)

travelling from 8. to any point P on the screen the phase of the

ln
2n -x, =k . Hence at the instant t the
Wave changes by 2 -S, P=
P due to light
from S, will be
Complex disturbance at
...(9.2-2)

ATBL-28
 Líght
Book on
A Text
due to
light from Interference of light
218
disturbance at P may tA On the other hand, if 6 = 2rn +
1 or,
219

Similarly. the = 0,1,2,3...then intensity I is z- X

represented by. Thus when the minimum
path difference of the and P proportional
according to the ..9.22 is odd multiple of /2 the point to
from the (a, ~
two s0urces
The resultant
disturbance at P, principle minimum and we get a nearly intensity of light at that point
destructive interference. dark band there This is known as1s
superposition, is given by
When a, = g the anplitudes of the
minimum intensity is zero and we disturbances are equal, the
kx, - isinkx, )] get alternately
bright and completely
=ea,(coskx, - isinkx, ) + az(cos dark bands as we go away from the
hich are produced on the screen atcentral bright band. The
-1b a particular instant of phenomena
eo,Na+6e-io; = tan ...9.24 aves from the two Coherent sources S, and S, time when
=enfa - ib] =
a
in the Fig. 9.2-2. C 1s a point on the superpose. are
illustrated
and S, and hence its path differencescreen which is equidistant from
coskx, is zero. The waves from the
where a = a coskx +a,
sin kxz
b= a, sin kr, + a, y=Aeiot-6) P
Therefore, Screen

where A' =a +6 = a +a~ + 2a,an cOsk(x - x1) ..(9.2:

Henc P
resultant disturbance.
Here A is the amplitude of the
as
intensity of light at P is given
I « A2
=
a; +az +2a,a, cosõ ...(9.25
P
2T
where 6=k.(xz -x)= ( - x) is the phase difference between t
interfering waves. Obviously this phase difference depends on the pa P
difference X x, and hence on the position of the point P. No
Fig. 9.2-2
6 = 2 m Or, x, - x = 2m m = 0,1,2,3..., then intensity I is maximu
sources S, and S, (whose phase difference is permanently zero) meet
and proportional to (ay +a,). Thus when the path difference ol at C in the same phase (crests of both the waves fall at C). At this
point P from the b point the resultant amplitude is sum of the amplitudes of individual
8ources is even mul waves and hence we get a bright band there, known as the central bright
band.
of N2 the intensity
light at that po II we take a point P, on the screen whose path difference from S,
becomes maximum b
b
and S, is N2, then the waves meet at P, in the opposite phases (the
we get a bright erest of the wave from S, falls on the trough of the wave from S,)
there. This is know and we get a dark band there known as first order dark band.
constructive interfere
Again the path difference of another point P, on the screen from
Screen
When m=0 we get and S, is 2/2 and the waves meet there in the same phase (troughs
central bright bands of both the waves fall there) which is, therefore, a position of the next
for which the ght band known as the first order bright band. Thus as we proceed
Fig. 9.2-1
difference is zero. from C, the path difference changes from odd to even multiples of 2
causing Tespectively an alternation of minimum and maximum intensity
 Light
A Text Book on
220
The intensity Interference of light
cUrve with a, =a, = a
of the central band.
of light on both sides is shown in Fig. 9.2-3. distribution question remains constant
coherent, the initial phase
but as two
goes ondifferent candles cannot be
221

time. As a
result at every difference
point changing very rapidly with
hence we getthere is rapid
Intensity
4 I-2a'(1+cos8) and darkness and
alternation of brightness
general
9.3 wIDTH AND SHAPE OF illumination.
Fringe width : INTERFERENCE FRINGES:
Let us consider two
ooherent sources S, and
which are sending
monochromatic light of
wavelength à (Fig. 9.3
1). The point C on the
Fig. 9.2-3 screen 1s equidistant d
from S, and S, and
light energy destrosc3 hence the waves from S.
Let us answer two important questions : () Is different candles m D
Screen

by interference? (i) Why are light waves from two and S, arrive at C at the
seen to interfere? same time. If the phase Fig. 9.3-1
interference of light. Wht Aifference between the two coherent scurces is nil the waves from S,
(i) No destruction of light energy occurs in which and S, will meet at C in same phase and will produce a bright band
happens is merely a redistribution of energy. The energy known as central bright band. Let the mth bright band be formed at
disappears from the dark regions actually goes to the brightberegions
showm p whose distance from C is , (say). Now in Fig. 9.3-1, D is the
can
The average value of energy over a number of fringes
the separation beween the sources and the screen; d is the separation
to be the same as if the interference effects were absent. Taking between the coherent sources.
constant of proportionality to be one the intensity I can be expressed
from Eq. (9.2-6) as
I= a? + az + 2a,a, cos8 S, P2 = D?
phas
where a, and a, are the amplitudes of the waves and 8 is the
difference.
21 +
or, S, P= D1+
Laverage = aj +az D

= sum of intensities of individual waves.

Thus we can say that there is no destruction of energy or tne d
principle of conservation of energy is not violated in the phenomenou Since usually D >> d, S,P- D|1+;1 2 ...(9.3-1)
of interference. 2 D
(ii) When light waves from two separate candles meet at a po
the point will be bright or dark according as the waves meet ininitia
same or opposite phases. This phase difference depends on the
phase difference between the sources and the optical path differenc
of the point from the two sources. The path difference of the po
Similarly, S,P D1+ 2 D
2 ...(9.3-2)
 A Text Book on Light
222
Now for mth order bright fringe at P,
S, P-S, P= mà
where d is Interferenee of Iiwt
the separation
Using Eqs. (9.3-1) and (9.3-2) we get,
hetween the alits
The path
S,P SP
m.d
= mà; or, x,, = m
2D ifference,
D d
or,
Similarly. the distance of (m+1)th bright fringe from C
wil be Squaring both sides and
m+1 -(m +1).
D
rearranging we get,

272
Thus the distance between two consecutive bright bands = 2xd - A
2D woulà
ß= m+1 -m= Sauaring again and rearranging we go.
If P be the position of mth order dark band then
. .9.34
2 D 2 D A/4 (d -A4 =1
*m =(2m +1) 2 and m =(2m +2 +1); d Thus the loci of points of ...(9.3-5)
hyperbolae with S, and S, asconstarnt path diference
d
foci on s in r
hyperbolae are given by x-axia. The plane are
Hence B= n+1 -m = d
D
.(9.34
ccentrcities of the

Eq. (9.3-3) and (9.3-4) show that the distances (B) between e=
consecutive bright or dark bands are equal. Bis known as fringe wid 4 4 2
Measuring B, d and D the expression for B can be used t In ontical
experiments the path difference
measure .
Therefore, e is very high and as a 1-102nd-m
practically straight lines given by consequence the yperbolae becomE
Shape of interference fringes :
An idea regarding the shape of interference fringes can be obtaine
by finding the locus of points having a constant path diference fue a- 2
the sources (slits) S, and S,. Refering to Fig. 9.3-2 we choose the m
point O between the slits a If instead of slits we use
two
-
PO:x) the origin of a coordinat:
system. Let the *-axis b
in three
dimensional space the coherent
different order numbers will form
point sos
loci of maxima i:
N S. n

along OX and y-axis b a system of confocal

EInu
A Si (0, d/2) perpendicular to the plaz: hyperboloids
with S, and S, as foci
containing the slits. For a: 3). If a screen (Fig. 9.3
i s placed parallel
point P(y, x) we can write to the line joining S, and
short straight S, then
and line fringes
(prallel to the length of the slits
placed at S, and
(0, -d/2)
obtained. If the screenS,) iswillplaced
be

Fig. 9.3-2
perpendicülar
S and S, we to the line joining
shall get a
bright andnumber
of
alternately dark concentric cires win their Oni
 A Text Book on Light
Interference of ligt
224
The original sorurce must be
centre lying on the point of intersection of the line
S,S, with
the
(i)
monochomatic, I the light
betuY) the sounce is morochrcmat
heterozeneous
obtscraienenet
These fringes are callednon-iocalized fringes for they can be differene interfering beams must be et
the ptoz
spaCing Dd between e
on a screen wherever it is placed. The
of A. So fringes for consecutivecolours
bright
different or iark
-gs
INTERFERENCE WITH WHITE LIGHT AND
ion
funct *il be in step s2
centra) fringe and sOon get out of
9.4
EFFECT: COLOUR
The distance of the mth bright fringe from the central one is given by
the

fringe.
If the path
may be
difference
masked by the
step on
dark
bright fringesfringes for
nly t
is large then either Snde of central
of sone some
wavelengths
AD
wavelengths. other
)The two interfering beams must
d 2((iv)
direction or must intersect at a very smallpropagate
angle. along tre same
where d is the separation between the two coherent sources and n
angle between the two interfering
is largewavefronts
1s the distance of the screen from the sources. is a function of If thebetween is large or the
different colours will be in distance
the coherent sources the spacing between
wavelength i. So the fringes of step only interference fringes becomes small and may become the
for the central band m = 0). In this case m=0 and bright fringe of magnification. indistinguishable
the central band will be white even under high
all wavelengths will coincide and (m > 0) *, will be o with (v) For interference
with polarised light the waves
white light. For higher order bright fringes for a light of sho of polarisation.
must be in the
wavelength and less same state
for a lignt of longer ight is longer than
wavelength. As the wavelength , for redbright bands, excepting 9.6 TWOCLASSES OF INTERFERENCE:
wavelength for violet we infer that all
coloured in which red will be ih Optical devices producing interference fringes may be classified into
cefntrat bright band, will be innermost position. W the following two classes. T'he basis of classification depends on bost
outerm0st position while violet will be in the is large the condition f we produce coherent sources.
between interfering waves
the path diference the condition fo
constructive interference for one wavelength and (1) Division of wavefront :
be satisfied at the
destructive interference for another wavelength may distingusha Dtiel devices which divide the incident wavefront into two parts
same point. In that case the resultant illumination cannot be hy reflection, refraction or diffraction and thereby give rise to two
white light the path
from white light. So for observable fringes with get a few coloured coherent interfering beams come under the division of wavefront class.
difference should be kept very small. In this case we
fringe. In order.to maintain spatial coherence it is essential to use narrow
fringes on either side of the central white sources in these cases. The formation of fringes by Biprism, Lloyd's
CONDITIONS FOR OBSERVABLE INTERFERENE single mirror, Billet's divided lens etc. belong to this category. Since
9.5 limited portions of the wavefront are used in these devices, diffraction
PATTERN :
interference pattern the effects are also present along with the interference effects.
In order to have well defined observable
following conditions must be satisfied. (ii) Division of amplitude :
coherent (S#
(i) The two beams of light which interfere must be Optical devices which divide the amplitude of incident light wave
Art. 18.2). WO or more parts by partial reflection and refraction and thereby into
difference between rise to two or more coherent interfering beams of light give
Two sources are said to be coherent if the phase ne division of amplitude class, Here we comne under
the sources are incoherens
the sources remains constant in time. If O ght. As the interference effects require to use broad source
changes continually and we get uniform general illumination. of corresponding to different points
Also, thei the 8Ource
(ii) The interfering waves must have the same frequency. Section of the arewavefront
Superposed here we get brighter bands. Since a large
is used diffraction effects are minimised. The
amplitudes must be equal or very nearly equal. formation
of
interferometer, fringes
widely then the intensity, (a, by thin films, Newton's ring, Michelson's
If the amplitudes a, and a, differ
in the bright region and that, (a,~a,) in the dark region will nou Fabry-Perot interferometer ete. belong to this category.
significantly and hence intensity variation cannot be recogmseu

ATBL29
 on Light
A Text Book
226 YOUNG'S EXPERIMENT:
Interferernce f ig
9.7 interference was first demonstrated S and S, can be considered as twg herert sr The s g
The
phenomenon of Young in 1801by T wavefronts meet at small angles and prdue irtererets e o
simple experime the screen in the overlapping regivn PO The orige iare
Sherical wavelets allowed
On
sunlightts
a pinhole
then at some
away on two
S, and
Fig. 9.7-1.S, asFinal
sho
light
Scroen was, recEi
an opaque ScTeE
M
observed
that
Iniceplae
w2ve-g
illumination oa
screen consistei of
Fig 92-1

at a point on the screen will be dependent oriy t sai

Fig $.7-1 alternate
dark spots.
bright ofthe point from S, and S,. These friges cat i
E having a cross-wire. Typical fringe
Huygens' principle spherical wavelets spread
pinhole S.to Since SS, = SS. these wavelets reach S, and S,E
theAcoording
pattern is shown in Fig. 9.8-1(a).
wavelets dive Necessity of narrow source :
same instent of time. Hence the new spherical at the start T A broad source of light is equivalent
S, and S, to the right will have equal phase to a large number of narrow sources
act as two coherent sources. The two sets of spherical waves eme
from S. and S. interfere with each other and form a symmetrical n placed side by side. Now if the slit is
of brigt and dark regions on the screen. At points where the broad the two virtual coherent sources
meet in same phase maximumn brightness is produced. On the will also be broad. Now each pair of
conjugate points on the virtual sources
hand. minimum brightness is produced at points where the wavsz will give rise to an interference pattern.
in opposite phase. These interference patterns are slighty isolarei OT ne
In modern version of the experimnent the pinholes are repla overlapping of such patterns results in iiT
narrow parallel slits.
Fresnel's biprism can be used for vains E
9.8 FRESNE='S BIPRISM : discussed below.
Fresnel used a biprism to demonstrate the interference phenom (a) Determination of unknown wavelengt :
Abiprisn is essentially two prisms each of very small refracting Fresnel's biprism can be used to deteT
-301 piaced base to base. In practice it is constructed from a monochromatic light.
glass plate. Experimental arrangement using Fresnel's biprism S Theory :
schematicalily in Fig. 9.8-1. Light from a narrow slit s, illumin Fringe width B is given by for derieton
monochromatic lignt is incident symmetrically on the biprism N
The incident wavefront is divided into two
parts and sule B
refractions through the two halves of the biprism. The two rers
wavefronts appear to diverge from two vitual sources S, and S, where, D= distance between the si: ni
1 I: is d = distance between the two
desirable to
for in that case place the plane surface of the bipris towardsthe s
and S,: vN
deviation of the ray surfaces of the
will be neariy equal and hence the widthproduced
of the byvirtual
the twosources S,andS,
be small which
will make the
fringes distinct.
 228 A Text Book on Light (b) Measurement of
the Interferenes of Heht
Therefore, unknown wavelength From Fig 93-1, it is acute
angle nf
and SM after
their evident that the higrlsm :
and Mpassage thrnngh devi
<
the atn
tinn af oarh nf the
dß angleg Lat
(9 8-2 ACute
D
Thus neasuring B. d and D we can determine Theangular
thenbe equal to 28 (in
separatinn reapectof theivalytwn, is givam hy Ath1n
prisman hainrayM
å -virtual -3A-
Experiment : Angleat L or at Mof
and the theradian)
two thin
But
(n- ieanurron
The experiment can be conducted by using a suitable form of
optical theslit S
betveen the two biorismn, then 28 prisms
- din aa {f yhero
the tist anea he atite
hench along the bed of which can side a number of uprights carrvine virtual whero
the linear slit S, the biprism LMN and Ramsden's eye-piece E fitta
with a micrometer sCrew.
sourcea
d
S, and S, athe
linenr hetoen)
distann
or 2(n -- 1e =
The slit is illuminated by the monochromatic light and adjustmen.
are made to make the slit S. the edge N of the biprism and one t Measuring d and a, and
the cross-wires of the eve-piece perfectly vertical and all in the same material of prism for
the knowing n the
rofractive inde the
vertical plane and at the same height from the bench. At this time th
fringes will be verv distinct. The biprism and eye-piece stands are giver
z The distance a
from the bench scale.
between monochromat
the slit and c ltght emploved. we cnn
The distance 'd' biprism can be obtained ind
of

proper lateral movement so that fringes do not suffer lateral shi measured as
described earlier. The base between irtual diroet iy
relative to the corss-wire as the eye-piece is moved. small. If it is made large angle z of s0urces can he
The fringe width ß is now measured by setting the cross-wire of
then the
becomes large and fringe width B distance dbetweenthe biprt sm 1s ept
the virtual
successive fringes with the help of micrometer screw fitted with the width may becone so small that it becomes small For large .sources
fringe
eve-piece. Distance D can be measured directly from the bench scle high magnification. cannot be
as the distance between the slit and the eye-piece. distinguished even under

To measure d a convex lens of suitable focal length is placed on (c) Measurement of the thickness of a thin film :
another upright inserted between the biprism and the eye-piece. The Fresnel's biprism can be used to measure the thickness of a gven
focal length of the convex lens is such that the distance between the shin sheet of transparent material,
slit and the eye-piece is greater than four times the focal length of the Let S, and S, be the two virtual
lens. Under this condition, there are two conjugate positions of the interference fringes on the coherent sources which are producing
convex lens for which real images of S, and S, will be seen by the screen so that C is the
eve-piece kept at the same place. The distances d, and d, between the position of the central bright
real images of S, and S,, for the first and second positions of the convex band of zero optical path
lens respectively, are measured by moving the eye-piece perpendicular difference i.e., S,C = S,C. If
to the bench. Now magnification at one position will be inverse of a thin film of thickness t be S.
magnification at the second position ie., introduced into one of the
d paths (say, S,P) of the d
d dy
o, d=d,d, interfering rays, then the
position of the central fringe
There may be index error between slit stand and eye-piece stand. will be shifted from C to P
It can be corrected for or avoided by measuring fringe widths B, and (say), 6o that the optical Fig. 9.8-2
B, at two different distances D, and D, respectively. Then, instead of path S,P is again equal to
Eq. (9.8-2), ). is given by the optical path S,P. The time taken by light in going from S, to P
and from S, to P will be equal. Thus,
7.=d ...(9.8-3)
D, - D, S,P S,P-t t
As all the quantities on the right hand are known, . can be eas1ly C
determined.
 Interference of light 231
Light
A Text Book on
230 light travels with smaller velocity in the denser medium (film)
Ifthe greater than 1
S,P-S,P = (n-1): ...(9.8-5) clu is and mls positive. Hence the central fringe
Or. in the
then shifted towards the side of the film. Experimental result agrees
velocity of light in air and film; n =clu will be inference arrived at. Hence the conclusion is that light travels
where c and v are the the material of the film. this
with smaller
index of velocity in denser medium.
is the refractive tho
occupied by the mth order fringe with
If P is the position originally S,P= m. LLOYD'S SINGLE MIRROR:
S, P- ...(9.8-6) 9.9
single mirror arrangement (Fig. 9.9-1) light from a narrow
Therefore, from Egs. (9.8-5)
and (9.8-6) we get, In Lloyd's
illuminated with a monochromatic light is partly incident at a
(n- 1)t = mà ...(9.8-7) slit S, on a metallic mirror M,M, while the rest reaches the
fringe of zero optical path difference grazing angle
directly. The reflected light appears to diverge from a virtual
The lateral shift of the central Sereen AB
S, and
is given as source S,. Hencecoherent
m=CP= mß ...(9.8-8) S, actand
sources
as
interference
the
AD ..(9.8-9) fringes are formed in
where ß= is the fringe width region of overlapping EF.
The central point C
From Egs. (9.8-7) and (9.8-8) we get on the screen for
which

(n-1)t = CS, = CS, receives only

the direct light and for
this the central fringe of B
..(9.8-10) zero path difference is
not visible here. However, Fiq. 9.9-1
Or, B(n-1)
if the screen is displaced into view. The
due to introduction
Finding xm, the displacement of the central fringe consecutive bright central fringe can be brought
to the position A'B the brought into view by introducing a thin ilm
of the thin film and B, the distance between two central fringe can also be fringe system
bands, we can find t, the thickness of the film by Ea.
(9.8-10), when direct light. In this case the
mica or glass in the path of film is introduced. Ift is the thickness
the wavelength of light and the refractive index n of the film are the
otts in direction in which refractive index of the film then central
known. 0 the film and n is the point such as O for which the condition
From Eqs. (9.8-9) and (9.8-10) we may write, ge will be formed at a The central fringe is
found to be dark.
d S,O = S,0 + (n - l)t is satisfied. the mirror suffers a sudden phase
...(9.8-11) Shdicates that light reflected from
(n-1) D change of Tt.
This equation can also be used to find t. Loyd's mirror fringes:
Fresnel's biprism and
With a monochromatic source fringes appear to be similar and Difference between are formed on both sides of the
difficult to locate the position where the central fringe is shifted. t biprism experiment fringes mirror arrangemnent less than half
central whereas in Lloyd's the central line.
of the fringe,
this purpose a white light source is used. Witha white source the cenvs
on one side of
fringe is white and all other order fringes are coloured. fringes are obtained whereas in Lloyd's mirror
Velocity test : isOlprism the central fringe is bright
it is dark.
The relation (9.8-11) may be (d) between every pair of
written as
(iii) In biprism the separation is same and hence fringe
Fresnel's coherent sources
...(9.8-12)
corwidthrespondi
is ng
Same for
points of the
all parts of
the source. But in
Lloyd's mirror due
 Then D. It position e.,
for get length
secondi.between the measured the Dalign mirror
vertical. uprights is a not to 232
magnification can micrometer
levelled The Thus monochromaticlight.
where coherent
canThere Thus two two eye-piece Lloyd's same lateral
FringeMeasurement
eye-piece
be (() be the and
instead measuring conugatethe distinct by The experiment for
and measuring d= D= width r
fopoint
corrected may measured
is fringe inversion
atreal
eye-piece mirror
be placedis from setting Lloyd'supporting s thenscrew distance distance all
of index one real kept ß ofsources.
positions
images can parts
Eq. for B, the system. the morror the and is B, iswavelength in
position inmages between at directly stands done d given
error D slit. between between be of the A
(9.9-1) or and d a cross-wire slit slit, a and Consequently
avoided for distanceof After the Text
between d from arconvergent
e isand Lloyd's on d D by used
: mirror
d -; th e of the To
now D
one (for
wilthese the find Book
these now an wethe the to source
D,
- we or,
be lens. Lloyd' s the cross-wire O,
2=
d
of placed
uses bythe can twcoherent
o greater d the given mirror,optical can two slit deduction measure in is on
d inverse Let a lens. slit.
measuring slit find =d,d, bench
adjustments
the mirrorconvexeye-piece proper with determine coherent and Dd.ß Lloyd' s Light
different
stand
positions d, than of At bench
relation of sources and scale Ramsden' the wavelength thea
its the first s see
from lens mirror for
Band surface
atlateral
eye-piece fitted sources. screen. Art.
for th e .
magnification of d, 4fand asfringe
from
on the successive different
Eq. the be
ofthe
fringe
th e the suitable eye-piece
optical with 9.3)
two lens. eye-pithe ece. distance movement width vertical. are
..9.9.1) (M)of
eye-piece (9.9-1).
di st a ne
eye-peu slit, fringes movahia width pair
values at focal ß made bench with i of
. (9.9 ) " We of to The
".(9 3) stand i

we between o incrense
achromatic
twlmage ch
whigrating 9.10-1.
Fig.achromatic.
L,spectrum wil bethatS0
distance be 9.10
30 eye-pieceE. which the andWhite This The
coherent
longerWhen where
separation monochromaticlightof
get the G. is can PRODUCTION
satisfiesfringes.
Thus d,
dy distance
WMvelengtR'Y h. dwhite
of angle The then lightproduced be betweenthan between isD
achromatic of the lens
violet thelight the
the of ,
made from achieved
coherent Ln diffracted B
the The angle then the distance between
and diffraction to a by wavelength istwo
sources
spectrummirror fall tut two
B employed, Interference
OFlightof
fringes
condition red of S
a by wil coherent wavelength à,
is
form rays ACHROMATIC
normally plane
isermploying coherent between
sourceand any
sources.becomes diffractioMn is be
a Fi10-g. 19. ,
which RV.(kept small) fromrendered the ofSources.
the D two
of normal diffraction d
As The on same sourcesviolet
aregiven athe a wavelength consecutive
suitably
achromatcanism the smallercorresponds parallel Lloyd's givenby,
FRINGES:
distance spectrum made surface for light.
is
bespectrum than order rating all
proportionately
inclined) to by mirror If à,screen
seen the d, of an colours bright
of toRV, Le M
converge (say a byof
is (=VV) plane as any red
bythe anin achromatic and
normaldistance
, first isand and fringes
formsequal which by shown a means light ...(9.10-1)
d
employing diffraction
order normal fringes altered is 233
betweend, a equalan another the wil the of
d,d (= increase lens in
virtual in
RR) the
 A Text Book on Light Interference of light 235
234
another and hence the fringes are not very sharp unless the slit
OTHER METHODS OF PRODUCING
9.11
FRINGES BASED ON DIVISION OF WAVEFRONT: INTERFERENCE one
is made very narrow.
Ih) Billet's divided lens method :
(a) Fresnel's double-miror method : T this arrangement two real coherent sources are obtained from a
In Fig. 9.11-1, S is a linear slit perpendicular to the plane of a single sOurce
S. In Fig. 9.11-2, L and L, are the two halves of a split
two inat
paper and is illuminated by sodium light. LM and LN are S1 lens. which form two real images at S, and S, of a single linear
plane mirrors, inclined at a small angle Z RLN= 0 and their surfaces
co Silluminated by monochromatic light. The beams of light which
are also kept vertical. Incident rays from S are reflected from BU from the real coherent sources S, and S, superpose on thescreen
mirrors LM and LN and appear to diverge from S, and S, respectivel.
Light reflected from L
appears to diverge from . Screen

and covers the portion PQ oi

the screen. Light reflected
MA C from LN appears to diverge
from S, and falls on the same
portion PQ of the screen. Thus
S, and S, are two coherent
virtual sources from which
light superposes on the portion Fig. 9. 11-2
PQ and we get interference
having
fringes in the portion PQ of within the region PQ, where interference fringes will be produced
Fig. 9.11-1 the screen. As the S,LS, central bright band at C which is equidistant from S, and S,.
between the two virtual : STOKE'S
sources is 20, the distance between the two virtual sources S, and S 9.12 PHASE CHANGE N REFLE CTION
would be d = 2oa, where a = 0L is the distance of L from the centre TREATMENT:
interface of
of the line joining S, and S,. If LC be equal to b, then the distance Suppose a light wave of amplitude a is incident on an
between the point 0 and the screen PQ is, D = (a + b). UWo media as shown in Fig, 9.12-1. Let r and t represent the
fractions
The distance B between any two consecutive bright or dark irnge Or the amplitude of the incident wave which are respectively reflected
is given by above and refracted below the
surface. Hence the ampitudes of

By measuring B we can find 2 or o from this

(a+,
2aw
..(9.11-1) the reflected and refracted waves
Tor an incident wave of amplitude
ar
,at'
relation. a, will be ar and at respectively.
If 2 is known, then by
the two mirrors. measuring we can find o, the angle betwen (f there is no absorption of RARER
DENSER
energy, the wave motion is a
Characteristic
(1) Here
of the fringes SUrictly reversible phenomenon. art
the Now if the retiected wave along
symmetry 0C. fringes are obtained on both sides of the line
of aur'

(2)
OQ having the ampl1cde ar be
a phaseSince both the interfering War
reversed, we get one reflected wave
change of occurs by beams are at reflected in the causing
same no amplitide ar2 OP and
isresultant
on the change of phase and hence
line of
reflection both mirrors
the central fringe is bright and another refractedalong Wave of Fig. 9. 12-1
(3) The
interfering centressymmetry.
of amplitude
if along Os. Similarly
the waveart along OR having the amplitude at be reversed, we get a
points of symmetryvirtual
the two of different pairs of the corresponding
relatively to reflected wave of amplitude atr' along OS and a refracted wave of
sources are shifted
236
AText Book on Light
237
where r' and t represent
amplitude att along OP transmission
Interference of light
amplitude reflection and
incident from lower medium. Since
of a wave along OP of
amplitude a
the
we
coefficients
resultant
have,
effect respemustctivelyoN
when the sini
sinr QN,/QS
QN/QS

att' + arZ = a; art + atr' = 0 o>,

QN = nQN,
From these equations we get,
Thus Eq. (9.13-1) now reduces to.
tt'= 1-p2 l= n(N,R + RS) =n (N,R + RM) = nN,M
...(9.13-2)
r= ...9, Or,
= 2nd cos (r- )
difference
In addition to this path difference, there is an extra phase
Relation (9.12-3) indicates a phase change of n between re.f.l9e.ct12:a
in the denser and rarer media. Lloyd's mirror experiment shows of I eguivalent to a path difference t N2, caused
by reflection at Q.

change of on reflection from a surface backed by a denser

Hence we concude that no such abrupt phase change occurs whenmedin
is reflected by a surface backed by rarer medium.
9.13 INTERFERENCE PHENOMENA NTHINFILMS, BASEDG
THE DIVISION OF AMPLITUDE:
Beautiful colours are often exhibited when a beam of white light fre
an extended source is reflected from a thin film of oil floating on wat
or fromn a soap bubble. These phenomena can be explained on the ba
of interference of light waves reflected from the upper and the lor: A
surfaces of the film.
(a) Interference in reflected light :
Let AB and CD be the bounding surfaces of a thin wedge stap
fiim enclosing an angle a (Fig. 9.13-1). D

Suppose a ray PQ of
on the film. This ray willmonochromatic light of wavelength 1S R
be partly reflected along Q0 from tue
surface and partly refracted along QR. The
partly reflected from the back surface CD, ray along QR ate
the reflected ray Q0 at 0. emerges along So a
The rays Q0 and SO are derived from the same incident rayA
and hence are coherent. phenome M
Let us now calculate theThey
phasecombine to produce
difference betweeninterference
these reflected beams Fig. 9.13-1
Draw SN ITQ0, SN, IQR and SLM 1CD. Produce QR and SLtome rom the surface backed by denser medium. The
reflection at R, from
at M. The paths of the two reflected beams (QO and SO) whicha medium, will not cause any change of phase.
ble surface backed by rarer
going to meet at O, uptoO reflected rays is,
they are very close towill each
be equal from the SN Hence the total path difference between the two
dotted linedifference
two refiected other). Hence the path
interfering beams would be, "..(913
l= 2nd cos(r -a)±, ...(9.13-3)

Conditions for maxima and minima-

l=n(QN,+N,R+ Rs) -QN
where n = refractive index of For maxima of brightness at O,
From the geometry of Fig. the film.
thickness of the film at S.
By
9.13-1, RS = RM and SL
2nd cos(r - a) = even multiples of 2
Snell's law we get, 2
 238 A Text Book on Light
Interference of light 239
(b) Fringes with white
When a parallel beam of whitelight-colours
of
Or, 2nd cos(r- a) = odd multiples of
the values of n, light is incident onthinathin
film
film, and r will be
colours. At the thinner edge of the film,
different for lights wedge-
-shaped
of different
= (2m +1);
2 ..(9.13-4) and this edge will be
theintroduction of path
perfectly dark forthickness (d) is practically zero
light of all colours
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3... difference of /2 by reflection from theowing to
AB of thhe film. As , < the first order bright surface
Similarly, for minima of brightness at 0, ormed at a smaller thickness of the film whilefringe
the
of violet light
bright fringe of red light will be formed at the greater orresponding
et differently coloured fringes at different thickness. Thus
2nd cos(r-a) =2m 2 ...(9.15-5) fringes are called frunges of equal chromatic order:
thicknesses and these
Note that for a parallel filmn a=0. Bevond this point, we get another thickness where the condition of
(a) Fringes with monochromatic light: brightness will be simultaneously satisfied by two or ncre colours and
(i) When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident on a here we get a coloured band due to the overlapping of these coloured
film of varying thickness, n, and r are all constants. Hence different bright fringes. When the thickness of the film is sufficient, the
order numbers (m) of the fringes will be obtained for different overlapping of differently coloured bright fringes goes tosuch an extent
thicknesses (d) of the film. At the thin edge of the film, where d is that we get uniform illumination. Thus we explain the colouration of
thin films.
practically zero, the path difference (= 2nd cos r) of the two reflected
rays inside the film is zero. The only path difference between these (b) Interference in transmitted light :
two reflected rays is /2, caused by reflection from the surface AB of Asimilar interference phenomenon is seen to occur with the rays
the film. Hence this thin edge would be dark not only for a light of transmitted through the film and emerging on the side CD of it
one colour but for lights of all colours. (Fig. 9.13-2). One part of the ray QR incident on the boundary CD,
As the thickness, d of the film increases, the order number m of of it will
will emerge out of CD in the direction RO,. Another part reflections
internal
the fringe also increases. Thus a fringe of a given order number will also emerge out of CD along TO, after two successive change of phase
be the locus of the points where film thickness d is remaining same. at R and S. These two internal reflections will cause no
will be purely
If the film surfaces are perfectly plane, we get straight fringes paralle and hence the phase difference of these two emergent rays
to the line of intersection of the surfaces of the film. determined by their path difference.
path difference of the two
(i) When the film is extremely thin, so that d is practically zero for In figure NO, = TO, and hence the
all parts of the film, then the only path difference between the two transmitted interfering beams would be,
reflected rays is N2 and the film surface will appear perfectly dark even ...(9.13-6)
with white light. l=n(RN +N,S+ ST) - RN
perpendiculars on RS, RO, and
(iii) If the film surfaces are plane-parallel (i.e., = 0) and a paralel vOw, TN,, TN and TLM are drawn
produced to meet at M. From the
beam of monochromatic light is incident on its surface obliquely, then Drespectivelv RS and TL are ST = SM and LI= LM =d= thickness
n, h and d are all constants but r will vary with the inclination of tne
parallel beam with the surface. Hence the film surface will be uniformy geometry of the Fig. 9.13-2 we get,
of the film at L.
bright or dark according as the value of r satisfies the conditions 0 RN/RT
brightness and darkness given in the relations (9.13-4) and (9.13-0) sin/
By Snell's law we get, n= sinr - a) RN,/RT
respectively. If the parallel beam is incident on such a film normally
then n, d and 2 are all constants and cos r = 1, RN =nRN,.
will be uniformly bright or dark Hence the film suTia or,
the conditions of brightness and according as the thickness d satisie ...(9.13-7)
darkness. T'hus Ea. (9.13-6) reduces to,
nN,M= 2nd cos (7 - 2a)
l=n(N,S + SM) =
* For maxima of brightness,
 Light
AText Book on Interference of light 241
240
mA
2nd cos(r - 2a) = 2m = Dor a thick film, the two adjacent reflected or transmitted rays will
and will not be able to enter the eye whose pupil is small.
be wide apart
brightness,
For minima of
2nd cos(r-2a) =(2m + 1) 2
angle oa or for a parallel film . .913:
For a film of very small wedge
the Egs (9.13-4), (9. 13-5), (9.13-8) and (9.
then we note
the condition
from
for maxima in the transmitted pattern .139) ta
corresponds
condition for minima in the reflected pattern and vice-versa.
(-2a)[ Thus
Fig. 9.13-3(a)

Tf the film be thin, then the two adjacent reflected or transmitted rays
overlapping.
willbe able to enter the eye where interference will occur by

(r-20)
Tir-2a)
a)

P.
D
C
(r-a)7

0,
Fig. 9.13-2
may Fig. 9.13-3 (b)
conclude that the fringes obserued with the
lights are and
transmit
complementary to each other:. reflected
Fringe Width :
Necessity of using a broad
If rays from a source and thin film: When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is
incident normally
light is given
the film then the point source P incident& On the film, the condition of brightness with reflected
Fig. 9.13-3(a)] be madeenterthee by, 2nd = (2m+1)N2.
(whose aperture isreflected or confined to
small) are transmitted a small range ofdirectiot But the thickness d of the film at S is ax, where Cm is
Hence field of view will be very small. Onraysthe that
othercan
hand, if abrs istance of the mth bright band from the apex of the film.
source of light is used, light from every point of the source givesr
to a pair of relecte Thus
or
transmittedcoherent waves which can reach the after being o vè
2rn ax,, = (2m+1)/2.
become wide andfrom different
fringes can bepoints
seen over thefilm.
of the entire
eye film [Fig.field
the
f
9133b)
Thus
A.T.B.L-31
242 AText Book on Light Interference of light 243

(2m +1)2 will have the same angle of incidence i (Fig. 9.13-4). Thus the fringe
of a particular order will be a circle with the point Aas centre. Fringe
4na
system will consist of concentric bright and dark rings. Fringe of a
(2m + 2 +1)2 par
rticular order is characterised by a particular angle of incidence and
Similarly, m+ 1 4na hence these fringes are called fringes of equal inclination. As the angle
incidence of the rays increases, the value of cosr decreases causing
The distance (B) between two consecutive bright bands is given L decrease in the value of m. Thus the fringes of bigger radii will have
smaller order number.
B= *m+41 -m = 2na ...(9.13-10) The Newton's rings (See Art. 9.16) are the example of fringes of
Thus for a given film and for a light of given wavelength 2. Ri. equal width type. Here equal thickness of air film exists over the
circumference of a circle, having the point of contact of convex lens
constant. Hence the fringes are equi-spaced. When a increases tha
fringes become narrower but when a decreases the fringes become ond glass plate as centre and hence the fringes assume circular form.
broader. The fringes of equal thickness are employed to test the optieal
Fringes of equal width and equal inclination : nlaneness of a surface. For this purpose an air film is formed between
ihe working surface and a standard optically flat surface. The fringes
The conditions for maxima and minima of brightness of the fringes of equal thickness formed by the air film are repeatedly observed with
formed by the light reflected from a thin wedge-shaped film are amonochromatic light and the polishing of the working surface is
respectively given by, continued until the fringes are perfectly straight and parallel to the
line of intersection of the surfaces of the air film.
2nd cos(r -a) = (2m +1) (maxima) ...(9.13-11) light
Fringes of equal inclination can be produced by transmitted
a thick transparent plate (Fig. 9.13-5). As the plate is thick, the
2nd cos(r-a) = 2ma /2 (minima) ...(9.13-12) from hence they
pair of adjacent transmitted rays will be wide apart and interference
The above conditions suggest the existence of two distinct types of cannot enter the eye through its small pupil to produce any
fringes. Suppose the incident rays are parallel and monochromatic and phenomena there. But if a
hence n, r and are all constants. Under this condition different order telescope with a bigger
numbers (m) of the fringes
S will be controlled by the diameter objective be
thickness d of the film. employed, then the objective 3.
will be able to collect those
Hence a fringe of a
particular order number wil transmitted rays which are P

lie on the locus of all the very close to the normal A B

points of the film having a ray and consequently those B,

A
constant thickness. These collected reys will produce P,
fringes are called fringes O interference phenomena at
Fig. 9.13-4 equal width or thickness. II the focal plane of the
the film surfaces are objective. The fringe pattern
perfectly plane we get straight fringes which are all parallel to the e obtained in the focal plane Fig. 9.13-5
of intersection of the film surfaces, where of the
central dark fringe is situateu telescope consists Ol equal inclination
Another type of fringes will be obtained when concentric bright and dark rings. They are fringes of
divergent rays from an extended source are incident on a film monochroma type. These fringes are called Haidinger's fringes.
thickness. Here different order numbers (m) of the of unio the flatness of a plate to
fringes are employed to test
controlled by the different values of r If we draw a fringes wi
cutting point A of the normal ray SA circle, with
a Haidinger's
high accurately plane-parallel surfaces
degree of accuracy. For circular but any deviation from
AA, as radius, then all with the surface as centre,
rays incident on the
circumference
circle
of this Haidinger's
the fringes will be perfectly
Parallelism of the surfaces will be
the rings.
indicated by the distortion in
 244 A Text Book on Light
9.14 INFINITELY THIN FILM : Interference of light 245
Let us consider interference of light waves reflected Since tt' = 1-r'2 A' = a (the amplitude of
conclude that a very thin incident
transparent film transmitswave).
Thus we
and lower surfaces of a very thin plane parallel film
Fig. 9.14-1. If the as
from the incident light to the other side
whole of the
, a r t ta r
at d<< then the film indicated
geometricalthicknepata
difference (2nd cos r) between
9.15 NON-REFLECTING FILM:
Anart of the incident light is lost due to reflection at lens surfaces.
R,
consecutive reflected Albough the loss is small for a single surface, in amulti-lens system
Q,R, becomes rays QR and ibo loss is significant. Thus it is important to find ways of reducing
phase difference negligible
between
and tyy
them
or eliminating such losses. One way to
K which
arises due eaua eliminate reflection is to use a thin AR 1 R,
the front surface ofto reflection fron layer of transparent material on the
So QR and the denser film
QR, will produce lens surface. This is known as anti
S,
destructive interference. Since ther reflection coating. The material and
thickness of the film are to be so air
amplitudes are
no complete different there will i:i chosen that the two consecutive coating
a
n.
destruction. di
we consider the However, reflected rays Rand Q,R,, as shown
effect of other waves glass
produced by in Fig. 9.15-1, are out of phase and
reflections then multiple internal their amplitudes are equal. Under these
Fig. 9.14-1
we can show that
there will be complete destruction conditions the reflected waves undergo Fig. 9.15-1
The resultant amplitude of the waves reflected along ,R,, complete destructive interference. No
and so on wìll be equal to Q light is then reflected and if the film is transparent absorption in it
is negligible and whole of the incident light passes through the coating
A = ar' tt'(1 into the glass.
+r2+r+... upto ) at
According to the electromagnetic theory of light the reflectivity rand
the boundary between two media of refractive indices n, and n,
1-2 at normal incidence is given by
Now from Stoke's 2
-ar. So the overall treatment tt' =1-2 and r=-r. ...(9.15-1)
reflected
when the film is very amplitudetoincluding QR is ar Therelos
- aar= 0.
Thus. r=
dark when seen by thin compared perfectis along QR and Q,R,
and hence to
satisfy reflected light. The wavelength,
the principle
1t appears
film does not reflect any light So for equality of the amplitudes of the waves
we have
must be of all ight
Since transmitted conservation
of energy
d<<h the through the film.
2
..(9.15-2)
transmitted
sudden phasewaves maygeometrical
be path difference Consecutive
between suffer o
and neglected.
resultarnt amplitude of the hence they areThe alltransmitted
change Waves refractive index of the coating
in equal phase. Therefore Which, on simplification. shows that the
transmitted waves is
att'+utt' 2t att'
must be
...(9.15-3)
r4
sudden phase change of T
att(142 pt.....) and hence for destructive
and Q,R, suffer geometrical
iere both the ravs QR interference the path difference
for normal incidence the
equal to /2. Thus
utr
between them must be
of the coating is given by
minimum thickness 'd'
2n,d = /2
246
AText Book on Light
Interference of light 247

d= Theory:
or,
4n, explanation to the formation of the rings can be given in terms
refractive index as given by the An
will serve asEq.
coating of interference of light waves reflected from the convex lower surface
Thus a
of thickness as given by the Eq. (9.15-4) anti-
(9.15- of
lens and the flat upper surface of the glass plate. The lens is
coating. The material of the coating must be chosen as to
Most frequently used be -reflecti, of the
usually of large radius of curvature such that the thickness of the air
durable and scratch resistant.
magnesium fluoride and cryolite. The technique of the reducing mateirniasollsbja usuavery small. The experimental arrangement is so designed that
light falls
On the film almost normally. Under such circumstances the
of a surface is known as blooming. reflectiri
The anti-reflection coating using a single layer is effective f and NS,R, as shown in Fig.
two successive reflected waves
optical path difference between9.16-1, will be
S,R,

wavelength or over a narrow range of wavelengths. It is 2nd t /2 .(9.16-1)

produce anti-reflecting coating that are eficient Over a
widepossirange
ble d, where d= thickness of the film at N. Here we assume the film to
wavelengths by using multilayer coatings. he optically rarer than the media, above and below and consequently
due to reflection at
9.16 NEWTON'S RINGS : we are to consider the abrupt phase change of /2.
±
G. This is equivalent to a path difference of
Newton's rings are a particular example of interference frines Therefore, the waves interfere constructively, if
formed by thin films. By placing a
Ra plano-convex lens on a plane glas = even multiple of N2
plate a thin air film of progressivelh 2
increasing thickness from the poit Or, 2nd = odd multiple of N2
of contact O can be formed as showa = (2m+1)\/2 ...(9.16-2)
in Fig. 9.16-1. If it is illuminated by
N where m =0, 1, 2, 3...
GLASS PLATE G
a monochromatic light interference
fringes in the form of concentri For destructive interference,
circular rings are found.These rin_ 2nd t /2 = odd multiple of 2
Fig. 9.16-1
were first observed by Newton and
are known as Newton's rings. These Or, 2nd = even multiple of E2
fringes are the loci of ponsu = 2m.2 ...(9.16-3)
of points of equal
A fringe of a given order (m) will be along the loci
film thickness (d) and hence the fringes will
De circular. The radii of the rings can be found
Out fronm Fig. 9.16-2, If the point Q fulfils the
condition of brightness (or darkness) then all
ponts on the circumference of a circle of
radius Q,Q will be bright (or dark). Thus we
Shall get a bright (or dark) ring, of say mtn
order, whose radius is 2,=n: By geometry, Q,
m

=r2 + (R -d).
wnere R=radius of curvature of the convex Fig. 9.16-2

Newtons rings in reflected light

surface. .2 = 2Rd ...(9.16-4)
Since R>> d. we can wrlte m
Newtons rings in transmitted light write for the mth bright ring.
equal film Fig. 9.16-1(a) OSing the condition (9,16-2) we can
thichness.
Newton's rings "These rings are
are shown air film. 1
(2m +1)R
in Fig. localized
.2
in ...(9.16-5)
the 2n
9.16-1(a).
 248 A Text Book on Light Interference of light 249

Similarly for the mth dark ring, satisfied with m = 0. This indicates that the central fringe is
2m.R
situated the point of contact of the lens and the glass dark and
plate. It
is a dark spot.
Im appears as
2n

Thus we find that the radii of the bright rings are

. .9.16-4 Newton's rings with white light:
the square root of odd natural -numbers and that of
proportional to the square root of natural numbers.
proportionalringsta
the dark :th a white light the central spot will be black and it will be
surrounded by a few (8-10) coloured rings and beyond this there will
Corresponding diameters are given by be
general illumination due to overlapping of different coloured rings.
Determination of wavelength:
2(2m +1)R (Bright ring] Newton's ringS can be used for the measurement of the wavelength
D ..(9.16-) f monochromatic light. "The diameters of mth Newton's ring for an
(9.16-8) as
4màR air film (n = l) are given from Eqs. (9.16-7) and
D [Dark ring] ...(9.16-8) D = 2(2m +1)AR (Bright ringl
The difference in diameters of the mth and (m+1)th order datk D =4màR [Dark ring] .(9.16-10)
rings is
diameters of the mth and
Thus if D, and D,m+n are respectively thewavelength is given by
(m + p)th rings (bright or dark) then the
Dm+1 - Dm =
4RJm+l-Jm
n

Thus as the order number 'm' increases this difference decreases 4pR
D (9.16-11)

meaning that the rings gradually become narrower as their radi

So by measuring the diameters Dm: Dm an of Newton's rings and
increase. There will be more crowding of the rings as wè move outward counting the number p we can determine .
from the centre.
Experiment :
Fringe width: wavelength of
Experimental arrangement to measure the shown in Fig. 9.16-3.
If D, and D m+1 are the diameters of two successive bright rings then monochromatic light by Newton's ring apparatus is
we can write from Eq. (9.16-7), Light from the monochromatic source
42R S is made parallel by putting the M
D-Dm = SOurce at the focal plane of the convex
lens C. These parallel rays after being
42R reflected by a glass plate, P, kept
Or, Dm+1 -Dm inclined to the horizontal by an angle
n(Dn1 t Dn) OT 45°, fall normally on the air film
Writing Dm-) + D,, s 2D.) We get fringe width ß as, enclosed between the plano-convex lens
and the glass plate G. Newton'slow
rings are viewed vertically by a the
B= Dms1 - D,, AR ...(9.16-9)
power M placed above
n. D,
ring
microscope
glass plate P.
Thus fringe width B decreases as the dianmeter D, of the and one
increases. ny bright ring is selected
of the cross-wires of themicroscope is
G
Fiq. 9.16-3
Central fringe : made of this
tangential to one edge attached to the microscope
At the point of contact of the lens and the glass plate d= 0 ght ring ana tha reading of the vernier shifted until the same wire
laterally
Consequently, the condition (9.16-3) for destructive willbe S Roted, The mieroseone is then
interference
 extremity of the same Interference of light
Is tangential to the other
reading of the vernier attached to the bright ring,
microscope is Ngain For central fringe
m =0 and this is satisfied by the
Eq. (9.16-13)
251

difference of these two vernier readings gives the

di
another amet ernoten with d = 0. Thus the central spot is bright and is situated at the point
of the lens and the glass plate.
of this ring. Then again the diameter of
bright ofcontact
from the former bright ring by a known number p of ring, separ Comparing the conditions (9.16-13) and (9 16-14) with the
Similarly measured. Let this diarmeter be Dm +p' dark ring corresponding conditions 9. 16-2) and (9.16-3) with reflected light we
The radius of curvature Rof the lower surface of the Coonclude that the rings observed with transmitted light are exactly
lens L is measured by a spherometer or by Boy's
wavelength à of monochromatic light is then obtained from method.
(9.16-11). Usually the radius Ris first determined by
plano-etvA
the relatirz
omplementary to those seen with reflected light. However. the dark
rings with transmitted light are not completely dark and hence the
transmitted pattern is not so distinct as observed with reflected light.
(9.16-11) and alight of known wavelength, say sodiumusing the
light. foraua
Eor this Newton's are usually observed by reflected light.
this determined value of R, the wavelength (à) of any Then i w NEWTON'S RINGS UNDER DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS :
is determined by the relation (9.16-1l). unknown 9.17

(a) Lens separated from the plate by some distance:

Determination of refractive index of a liquid :
Newton's rings can also be used to measure the Let a ray PQ of a parallel beam of light of wavelength be incident
refractive indey le almost normally on the upper
of a liquid. At first the diameters of mth and surface of a wedge shaped film
rings are measured with air film. Then the (m +p)th bright or da
are measured again by forming a liquid diameters of these ring enclosed between the convex surface
glass plate. Introduction of the liquid film between the lens and the of a lens L, and a glass plate G.
If x be the distance between the
rings. decreases the diameters of the
upper plane face of the plate and
For air film. the tangent plane drawn at the
lowest point of the convex surface
Dp- Dair =4pR of the lens L, then thickness of the
air filmn at Q is given by Fig 9.17-1
For liquid film,
d'= d+x
4pàR
If the point Q is situated on the mth order bright ring then See
Dn-Din),Jliq Eq. (9.16-2)]
2nd' = 2n(d+x) = (2m +1)2 9.17-1)
Hence,
From Eg. (9.16-4), d = r 2R
n =
(D-Dn)..
m+pD 2 ...(9.16-12)
Therefore from Eq. (9.17-1),
n.r =(2m + l)A2 9.17-2

Newton's rings with mlig 2nx +

R

transmitted light: Similarly the radius r....of the (m tp th order bright rng is given
the Newton' s rings can also by
phase be observed with In this
to the difference between the transmitted light.only due 2
optical
rays suffer onlypath difference 2.n.d,transmitted waves be
will transmitted 2nx +L.mp - (2m 2p - )\2 (9.17-3)
This is so R
each
introducing refraction
a phase
or
refraction plus evenbecause
the reflections
Taking the difference of Eqs. (9.17-2) and (9.17-3) we get
for normal incidence.
change of n (See, Fig..9.16-1). of
numberConsequenty

2.n.d = 2m./2 for ...(9.16-13)

p. R
2.n.d
(2m+1)2/2 maximum
= ...(9.16-14)
for
minimum
 252 A Text Book on Light Interference of light 253
In terms of diameters, In
terms of diameters,
nD.p-D,) n(D -D)( 1 1
m+p

4p ...(9.17-8)
4p.R . .9.17-4) R R
This relation may be employed to determine A. Note that the above
This equation may be employed to find experimentally. relation is also true when dark rings are selected.
If the lens is slowly moved upward the rings will be found to
at the centre. By moving the lens up through a known distance
counting the number of rings that have converged to the centre it te
converge (c) Lens in
contact with a convex surface:
In Fig. 9.17-3 the convex surface (of radius R,) of the plano-convex
also possible to determine . contact with another convex surface (of radius R,) of the
lens L, is in
(b) Lens in contact with a concave surface : plano-convex lens Ly The point of contact of these two convex surfaces
Let aray PQ of a parallel beam of light of wavelength be incident t 0. A commnon tangent TOT, is drawn to the
0.
almost normally at Q on the upper face of the air film enclosed between two surfaces at
the lower convex surface of a plano-Convex lens A ray PQ of a parallel beam of light of a,
L, and the concave surface of plano-concave lens wavelength is incident almost normally at Q on T,
L, the
Lo. The two surfaces are in contact at the point the air film enclosed between two convex N

0. A common tangent 1 0T, is drawn to the two surfaces. If Q be situated on the mth bright ring Fig. 9.17-3
N, surfaces at the point of contact 0 (Fig. 9.17-2). then the radius r,, of this mth bright ring would
N,N.
If d be the thickness of the air film at Q then be, r. = Q,Q= ON,. The thickness of the air film at Qis, d= QN, +
Fig. 9.17-2
d= QN, -NN,. From the geometry of Fig. 9.17-2, From the geometry of the Fig. 9.17-3,
we get, QN, = ON?2R, and NN, = ON/2R,; where R, and R, are 2

respectively the radi of curvature of the convex surface of L, and the we get, QN, = 2R
concave surface of L. Hence the value of d is,

d = QN, - NN, = ON? 1 1 m 1

...(9.17-5) N,N m
2 R Ry 2R, R, and
2R,
If Q be situated on the mth bright ring then ON, =r, would be 1
the radius of the mth bright ring. Again if Qbe on the bright ring ds'm 1 ...(9.17-9)
of mth order then, Hence, 2 R, R,
2.n.d = (2m +1)N2 bright ring of mth order then,
Again if Q be the position of the
2nd = (2m +1)/2
-2 1
Or, n.r = (2m +1)/2 ...(9.17-6)
1 1 ) = (2m +1)/2 ...(9.17-10)
n.r +
Similarly the radius r..., of (m + p)th bright ring is given by R, R
is given by,
n.rz (1 1 Similarly the radius m+p of (m + p)th bright ring
(2m +2p +1)N2 ...(9.17-7)
Im+p'R, R) 1 1 |- (2m + 2p+1)/2 ...(9.17-1l)
Taking the difference of Egs. (9.17-6) and (9.17-7) we n.r
get
(9.17-10) and (9.17-11) we get,
m+p 1 1 Taking the difference of the Egs.
2=
p R,
 254 A Text Book on Light Interference of light 255
layers o f silver (antinodal layers). The distance between two silver
layers is /2,
2=
nm+p - m 1
If white light be now made incident on such a film, the light of
R, wavelength 2 will be reflected from the silver layers and will differ in
In terms of diameters of the rings. multiples of and hence will reinforce each other [the total
path by
path traversed by light in going from one antinodal layer to another
and coming back by reflection is 2 + 2= J. Thus we get reflected
n(Dp-D)( 1 1
à
lightof wavelength only, while light of other wavelengths are absorbed.
R Rg ...9.17-12) Lippmann instituted colour photography on the above principle. He
photographic plate in the camera with the glass side towards
9.18 WIENER'S EXPERIMENT: placed a while the film side was backed by a layer of mercury.
the objective parallel layers
In 1890 Wiener demonstrated that when light is reflected from hen the plate was eXposed, developed and fixed, thin colour of
surface the incident and reflected waves combine to form a stationan # silver (antinodal layers) will be formed. Each spectral and will
layers
wave pattern. In his experiment Wiener took he obiect will produce its own system of antinodal
an extremely thin film of photographic of original colour when
consequently produce an exact reproductionnormally.
emulsion kept inclined at a small angle with white light is made incident on the plate
a perfectly reflecting surface. When the film
was exposed to light and developed the film SOLVED PROBLEMS
was found to be crossed by a series of is
the separation between the slits 1m
Reflecting
surfaceequidistant black layers (a) of silver (antinodal 1. In Young's double slit experiment distance of
and fringe spacing is 0.5 mmn on a screen kept at a
planes) sepatated by layers of gelatine (nodal 1.2 mm of the light.
planes, n). Along the line of contact of the from the slits. Find the wavelength
film with the reflecting surface no blacking D B.d
results. Hence the reflector is a nodal plane. Ans. Fringe width B d= ;o, = D
According to the electromagnetic theroy
the electric vector suffers a phase change 0.5x 103 x 1.2 x 103 m
of n on reflection and the incident and
reflected wave interfere destructively and = 600 nm
produce a node at the reflector. On the other of the intensities at
experiment calculate the ratio of the light
hand, magnetic vectors produce antinode at In a Lloyd's mirrorand minima if the mirror reflects only 75%% (C.U. 1991)
maxima
the reflector. ne interference coefficient
incident upon it. Amplitude reflection
Wiener's experiment, therefore, indicates Ans. Reflectivity R= 75/100 =3/4.
beam then the amplitude
that the photographic action is due to the be the amplitude
of the direct
Fig. 9.18-1
electric vector and not the magnetic vector r=R==V3/2. So if i a,
a,r= aV3/2
present in the electromagnetic wave. In fact electric yector is responsibl of the reflected beam would be a F
for all optical phenomenon and we call it a light vector. 2

9.19 LIPPMANN'S COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY: (l+r)_l+V3/2 = 194

-V3/2
Suppose a parallel beam of light of wavelength à falls normally o Imax= (1-r 1
the glass side of a photographic plate whose film side is kept aga (a - a,)' of waves
from two
incoherent sources
superposition intensities.
a plane mirror. Due to the superposition of direct waves and reflecte 3. Show that in case of individual
waves from the mirror, stationary waves will be produced forming o the sum of
the resultant intensity is
and antinodal planes. As the film will not at all be affected at the nou
planes, on development of the film we get a number of transpa parallel
parallel layers of gelatine (nodal layers) sparated by thin