CHAPTER 2
NODAL AND MESH ANALYSIS
Learning Objectives:
1. Calculate the solution of circuits containing linear resistors and independent and
dependent sources using nodal analysis.
2. Calculate the solution of circuits containing linear resistors and independent and
dependent sources using mesh analysis.
Introduction
Having a thorough understanding of the Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws, the
fundamental laws of circuit theory, the next step is to apply these fundamental laws in
electric circuit analysis using the nodal and mesh analysis techniques. Nodal analysis is
a technique based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), and
mesh analysis which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL).
With these two techniques, it is used to analyze almost any circuit by obtaining a
set of simultaneous equations to obtain the required values of node voltages and mesh
current using Cramer’s rule.
A. Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node
voltages as the circuit variables. In nodal analysis, the node voltages are the circuit
variables instead of element voltages.
The following steps are applied in finding node voltages in a circuit with N nodes
without voltage sources.
Steps in Determining Node Voltages
1. Determine the number of nodes in a network.
2. Pick a reference node. Assign voltages labeled v1, v2 , ... , vn1 to the
remaining N 1 nodes.
3. Assign an arbitrary direction of current in every resistances.
4. Apply KCL to each of the nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node
voltages.
The reference node is commonly called as a ground and it is assumed to
have zero potential. A reference node is indicated by any of the symbol in figure
2.1, namely the earth and chassis ground.
Figure 2.1 Symbol of ground (a.) earth, (b.) chassis
An N node circuit will need N 1 voltages and N 1 equations. Each
equation is a simple KCL equation.
The current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
Consider the circuit in figure 2.2, write the equations that can solved for
the node voltages.
Figure 2.2
KCL at node 1:
v1 v2 v1 v3
ia 0
R2 R1
v1 v2 v1 v3
ia
R2 R1
v1 v1 v2 v3
ia
R2 R1 R2 R1
1 1 v2 v3
v1 ia 2.1
1
R R2 R2 R1
KCL at node 2:
v1 v2 v2 v3 v2
0
R2 R4 R3
v1 v2 v2 v2 v3
0
R2 R2 R4 R3 R4
v1 1 1 1 v
v2 3 0 2.2
R2 R2 R4 R3 R4
KCL at node 3:
v1 v3 v2 v3 v3
ib 0
R1 R4 R5
v1 v3 v2 v3 v3
ib
R1 R1 R4 R4 R5
v1 v2 v3 v3 v3
ib
R1 R4 R1 R4 R5
v1 v2 1 1 1
v3 ib 2.3
R1 R4 R1 R4 R5
1
But G
R
Then
G1 G2 v1 G2v2 G1v3 ia 2.4
G2 v1 G2 G3 G4 v2 G4 v3 0 2.5
G1v1 G4 v2 G1 G4 G5 v3 ib 2.6
Circuit Equations in Standard Form
In general, if a circuit with independent current sources has N
nonreference nodes, the node voltage equation can be written in terms of
the conductances as
G11v1 G12v2 ... G1N vN i1 2.7
G21v1 G22v2 ... G2 N vN = i2 2.8
.......................
.......................
.......................
GN 1v1 GN 2v2 ... GNN vN iN 2.9
where:
Gkk sum of the conductances connected to node k
= self conductances
= positive
Gkj , G jk sum of the conductances directly connecting nodes k & j, k j
= mutual conductances
= negative
vk unknown voltage at node k
ik sum of all independent current sources directly connected to
node k, with currents entering the node treated as positive
In matrix form:
GV I
G11 G12 ... G1N v1 i1
G
21 G 22 ... G 2 N v2 i2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G31 G 32 ... G NN vN iN
As the number of nodes and node voltages increases, the dimension of
the matrices also increases.
Sample Problem:
1. Solve for the node voltages v1 and v2 of the circuit in figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3
Solution:
Assigning arbitrary current direction
KCL at node 1
v1 v1 v2
5
2 4
1 1 1
5 v1 v2
2 4 4
3 1
5 v1 v2 1
4 4
KCL at node 2
v1 v2 v
10 5 2
4 6
v v v
10 5 1 2 2
4 6
1 1 1
5 v1 v2
4 4 6
1 5
5 v1 v2 2
4 12
By Cramer’s rule:
1
5
4
5
5
v1 12
3 1
4 4
1 5
4 12
5 1
5 5
12 4
3 5 1 1
4 12 4 4
25 5
12 4
15 1
48 16
40
12
12
48
40 48
12 12
v1 13.33 V
3
5
4
1
5
v2 4
3 1
4 4
1 5
4 12
3 1
5 5
4 4
12
48
15 5
4 4
12
48
20
4
12
48
20 48
4 12
v2 20 V
2. Solve for the node voltages v1 , v2 and v3 of the circuit in figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4
Solution:
Assigning arbitrary current directions
KCL at node 1
v1 v2 v1 v3
3
2 4
3 1 1
3 v1 v2 v3 1
4 2 4
KCL at node 2
v1 v2 v2 v2 v3
2 4 8
1 7 1
0 v1 v2 v3 2
2 8 8
KCL at node 3
v1 v3 v2 v3
2ix
4 8
v v
but ix 1 2
2
v v v v v v
2 1 2 1 3 2 3
2 4 8
3 9 3
0 v1 v2 v3 3
4 8 8
By Cramer’s rule
1 1
3
2 4
7 1
0
8 8
9 3
0
8 8
v1
3 1 1
4 2 4
1 7 1
2 8 8
3 9 3
4 8 8
63 27
0 0 0 0
64 64
63 3 9 21 27 3
256 64 64 128 256 32
63 27
64 64
39 9
256 256
36
64
30
256
36 256
64 30
9216
1920
v1 4.8 V
3 1
3
4 4
1 1
0
2 8
3 3
0
4 8
v2
3 1 1
4 2 4
1 7 1
2 8 8
3 9 3
4 8 8
9 9
0 0 0 0
32 16
30
256
9 9
32 16
30
256
9
32
30
256
9 256
32 30
2304
960
v2 2.4 V
3 1
3
4 2
1 7
0
2 8
3 9
0
4 8
v3
3 1 1
4 2 4
1 7 1
2 8 8
3 9 3
4 8 8
27 63
00 0 0
16 32
30
256
27 63
16 32
30
256
9
32
30
256
9 256
32 30
2304
960
v3 2.4 V
Nodal analysis with Voltage Sources
If the voltage source (independent or dependent) is connected between
two nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized
node or supernode.
A supernode may be regarded as a closed surface enclosing the voltage
source and its two nodes.
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (independent or
dependent) connected between two nonreference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it.
The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constant equation
needed to solve for the node voltages.
A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
Sample Problems:
1. Solve for the node voltages v1 , v2 and v3 of the circuit in figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5
Solution:
Assigning arbitrary current direction
At node 1
v1 10 V 1
At Supernode 2 and 3
v2 v3 5 2
KCL at supernode 2 and 3
v1 v2 v2 v1 v3 v3
0
2 8 4 6
3 5 5
v1 v2 v3 0 3
4 8 12
Substitute the value of v1 to equation 3
3 5 5
10 v2 v3 0
4 8 12
5 5 15
v2 v3 4
8 12 2
Substitute equation 2 to equation 4
5 5 15
v2 v2 5
8 12 2
25 25 15
v2
24 12 2
25 15 25
v2
24 2 12
25 115
v2
24 12
v2 9.2 V
5 5 15
9.2 v3
8 12 2
5 14
v3
12 8
v3 4.2 V
2. Solve for the node voltages v1 , v2 , v3 , v 4 and vX of the circuit in figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6
Solution:
Assigning arbitrary current directions
At supernode 1 and 2
v1 v2 5 1
At supernode 3 and 4
v3 v4 3v X
but v X v1 v4
v3 v4 3 v1 v4
3v1 v3 2v4 0 2
KCL at supernode 1 and 2
v1 v1 v4 v2 v3
10
2 3 6
5 1 1 1
10 v1 v2 v3 v4 3
6 6 6 3
KCL at supernode 3 and 4
v2 v3 v1 v4 v3
v4
6 3 4
1 1 5 4
v1 v2 v3 v4 0 4
3 6 12 3
Substitute equation 1 to equations 3, and 4
5 1 1 1
v1 v1 5 v3 v4 10
6 6 6 3
5 1 5 1 1
v1 v1 v3 v4 10
6 6 6 6 3
1 1 65
v1 v3 v4
6 3 6
1 1 65
v1 v3 v4 5
6 3 6
1 1 5 4
v1 v1 5 v3 v4 0
3 6 12 3
1 5 4 5
v1 v3 v4 6
2 12 3 6
By Cramer’s rule using equations 2, 5, and 6
0 1 2
65 1 1
6 6 3
5 5 4
v1 6 12 3
3 1 2
1 1
1
6 3
1 5 4
2 12 3
5 650 10 260
0 0
18 72 36 18
4 1 10 1 5 4
6 6 12 6 12 3
670 530
72 36
20 23
12 12
390
72
3
12
v1 21.667 V
Substitute value of v1 to equation 1
v2 v1 5
21.67 5
v2 16.667 V
3 0 2
65 1
1
6 3
1 5 4
v3 2 6 3
3 1 2
1 1
1
6 3
1 5 4
2 12 3
130 5 65 5
0 0
3 3 6 6
3
12
135 70
3 6
1
4
200
6
1
4
v3 133.333 V
Substitute the value of v1 and v3 to equation 2
3v1 v3 2v4 0
2v4 3v1 v3
2v4 3 21.667 133.333
2v4 68.332
v4 34.17
Review Questions:
1. The number of node equations needed for any circuit is exactly equal to ____.
(a.) the number of nodes (c.) the number of nodes minus one
(b.) the number of nodes plus one (d.) none of the above
2. In nodal analysis, if a voltage source is connected between two non-referenced
nodes, the two non-referenced nodes formed a generalized node or _______.
(a.) supermesh (b.) supernode (c.) node voltage (d.) none of the above
3. The nodal analysis is based on
(a.) Ohm’s law (b.) Superposition (c.) KVL (d.) KCL
4. It is a general procedure for analyzing electric circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.
(a.) nodal analysis (b.) mesh analysis (c.) loop analysis (d.) none of the above
5. The reference node is commonly called as a ground and it is assumed to have
________ potential.
(a.) zero (b.) positive (c.) negative (d.) none of the above
Problems:
1. Using nodal analysis, find i0 in the circuit of figure 2.7. ( ANSWER: -4 A )
2. Using nodal analysis, find v0 in the circuit of figure 2.8. (ANSWER: 2.778 V)
figure 2.7 Figure 2.8
B. Mesh Analysis
The term mesh is derived from the similarities in appearance between the
closed loops of a network and a wire mesh fence. A mesh is a loop which
does not contain any loop within it.
Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits,
using mesh currents as the circuit variables. Mesh analysis applies
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) to find the unknown currents. Mesh
analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is only
applicable to a circuit that is planar.
A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches
crossing one border; otherwise it is nonplanar. A circuit may have
crossing branches and still be planar if it can be redrawn such that it has
no crossing branches. Networks that can be drawn on a plane without
having one element (or conductor) crossing over another are called
planar networks. Figure 2.9a and figure 2.10 is an example of a planar
network and figure 2.9b is a nonplanar network.
A mesh current is the current that exist only in the perimeter of a mesh.
Figure 2.9 (a.) planar network, (b.) nonplanar network with a crossover
For a systematic approach, the following steps are applied in finding mesh
currents without current sources.
Steps in Determining Mesh Currents
1. Determine the number of meshes in a network.
2. Assign mesh currents i1 , i2 , ..., iN in the clockwise direction to the N
meshes.
3. Assign an arbitrary voltage drop polarities within each loop as determined by
the assumed mesh current in each resistances in that loop.
4. Apply KVL around each closed loop. Use Ohm’s Law to express the voltages
in terms of the mesh currents.
5. Solve the resulting N simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
To illustrate the steps suggested above for a systematic approach in solving
mesh current, consider the circuit in figure 2.10. The first step is to determine the
number of meshes. The second step requires that mesh currents i1 , i2 and i3 in
clockwise direction are assigned in meshes 1, 2 and 3. The third step is to assign an
arbitrary voltage drop polarities within each loop as determined by the assumed mesh
current in each resistances in that loop as shown in figure 2.11.
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
The fourth step, apply KVL to each mesh:
KVL at mesh 1
v1 i1 R1 i1 i2 R2 0
R1 R2 i1 R2i2 v1 2.10
KVL at mesh 2
i1 i2 R2 i2 R3 i2 i3 R4 0
R2 i1 R2 R3 R4 i2 R4i3 0 2.11
KVL at mesh 3
i2 i3 R4 i3 R5 v2 0
R4 i2 R4 R5 i3 v2 2.12
The fifth step is to solve for the mesh currents. Putting equations (2.10),
(2.11), and (2.12) in matrix form yields
R1 R2 R2 0 i1 v1
R2 R2 R3 R4 R4 i2 0
0 R4 R4 R5 i3 v2
Circuit Equations in Standard Form
In general, if the circuit has N meshes, the mesh current
equations can be expressed in terms of the resistances as
R11i1 R12 i2 ... R1N iN v1 2.13
R21i1 R22 i2 ... R2 N iN v2 2.14
......................
......................
......................
RN 1i1 RN 2 i2 ... RNN iN vN 2.15
where:
Rkk sum of the resistances in mesh k
= self resistances
= positive
Rkj , R jk sum of the resistances in common with meshes k & j, k j
= mutual resistances
= negative
ik unknown mesh current for mesh k in clockwise direction
vk sum taken clockwise of all independent voltage sources in
mesh k, with voltage rise treated as positive
In matrix form:
V IR
R11 R 12 ... R 1N i1 v1
R R ... R i v
21 22 2 N 2 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RN 1 R N 2 ... R NN iN vN
As the number of mesh increases, the dimension of the matrices also increases.
Solved Problems:
1. For the circuit shown in figure 2.12, find the branch currents i1 , i2 and i3 using
mesh analysis.
Figure 2.12
Solution:
Assigning mesh currents and voltage polarities
KVL at mesh a:
30 10ia 20 ia ib 20 0
30ia 20ib 10 (1)
KVL at mesh b:
20 20 ia ib 12ib 8ib 0
20ia 40ib 20 (2)
Finding ia and ib using Cramer’s rule
10 20 30 10
20 40 20 20
ia ib
30 20 30 20
20 40 20 40
400 400 600 200
1200 400 1200 400
800 800
800 800
ia 1 A ib 1 A
Finding i1 , i2 and i3
i1 ia 1 A
i3 ib 1 A
i2 ia ib
i2 1 1
i2 0
2. For the circuit shown in figure 2.13, find the branch currents i1 , i2 , and i0 using
mesh analysis.
Figure 2.13
Solution:
Assigning mesh currents and voltage polarities
KVL at mesh a
24 10 ia ib 12 ia ic 0
22ia 10ib 12ic 24 (1)
KVL at mesh b
10 ia ib 24ib 4 ic ib 0
10ia 38ib 4ic 0 (2)
KVL at mesh c
12 ia ic 4 ic ib 4i0 0
but i0 ia ib
12 ia ic 4 ic ib 4 ia ib 0
8ia 8ib 16ic 0 (3)
By Cramer’s rule
24 10 12
0 38 4
0 8 16
ia
22 10 12
10 38 4
8 8 16
14,592 0 0 0 768 0
ia
13,376 320 960 3,648 704 1,600
14,592 768
12,096 5,952
13,824
6,144
ia 2.25 A
22 24 12
10 0 4
8 0 16
ib
6,144
0 768 0 0 0 3,840
6,144
768 3,840
6,144
4,608
6,144
ib 0.75 A
22 10 24
10 38 0
8 8 0
ic
6,144
0 0 1,920 7,296 0 0
6,144
1,920 7,296
6,144
9,216
6,144
ic 1.5 A
i1 ia 2.25 A
i2 ib 0.75 A
i0 i1 i2 2.25 0.75 1.5 A
Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Using mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependent or
independent) may appear to be complicated but it is actually much easier
because the presence of the current source reduces the number of equations
needed to solve the unknown quantities.
A better technique in solving such circuit is similar to the supernode
approach in nodal analysis that we formed a supernode enclosing the voltage
source inside the supernode. In mesh analysis with current source, we formed a
supermesh from two meshes that have a current source and the current source
is in the interior of the supermesh.
A supermesh results when two meshes have a dependent or
independent current source in common.
Properties of a Supermesh:
1. The current source in the supermesh is not completely ignored; it provides
the constraint equation necessary to solve for the mesh current.
2. A supermesh has no current of its own.
3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL
Solved Problems:
1. For the circuit shown in figure 2.14, determine the currents i1 , i2 , and i3 using mesh
analysis.
Figure 2.14
Solution:
Assigning voltage polarities
At supermesh 1 and 2
i1 i2 3 (1)
KVL at supermesh 1 and 2
10 1 i1 i3 3 i2 i3 i2 0
i1 4i2 4i3 10 (2)
KVL at mesh 3
1 i1 i3 2i3 3 i2 i3 0
i1 3i2 6i3 0 (3)
In matrix form
1 1 0 i1 3
1 4 4 i 10
2
1 3 6 i3 0
By Cramer’s rule
3 1 0
10 4 4
0 3 6
i1
1 1 0
1 4 4
1 3 6
72 0 0 0 36 60
24 4 0 0 12 6
72 24
20 6
96
14
i1 6.857 A
1 3 0
1 10 4
1 0 6
i2
14
60 12 0 0 0 18
14
72 18
14
i2 3.857 A
1 1 3
1 4 10
1 3 0
i3
14
0 10 9 12 30 0
14
1 42
14
i3 3.071 A
2. Determine v in the circuit of figure 2.15.
Figure 2.15
Assigning mesh currents and voltage polarities
At supermesh 2 and 3
i3 i2 15i
but i i1 then
15i1 i2 i3 0 (1)
KVL at supermesh 2 and 3
20 i1 i2 30 40i3 30 i1 i3 0
50i1 20i2 70i3 30 (2)
KVL at mesh 1
80 10i1 20 i1 i2 30 i1 i3 0
60i1 20i2 30i3 80 (3)
In matrix form
15 1 1 i1 0
50 20 70 i2 30
60 20 30 i3 80
By Cramer’s rule:
15 1 0
50 20 30
60 20 80
i3
15 1 1
50 20 70
60 20 30
24,000 1,800 0 0 9,000 4,000
9,000 4,200 1,000 1,200 21,000 1,500
25,800 13,000
5,800 20,700
38,800
14,900
i3 2.604 A
v 40i3
40 2.604
v 104.16 V
Review Questions:
1. The mesh analysis is based on
(a.) KCL (b.) Superposition (c.) KVL (d.) Ohm’s law
2. In mesh analysis, the two meshes that have a dependent or independent current
source in common is known as
(a.) supermesh (b.) supernode (c.) mesh current (d.) none of the above
3. It is a general procedure for analyzing electric circuits using mesh currents as the
circuit variables.
(a.) nodal analysis (b.) loop analysis (c.) mesh analysis (d.) none of the above
4. Mesh analysis is only applicable to a ___________ circuits.
(a.) nonplanar (b.) planar (c.) a and b (d.) none of the above
5. The number of mesh equations will be determined by the number of __________.
(a.) node (b.) branch (c.) loop (d.) mesh
Problems:
1. Using mesh analysis, find i0 of the circuit in figure 2.16. (ANSWER: -1.733 A)
Figure 2.16
2. Find i0 of the given circuit using mesh analysis in figure 2.17. (ANSWER: 10.67 A)
Figure 2.17
CHAPTER PROBLEMS
References:
1. Alexander, C.K., Sadiku, M.N.O (2003). FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS. McGraw-Hill, Singapore.
2. Hambley, Allan R. (2011). ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES AND
APPLICATION. Prentice Hall Pearson Education, New Jersey, USA.
3. Hayt, W. Jr. H., Kemmerly, J.E. Durbin, S.M. (2012). ENGINEERING
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS, MCGRAW-Hill, New York. USA.
4. Nilsson, J.W., Riedel, S.A. (2011). ELECTRIC CIRCUITS, Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, USA.
5. Rizzoni, G. (2006). PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING, 5th Edition, New York, USA
