Chapter 15

Resource Conservation
Technologies
Allah Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar*

Abstract
The world population is likely to increase to 9 billion in 2050. This will require
increasing global food production to almost 100% by 2050 to meet the food security
needs of an increasing population. To meet the demand for more food supplies,
conservation of land and water resources is indispensable. Worldwide, land and
water resources are not only shrinking but also degrading fast and therefore, are
expected to put additional stresses on both natural resources. Whereas, annual water
availability per capita in developing countries like Pakistan has already declined from
5600 m3 in 1950s to less than 1000 m3 in 2014. This situation has placed Pakistan in
the list of water deficit countries, adversely affecting its economic growth and
wellbeing of the citizens mainly due to water shortage for industry and agriculture.
Adequate water availability is a pre-requisite for ensuring food security because on
the average, it has an annual rainfall of 240 mm against average annual
evapotranspiration of about 2000 mm. Moreover, the country receives about 70% of
its annual rainfall during the monsoon season of 70-90 days, whereas water is
required throughout the year for growing crops. To cope with increasing food and
water requirements of the growing population in the country, there is a crucial need
of conservation of land and water resources. This chapter highlights the basic
principles of resource conservation technologies including watercourse
improvement, laser land leveling, zero tillage, improved irrigation methods,
terracing, salinity, skimming well technology, rainwater harvesting and groundwater

*
Allah Bakhsh
Department of Irrigation and Drainage, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
For correspondance: bakhsh_uaf@[Link]

R. S. Kanwar
Agricultural and Bio Systems Engineering Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Allah Bakhsh and Muhammad Rafiq Choudhry
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

329
330 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

management. Examples of conserving land and water resources have also been
presented. After reading this chapter, the professionals, students and other
stakeholders will understand the need and importance of conserving the land and
water resources using modern technologies to achieve potential food production.
Keywords: Food Security, Resource Conservation, Watercourse Improvement,
Laser Land Leveling, Rainwater Harvesting, Zero Tillage, Skimming Well

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, readers will be able to learn:
• On-farm resource conservation technologies and their use/prospects
• Water conservation techniques and water harvesting technologies
• Groundwater management and its recharge methods
• Land conservation practices
• Role of Resource Conservation Technologies in Productivity Enhancement

15.1 Introduction
The survival of life on this planet depends on the availability of quality natural
resources such as land, water and air, which are degrading and relatively shrinking
with the passage of time because of their over-exploitation and contamination
opportunities because of human activities. Conservation of natural resources will not
only assure the availability of these resources for future generations, but also will
bring a change in our current thinking that the best practices on sustainable use of
water and land resources are the only way for preserving our present and future
civilization on this planet. Therefore, there is an urgent need to adopt resource
conservation technologies (RCTs) in all watersheds of the world so that optimum
crop yields can be obtained for ensuring global food security against increasing
population, preserving biodiversity and further improving soil and water quality.
In simple words, the concept of RCTs aims at saving the natural resources to prevent
their degradation and loss as well as getting optimum benefits from the resources in
such a way that their productivity is not hampered with time rather it is improved for
promoting sustainability of the entire eco-system.
One of the best conservation technologies of the 20th century for soil and water
conservation has been the use of “conservation tillage system” in agricultural
watersheds. Generally, RCTs include several techniques to conserve land and water
resources such as contour farming, terracing, no-tillage and chisel plough systems,
grass waterways, watercourse improvement and improved drainage systems, laser
land leveling, furrow and drip irrigation systems, bed planting, residue management
and farm water storage etc. focused at managing water and land resources for
promoting their sustainability. Under the umbrella of RCTs, it is desired to promote
such practices, which can minimize wastage or less productive use of these resources.
Resource Conservation Technologies 331

Conservation of water starts from precipitation, which means that all forms of water
falling from the atmosphere on the earth originate from precipitation. When water
falls on the ground, there are many phases, which may induce losses of water that
can be in the form of evaporation, runoff or deep percolation. All these losses are site
specific, i.e., depending on local conditions in the watersheds and how well the land
surface is managed by farmers, ranchers, foresters, or urban users. This chapter
mainly focuses on conservation of land and water resources in agricultural
watersheds, primarily at the farmers’ fields. When water travels to the farmer’s fields,
it can be lost during its conveyance and application phases. For improving
conveyance efficiency, water can be conveyed through such pathways, which can
reduce water losses such as an improved watercourse. Similarly, water application
losses in the fields can be managed by controlling water application time and
distribution, while ensuring its uniform and desired application of water over the
entire field.

15.2 Resource Conservation Technologies in

Agriculture
Land and water are the two major natural resources that contribute to the potential
crop productivity in agriculture. Both the resources are subjected to loss during the
crop growing activities unless measures are taken to conserve and make them
appropriately available for crop production. The techniques to conserve these
resources are discussed below.
15.2.1 Water Conservation
Water conservation encompasses all those practices, which can increase the
productive use of water while promoting its sustainability for the future. The
followings are some of the water conservation practices, which can be adopt at the
field level for improving crop productivity.
[Link] Watercourse Improvement
Watercourse improvement comprises construction of on-farm water channels at
predefined waterway and properly designed to convey the sanctioned water from the
outlet to tail end of the field and deliver to the shareholders at permissible points. It
may be either earthen improvement or the lining of the channel. Renovation or
maintenance consists of removing undesirable weeds and silt from the watercourses
to conform to the original design standards so that water can be conveyed with
minimum losses. Such improvements can be achieved either through profile and
topographic surveys and by giving appropriate alignment in accordance with the
right-of-way and design specifications or lining with bricks and mortar, or using
plastic sheets on the sides and bed of watercourses. After improving conveyance
efficiency, the water application efficiency can be improved through measured
application and uniform distribution of water in the fields. Watercourse renovation
can improve irrigation efficiency from 15 to 25%, depending on the field and farm
conditions. For this, land leveling can be a pre-requisite depending on the field
conditions.
332 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

[Link] Laser Land Leveling

Conventional methods of land leveling such as using an engineer’s level and staff
rod, are time consuming, laborious, inefficient, and expensive. Therefore, the
Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab introduced Laser Land Leveling
technology to the farmers for leveling their fields precisely. Laser land leveling is a
process of smoothing the land surface with criteria of maximum permissible
deviation of ± 2 cm from its average elevation using laser-equipped drag buckets.
Laser land leveling offers opportunities to level the fields at zero slope so that
irrigation water can be distributed uniformly among the head, middle and tail
portions of the fields. Large horsepower tractors and soil movers which are utilized
for laser land leveling are equipped with GPS and laser-guided instruments. To create
the desired slope/level, soil can be moved by cutting high spots and filling low spots
as shown in Fig. 15.1.

Fig. 15.1 Laser land leveling at WMRC, UAF, experimental area.

Source: Water Management Research Center, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

Field studies show that about 20-25% Irrigation water may be lost during its
application on the farm because of lack of proper farm layout and unevenness of the
fields. This problem is more pronounced in the case of Rice fields. Uneven fields
have uneven crop stands, increased weed burden, and uneven maturing of crops. All
these factors lead to reduced crop yield and poor grain quality. Using this technique,
higher levels of accuracy, water saving and higher crop yields can be obtained. Thus,
Laser Land Leveling proves to be one of the effective Water Conservation
Techniques.
An unleveled field would face the following problems:
Traditionally, irrigation application is carried out by the farmers till the high
spots are covered, which results in over irrigation, wastage of water and
potential water logging at low spots in the field.
Raised portions of land will get less water and will attract salinity, while the
lower areas will be inundated. In both cases, the crop may lose yield.
Resource Conservation Technologies 333

In unleveled fields, the soil moisture content will vary spatially in the field.
This non uniform distribution of soil moisture will negatively affect the
germination of seeds.
Unleveled fields may require subdivision into smaller portions to minimize
the above mentioned problems, which may further obstruct the use of farm
implements.
1. Undulated fields have different soil moisture contents at different places in
the field and hence fertilizer will not be utilized efficiently.

Thus, it is established through field observations that in case of surface irrigation

systems, the field should be leveled and the undulations should be minimized within
and between fields.
The Laser Land Leveling as a conservation technique, tends to multiply the
benefits in agricultural production. All ill effects of unleveled fields are overcome by
laser land leveling, which directly add to the benefits. Thus, directly or indirectly, the
following benefits can also be achieved by laser land leveling of irrigated fields.
Water is uniformly distributed in the field and hence improves irrigation
efficiency.
About 30% water is saved in laser leveled field, therefore, more area can be
irrigated with this saved water (Jat et al., 2009).
The Leveled field will have more uniform germination and hence will
produce 20% more yield (Jat et al., 2006).
Fertilizer will be uniformly distributed, and hence its utilization and
efficiency will be improved.
Erosion hazards would be minimized.
It improves the machine usage efficiency.
Land leveling at the farm tends to minimize unwanted watercourses and
hence the area under crop may increase.
Saving of irrigation water as a result of land leveling leads to a less tube
well operation that would result in saving of electricity / energy charges and
would improve groundwater quality.

To grade a field, laser land leveling is considered the best and viable technology.
There are two main parts of the Laser Land Leveling System. The first one is a laser-
transmitting unit that emits an infrared beam of light that can travel up to 700 m in a
perfectly straight line and the second one is a receiver that senses the infrared beam
of light and converts it into an electrical signal. A control box is used to emit
electrical signal to activate a hydraulic valve. This hydraulic valve raises and lowers.
The blade of a grader is raised and lowered by this hydraulic valve which is being
followed by the infrared beam. Laser leveling of a field is accomplished with a dual
slope laser that automatically controls the blade of the land leveler to precisely grade
the surface to eliminate all undulations tending to hold water. Laser transmitters
create a reference plane over the work area by rotating the laser beam 360°. The
receiving system detects the beam and automatically guides the machine to maintain
proper grade. The field can be leveled or sloped in two directions. This whole
334 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

procedure is accomplished automatically without the operator touching the hydraulic

controls.
[Link] Zero Tillage
No-tillage or zero tillage is a type of farming practice for which field is not plowed
and crop residues are left in the field after harvesting. The sowing of next crop is
carried out directly with no-till planters (Zero Tillage Machines). For example, in
Rice-Wheat Rotation, wheat is planted with Zero Tillage Drill directly on a rice
harvested field without using any tillage machine. Such practices have been found to
be very useful to reduce soil erosion either it is in the form of wind or water,
especially on the sloppy terrains. Zero-tillage reduces soil erosion because of having
roots of the previous crop in the soil and having crop residue on the land surface to
minimize the impact of intense rains. It increases organic matter, promotes microbial
activity in the soil while conserving the soil moisture and improving soil health in
addition to saving fuel cost required for plowing the lands. Zero-tillage, however,
may need some other cultural practices for control of weeds (such as crop rotations
and integrated pest management) but it is being practiced widely on the lands, which
are more prone to erosion.

Fig. 15.2 Rabi Planter (Raised Bed Technology)

Source: Water Management Research Center, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

15.2.4 Raised Bed Planting Technology

Growing of corps on raised beds is one of the improved irrigation methods being
practiced all over the world with several benefits. For instance, yield of crops on the
bed is improved through better nutrient management, effective aeration around the
roots, efficient irrigation and reduced risk of lodging (Syre and Moreno Ramos,
1997). Bed planting has also shown improved water distribution, water use
efficiency, fertilizer use efficiency, reduced weed infestation and lodging (Hobbs et
al., 2000). This technique also reduces the seed rate without compromising on crop
yields as compared to flat sowing. Improvement of root development in bed planting
also ensures better crop stand and yields (Peries et al., 2001).
Resource Conservation Technologies 335

Above all, the bed planting promises a considerable amount of water saving from 35
to 45% as compared to the conventional sowing method, eliminating the formation
of crust on the soil surface. (Fahong et al., 2003). Advantages of planting crops on
beds become more pronounced when beds are kept “permanent” and are not
demolished after the season, rather reshaping for the next crop after wheat. The next
crops on the permanent beds have shown better yield and water saving ranging from
20 to 40% compared to those on flat sowing (Cornor et al., 2003).
Since it has been established that bed planting is an important water saving irrigation
technique, it has gained momentum in adoption, particularly for row crops such as
maize and cotton in the country. The unavailability of a suitable bed planter to grow
major crops on the beds, however, was the major limitation with unknown sizes of
the furrows and beds on different soils. The Water Management Research Centre
(WMRC) at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, has been conducting studies
on wheat cultivation using different sizes of furrow-bed methods of irrigation since
2002-03. As a result, WMRC has developed a Four Rows Wheat Beds Planting
Machine which makes two beds and three furrows along with sowing in a single
operation as shown in Fig 15.2. After testing the machine at the experimental area of
WMRC for various crops, the machine’s performance has also been tested in
farmer’s fields under “University Technology Transfer Program”. The machine has
been equipped with three adjustable furrow openers. These openers have the
provision to change both the depth and a top width of each furrow, separately, using
nut-bolt adjustment mechanism. The provision of this adjustment allows the user to
obtain the required size of furrow considering the type of crop, soil, and its seed bed
preparation. In addition, the machine has also a provision of adjustable seed planting
mechanism, which not only allows adjusting the planting depth, but also the spacing
within row to row distance of the wheat crop. Furthermore, this planting machine has
provision to apply fertilizer in the center of two adjacent rows at deeper depths than
the seeds. Kharif Bed planters can be used to sow maize and cotton crops with similar
water saving and improved yield opportunities. Fig. 15.3 (a, b, c and) shows
successful examples of sowing wheat and cotton crops on beds at WMRC.
Sowing of wheat seeds in beds can be accomplished successfully by following the
tips given below:
There are two rows from each side of the bed. The first row is at the distance
of 3 inches from the edge and the second row is 5 inches away from the first
row from both sides of the bed
There should be distance of 8 inches between the inner two rows of the bed.
This distance will minimize water stress as well as salinity problem.
Seed rate in case of raised bed planting is 10% less as compared to that in
the ordinary seed drill planting.

The following are the main benefits of bed planting for wheat crop:
Water saving from 30 to 50% (Yang et al., 2002).
25% increase in crop yield (Wang et al., 2004).
Higher water and fertilizer use efficiencies
Less weeds and less lodging of the standing crop
336 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

Good crop response on saline soils and with saline water

Reduce seed rate by 30-50% as compared to conventional planting
Conserves rain water through in situ rainwater harvesting
Saves up to 40% energy used for pumping water (Hassan et al., 2005).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 15.3 (a, b, c, d) Rice, Cotton and Wheat Crops Grown on Bed-Furrow System
Source: Water Management Research Cente, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
In Pakistan, the land and climate are very suitable for rice crop and there is a great
chance to increase the yield of rice crop by using bed planting technique. Some
guidelines are suggested below to be followed for successful seedbed preparation
and planting of rice crop on beds.
I. Prepare the land using conventional method.
II. Use bed planter to make beds of 2 ft width for planting rice seedlings on
four rows.
III. Apply irrigation water in the furrows so that beds remain soft. Plant 4 rows
of rice crop at 6 inches spacing between rows and plant rice at 6 to 9 inches
for plant to plant distance.
IV. Bed planting permits more number of plants than those under conventional
methods.
Resource Conservation Technologies 337

Following Conventional method, if plant to plant distance is kept at 9 inches, then

the total no. of plants is about 77440/[Link] at the Water Management
Research Centre has shown that the total numbers of plants using bed planting were
more than 100,000/acre. In addition, if one row of crop is grown inside the furrow,
then the total number of plants is around 120,000/acre. This will lead to more yield
by increasing numbers of plants and more tillering opportunities. Table 15.1 shows
that during the years 2008 and 2009, sowing of rice on beds resulted in water saving
of 29 and 32 percent, respectively, and average increase in yield of 26 percent.

Table 15.1 Water Savings and Increase in Yield on Raised Bed System.
Project area Year Area under Rice Water Saving Increase in
crop (ac) in % Yield %
Khurrianwala 2008 71 29 26
site 2009 80 32 26
Average 151 31 26
Additional benefits given below can be achieved by inter cropping of sugarcane:
Increase in crop intensity
Less fertilizer requirement
Less cost of production
Water saving for both crops
Less weed infestation in sugarcane

[Link] On-Farm Water Storage

In Pakistan, water is not available uniformly throughout the year either in the form
of canal water or rain water. Therefore, the farmers need to store water whenever it
is surplus during any time of the year so that it can be utilized during the dry part of
the year. The stored water helps to practice irrigation scheduling i.e. applying the
required amount of water at the right time, which is usually not possible without
additional storage.
The traditional irrigations are usually heavier, which can be 4 inches or more in
depth. This allows the soil to remain wet for about a week depending on the climatic
conditions of the region. Nevertheless, many times the farmers want to practice drip
irrigation or sprinkler irrigation or any other method to apply lesser amount of
irrigation water. In that case, lighter irrigations need to be more frequent, so that the
crop water requirements can be met. While the canal irrigation based on warabandi
system is a sort of rigid system, which delivers water only after a 7 days’ interval. In
that case, farmers are urged to store their canal water during their irrigation turn and
apply it after two to three days when crops need it. In very hot summer, it is advisable
to apply irrigation daily to counter the effects of hot summer, especially when plants
and root zone both are short. Under these conditions, it is a better option to have an
on-farm water storage, which can also be used for fish farming as well as for
recharging groundwater during monsoon season. On-farm water storage pond is
shown in Fig. 15.4.
338 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

Fig. 15.4 On-Farm Water Storage at PARS, UAF

Source: Water Management Research Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

[Link] High Efficiency Irrigation System

High Efficiency Irrigation System usually refers to pressurized irrigation system, i.e.,
drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation. Both the systems are considered to have
higher irrigation efficiency of 70 to 80% for sprinkler and 80 to 95% for drip
irrigation system. Both the systems have their own suitability under specific terrain,
soil, water source, and crop specific nature. Both the systems offer better control of
irrigation water application and are considered as water conservation methods.
Further details about these systems are given in the separate chapters.
Resource Conservation Technologies 339

Fig. 15.5 Drip Irrigation System Power Unit installed at PARS

Source: Water Management Research Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

[Link] Mulching
Mulching is a practice in which soil surface is covered with organic material or crop
residues so that soil moisture is conserved by minimizing evaporation losses and
enhancing infiltration processes. The practice also enhances soil fertility and avoids
weed growth. Plastic sheet material is also being used where vegetables or plants
grow through the holes provided in the plastic sheet and sheet conserves soil
moisture, controls weeds and soil moisture evaporation.

[Link] Skimming Well Technology

Skimming well is a technology in which the top layer of fresh groundwater can be
pumped by constructing several bore holes rather than a single bore well. The concept
is that a single bore well is usually installed at deeper levels, and therefore, there is a
possibility of pumping poor quality groundwater because mostly groundwater
quality deteriorates as the well depth goes deeper. For skimming the upper layer of
fresh groundwater, the number of bore wells may vary from site to site depending on
the aquifer characteristics and groundwater quality. The number of bore wells is
usually governed by the drawdown occurring as a result of pumping. The spacing
between the bore wells needs to be estimated so that there is a minimum interference
of wells on the neighboring wells in terms of their radius of influence and up coning
of brackish groundwater. Mostly skimming well depth is installed at 40-50
penetration ratio, i.e., the skimming well can be installed at 40-50% depth of the top
fresh water layer after locating interface of the fresh-saline water layer at 3 ds m-1.
340 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

Fig. 15.6 a and b show the schematic diagrams of a single bore and multiple bore
options of skimming well.

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.6 (a and b) Schematic Diagram of a Typical Skimming Tubewell

Source: Water Management Research Centre, University of Agriculture Faisalabad

[Link] Solar Powered Tubewell

Solar powered tube well works for daytime hours when there is enough power
available from the solar panels. Such tube well starts working around 8:00 AM during
summer and 9:00 AM during winter depending on the cloudy conditions. Mostly
submersible pumps are used as solar powered tube wells because of their improved
efficiency and better delivery head. The number of solar panels can be estimated by
calculating the required horsepower to run the pump based on groundwater levels. A
DC operated motor is coupled at the bottom of the submersible pump, which runs the
multistage submersible pump. It is, however, not necessary to use submersible pump.
Fig. 15.7 shows a 3-stage submersible pump used for solar tube well installation.
Arrangements can be made to run the existing pump by simply converting the DC
solar power into AC and running the already installed motor-pump setup. The
discharge of solar tube well varies with sun movement throughout the day. The peak
discharge of tube well is expected around 12:00-2:00 pm.
The Water Management Research Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, has
installed a Solar Powered Tube well at its experimental area. The three stage
submersible pump of the solar tube well needs 4 kilowatt solar energy and delivers
around0.5 cusec discharge at peak daily hours. The average discharge of the solar
tube well throughout the day for the months of March-June 2013 is given in Fig.
15.8. Such pumping, however, has necessitated the groundwater recharge to maintain
the groundwater level within affordable limits.
Resource Conservation Technologies 341

Fig. 15.7 Three Stage Submersible Pump for Solar Tubewell

Source: Water Management Research Center, University of Agriculture Faisalabad

[Link] Artificial Groundwater Recharge

The increasing demand for water has increased awareness towards the use of artificial
recharge to increase ground water supplies. Simply, artificial recharge is a process
by which excess surface water is directed to infiltrate into the ground – either by
spreading on the surface, by using recharge wells, or by altering natural conditions
to increase infiltration – to replenish an aquifer. It refers to movement of water
through man-made systems from the surface of the earth to underground water-
bearing strata where it may be stored for future use. Artificial recharge, sometimes
called planned recharge, is a way to store water during its surplus supplies for its later
usage during peak demand period (NCR, 1994). Rainwater can also be used for
recharging the aquifer.
342 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

Time
Fig. 15.8 A Typical Hydrograph for a Solar Powered Tubewell

[Link] Rainwater Harvesting

This is a technique used for collecting, storing, and using rainwater for landscape
irrigation as well as for other uses i.e. ground water recharge and drinking etc. In this
technique, the precipitation is collected from various hard surfaces such as roof tops
as shown in Fig. 15.9 and/or other types of manmade structures above the ground.
This practice is now becoming popular due to increasing water shortage and water
demands.

Fig 15.9 A Typical Rainwater Harvesting Setup from Roof Top of a House

Source: Water Management Research Cente, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

Resource Conservation Technologies 343

Rainwater collection system mostly includes the following basic components:

The best catchment surface consists of hard and smooth surfaces such as metal roofs
or concrete areas (Fig 15.10). The amount of water harvested depends on quantity of
rainfall, size of the surface, and slope of the catchment area.
Gutters and downspouts are combined to form distribution system that
transports water from catchment area to a storage container such as a barrel, cistern,
planted area, etc.

Fig. 15.10 Rainwater Collection Setup along with Storage Tank and Recharging Well

Source: Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Agriculture,

Faisalabad

As the "first flush" of water may contain debris and other pollutants like bird
droppings, so it is mostly recommended that the "first flush" should be diverted to an
outside area of the storage system. The device which is used for this purpose is called
roof washer.
The storage tank, generally, is the most expensive component of a
harvesting system. There are numerous types and styles of storage tanks available.
Storage can be above-ground or underground. Storage containers can be made from
galvanized steel, wood, concrete, clay, plastic, fiberglass, polyethylene, masonry,
etc. Examples of above-ground storage include; cisterns, barrels, tanks, garbage cans,
above ground swimming pools, etc. To inhibit the growth of algae, storage tanks
should be opaque and preferably placed away from direct sunlight. The tanks should
also be placed close to the areas of use and supply line to reduce the distance over
which water is delivered. Also, consider placing storage in an elevated area to take
344 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

advantage of gravity flow. The tank should always be placed on a stable and level
area to prevent it from leaning and possibly collapsing.

Fig. 15.11 Storage Tank with Inlet and Overflow Pipes

Source: Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Agriculture,

Faisalabad

Appropriate delivery systems are required for the landscape or other end use areas.
These can be a gravity-fed based or pump based. Filtration Treatment is needed to
make the water safe for human consumption.
Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
1. Makes use of a natural resource and reduces flooding, storm water runoff,
erosion, and contamination of surface water with pesticides, sediment,
metals, and fertilizers
2. Reduces need for imported / pumped water
3. Excellent source of water for landscape irrigation, with no chemicals such
as fluoride and chlorine, and no dissolved salts and minerals from the soil
4. Home systems can be relatively simple to install and operate, it may reduce
your water bill
5. Promotes both water and energy conservation
6. No filtration system is required for landscape irrigation

Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting

1. The capital cost of the system may be too high, especially for sophisticated
systems.
2. Requires technical expertise for installation, management and maintenance
of the system.
3. If not designed and installed correctly, may attract mosquitoes.
Resource Conservation Technologies 345

4. Some roof top RWH systems may seep pesticides, chemicals and other
pollutants into the water that can harm the plants.

15.2.2 Soil Conservation

Conservation of soil means to prevent the soil resource from being eroded and from
losing its fertility due to manmade activities. Planting trees and constructing terraces
are effective ways to prevent soil erosion. Like this, certain farming practices like
contour farming and no-till help prevent loosening of the soil. Preventing pollution
of soil helps maintaining soil health and contributes to the conservation of this
precious natural resource. The followings are some of the efficient ways to conserve
soil.
[Link] Planting Trees
As trees grow tall, the rooting system of trees is more spreader and deeper into the
soil layers and hold the soil tightly to prevent it from erosion. Some other
management practices like vegetative cover saved soil from wind and water erosion.
[Link] Terracing
Terracing is considered as one of the best methods to conserve soil. A terrace is a
leveled section of a hilly cultivated area as shown in Fig. 15.12. Due to its unique
structure, it prevents rapid surface runoff of water. Terracing gives the landmass a
stepped appearance, thus slowing washing down of the soil. Building firm boundaries
is a method used to create terraces in which stone structures are made without using
mortar material.

(a) (b)
Fig. 15.12(a and b) Terracing for Soil and Water Conservation
[Link] Contour Farming
This practice of farming on sloppy lands considers the slope gradient and the
elevation of the soil along the slope (Fig. 15.13). Contour farming is a method of
plowing soil across the contour lines of a slope. This method helps in reducing runoff
velocity and saves the soil from erosion along the slope. This practice is also useful
for better percolation of water in the soil.
346 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

Fig. 15.13 Contour Farming for Soil Conservation

[Link] Strip Cropping

This consists of growing different crops in alternate strips suchas growing oats, corn,
and soybeans in different filter strips as shown in the Fig. 15.14. The crops such as
cotton, sorghum (jawar), milo (bajara), etc. allow the runoff water to flow freely
within the rows. The erosion resisting crops are mostly legumes like groundnut,
alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, soybeans, and peanuts, etc., which spread and
cover the soil and do not allow runoff water to carry much soil with [Link]. 15.14
gives examples of Strip Cropping. The soil which flows from the strips of erosion
allowing by crops is caught by alternative erosion resisting crops. In selecting a
suitable legume crop, it should be seen that the maximum canopy and root
development of the crop match with the period of high intensity of rainfall.

[Link] Crop Rotation

When a crop pattern is adopted for a long period, it may cause to build up some
pathogens in soil. Repetition of same cropping pattern leads to imbalance in soil
fertility. Crop rotation is an effective practice to save soil from these problems. Crop
rotation is a method of growing a series of dissimilar crops in an area.
[Link] Salinity Management
The salinity of soil increases due to excessive accumulation of salts in the soil due to
application of saline irrigation water or water logging conditions. This has a negative
Resource Conservation Technologies 347

effect on the metabolism of crops. The salinity of soil is harmful to vegetative growth.
The excess salts can lead to reduction in vegetation, which can enhance soil erosion.
Hence, salinity management is an indirect way of conserving soil.

Fig. 15.14 Strip Cropping for Soil Conservation

[Link] Maintaining Soil pH

Soil pH is an indicator that affects the uptake of nutrients from the soil by plants.
Maintaining the correct value of soil pH in the range of 7 is thus essential for soil
conservation. Several well established and scientifically proven techniques are
available to the farmer for maintaining good pH of the soil. For example, in case of
acidic soils, adding lime to the soil is a good practice. Also, for high pH soils, use of
gypsum along with green manure is a very good practice.
[Link] Inter-Cropping
Intercropping is cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field.
It also means the growing of two or more crops in the same field with the planting of
the second crop after the first one has completed its development. Fig. 15.15 shows
examples of Inter Cropping. The rationale behind intercropping is that the different
crops planted are unlikely to share the same insect pests and disease-causing
pathogens and to conserve the soil (Boller et al., 2004). It also reduces the cost of
production.
348 A. Bakhsh and R. S. Kanwar

Fig. 15.15 Inter-cropping for Soil Conservation

[Link] Green Manuring and Cover Cropping

Green manure/cover crops (GMCCs) are plants that are grown to provide soil cover
during their growth period and to improve the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of the soil after plants are harvested and mulched 100% in top 100 to
150 mm of soil. GMCCs such as susbania, may be sown independently or in
association with other crops. In general, GMCCs are used to pursue the following
objectives (FAO, 2010):
• Provide soil cover for No-Tillage (reduces water evaporation and soil
temperature, and increases water infiltration)
• Protect soil from erosion
• Reduce weed infestation
• Add biomass to the soil (to accumulate soil organic matter, add and
recycle nutrients, feed soil life)
• Improve soil structure
• Promote biological soil preparation
• Reduce pest and disease infestation

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Resource Conservation Technologies 349

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