CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS, THEORITICAL

FRAMEWORK

2.1 Review of Literatures

Literature review is a significant process before conducting this study. It

aimed to review international journals, previous theses authored by English

department students related to this study’s topic. The result then was used as a

comparison and reference to improve the research of this study. There are some

preceding morphology and phonology related researches that are worth reviewing.

The authors vary from English literature bachelors to international linguists.

Aryati (2014) in her undergraduate thesis entitled “An Analysis of

Derivational Affixes in The Land of Five Tower Novel by A. Fuadi Translated by

Angie Kilbane” discussed about the analysis of derivational affixes found in a

novel. The analysis of this study was conducted based on a morphology theory by

Katamba (1993). It applied quantitative research method, which then the result was

put into a table that consist of 7 rows, which are: number, word, part of speech,

roots, part of speech, prefix, suffix, and note. From the table, it is concluded that

there are prefixes en- (9), in- (5), un- (11), a- (2), non- (3), re- (2), im- (2), and

suffixes -ly (249), -able (18), -er (52), -al (53), -ous (28), -ate (2), -cy (3), -y (34), -

ee (1), –tion (73), -ion (14), -ize (6), -ship (3), -ment (26), -ism (3), -en (9), -ful

(27), -age (2), -tic (16), -ish (2),-ary (8), -cent (2), -ive (13), -ance (7), -less (5), -

ence (9), -ity (22), -ant (2), -or(11), -ness (19), -ure (3), -fy (3) found in the novel,

where derivational suffix -ly is the most present one. Additionally, she showed that

8
there are 199 (adjective), 188 (noun), 266 (adjective) speech classifications of the

bases or roots in novel. The results precisely met the aims of the study and

answering all the research questions. Nevertheless, the major use of table

(quantitative method) caused the analysis to be less comprehensive if it is compared

to any study of morphological process which adopts qualitative method. The result

table merely showed meanings and functions of the affixes in a single sentence each

without elaboration. Therefore, qualitative method was applied in this study to give

a comprehensive detail of morphological process of words.

Wahyuni (2016) in her undergraduate thesis entitled “Derived Nouns with

Reference to John Grisham’s Novel “The Odore Boone”” presented an analysis of

category and meaning of derived nouns found in a novel. The theory applied in this

study is a morphological process theory proposed by Bauer (1983), supported by

other theories proposed by Quirk (1973), Frank (1972), and Spencer (1991).

Qualitative method was employed to support this research study. The result showed

that there is one prefix non-changing noun (step-), four suffixes non-changing noun

(-ship, -er, -ist and –hood), and fourteen suffixes changing noun (-ation, -al, -er/-

or, -ment, -ure, -ant, -ion, -age, -ence/-ance, -ness, -cy, -ity, -dom, and –th) found

in the novel. It then followed by the meaning analysis of each of those affixes. This

study successfully offered a solid, short, but comprehensive morphological

analysis. Nevertheless, what the author seemed to miss here was to describe the

phenomenon in the background of the study. Henceforth, this study has mentioned

related phenomenon in background of the study above in regard to the fundamental

purpose of conducting a research; to answer the real life linguistic-related

phenomenon.

9
 The author of undergraduate thesis entitled “Analyzing Students’

Pronunciation of Word Stress of IET 7 Students of Cambridge English College

(CEC) Makasar” Algifari (2017) examined the IET 7 students of Cambridge

English College’s pronunciation of word stress comprehension. This study referred

to a pronunciation theory by Fraser (2001) and word stress theory by Pierrel (2010).

Qualitative research method was employed to analyze the data which supported by

table as well. This research found that there were some misplaced stresses made by

the students. The misplaced stresses occurred in two-syllable words, three-syllable

words, and four-syllable words. The students’ misplaced stress are quite similar.

The most misplaced stress made by the students are the two-syllable words. It was

also found that the Indonesian accent was the cause of students misplacing the word

stress. And also, the students faced the difficulty to place the stress correctly even

though they had been trained well as good speakers and instructors. This thesis

provided a simple analysis along with theories cited from various sources that will

be useful for this study. However, the discussion part lacked of substance. Instead

of conducting a deeper analysis toward the finding, the researcher chose to cite

some conclusions from some previous related-studies to support the findings.

Therefore, having seen the deficiency of this undergraduate thesis, this study

presented substantial analysis toward the research findings.

A morphology and phonology-related article to be reviewed was taken from

an international journal named “Language and Linguistic Compass”. The article

itself entitled “An Overview of Lexical Phonology”, written by Rubach in 2008. It

discussed about various diagnostic properties of rules, including the phonological

cycle, word vs. phrase domain application, the Strict Cyclicity Constraint, derived

10
environments, the Structure Preservation Constraint, lexical conditioning, and the

interaction of phonology and morphology. This article employed the same theories

that were applied to support this study such as Kiparsky (1973), Monhanan (1982),

etc. The author adopted qualitative research method and the data presented were

supported by diagrams and tables as well. This article provided an insightful

morphology and phonology interaction, and the process of derivation from lexical

phonology perspective. However, this study concern is not merely English, but also

Dutch, Polish, Russian, and Slovak. Unlike this reviewed article, this study is

focused on English, reckoning that other languages are far beyond researcher’s

knowledge.

Last but not least, article entitled “Lexical Phonology: Structure, Process,

and Development” authored by Jarmulowicz and Taran (2013) from an

international journal named “Top Lang Disorders” is reviewed to support this study

analysis. This article proposed an analysis regarding lexical phonology,

specifically, derivational morphology that is discussed in terms of lexical

representation models from both linguistic and psycholinguistic perspectives. This

article included various theories such as a theory by Aronoff (1994) and Feldman

(1995) that argue morpheme-based view of morphology has been replace by

lexeme-based morphology, recent morphology theories by Plag (2003), Bybee

(2006), Hay & Baayen (2005) etc., and psycholinguistic theories by Levelt’s (1999,

2001), Dell & O’Seaghda (1992) etc. By applying qualitative research method, this

article showed that input characteristics, including types of frequency (lexical,

surface, affix, and relative) and transparency (semantic, phonological, and

orthographic), are examined as key factors that affect processing and acquisition.

11
This article contained important theories and findings along with examples that is

helpful to comprehend how morphological process affects phonological state of

word. This article aimed to find the correlation between lexical morphology and

children language procession and acquisition. Whereas, this undergraduate thesis

aimed to describe a phenomenon of lexical morphology only.

2.2 Concepts

Concepts consisted of principles that acted as fundamental ideas of this

study. The concepts of this study were based from the existing definitions in

journals and articles. Those definitions then were directly quoted into following

paragraphs.

Adjectival Suffix
“Adjectival suffix is a type of suffix that is used to form adjectives. These

suffixes are derivational; it changes the class of the word which mostly verb and

noun into adjective.” (Cambridge Online Dictionary, 2018). Some word ending

(suffixes) are easily recognizable as adjective, for instance: -able, -ible, -al, -ful, -

ic, -ish etc.

Derived Adjective
Adjectives are lexemes characteristically denoting properties of persons of

objects. Adjectives has functions with their relation to nouns or verbs. Meanwhile,

“Derived adjectives are the adjectives which are formed when adjective-forming

12
suffixes are added to common nouns or verbs.” (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005:

112)

Stressed Syllable
“Stress is a suprasegmental feature that is associated with a syllable; it is

not realised on a single segment, but it extends over more than one segment.”

(Törkenczy, 2013: 2). Stressed syllables are recognized as stressed because they are

more prominent than unstressed syllable. Furthermore, according to Roach (1983:

86), what makes a syllable prominent involves four different factors:

i. “Stressed syllables are louder than unstressed; in other words, loudness is a

component of prominence.”

ii. “The length of syllables has an important part to play in prominence.”

iii. “Every syllable is said on some pitch; pitch that is noticeably different from

that of the others, this will have a strong tendency to produce the effect of

prominence.”

iv. “A syllable will tend to be prominent of it contains a vowel that is different

in quality from neighboring vowels.”

Morphology-Phonology Interaction
As it has been mentioned earlier in the background of the study that every

morphological process is usually followed by phonological alternation. In further,

it could be put as:

Stress placement in English is not entirely random. There is a certain

degree of phonological conditioning in stress placement that is often
overridden by morphological factors. Whenever morphological and
phonological criteria come across, in terms of stressed syllable, it is
always the morphology which is stronger. (Kristó, 2012: 94)

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2.3 Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework is concerned with theories that were used to analyze

the data of this study. It consists of two main theories which in this case were taken

from Plag (2002) and Roach (1983) and also supported by several other theories

from various linguists. These theories were used as the basis of analysis which in

the latter would answer the problems of this study.

Adjectival Suffix

Based on Plag (2002: 199-122), adjectival suffixes that are commonly found

in English are divided into 13 types, which are as follows:

-able

The suffix chiefly combines with transitive and intransitive verbal

bases, as in deterrable and perishable, respectively, as well as with
nouns, as in serviceable, fashionable. The semantics of deverbal -
able forms seem to involve two different cases, which have been
described as ‘capable of being Xed’ (cf. breakable, deterrable,
readable), and ‘liable or disposed to X’ (cf. agreeable, perishable,
variable; changeable can have both meanings) (...) There are also
some lexicalized denominal forms with the meaning ‘characterized
by X’, as in fashionable (but cf. the concurrent compositional
meaning ‘that can be fashioned’), knowledgeable, reasonable.
(Plag, 2002: 119)

Phonologically, -able exhibits diverse properties. Only some

lexicalized derivatives exhibit stress shift (e.g. cómparable), and
base verbs in -ate are often, but not systematically, truncated, as in
allocable, irritable, navigable, permeable, operable vs.
cultivatable, emancipatable, operatable. In established loan words
we also find the orthographic variant -ible: comprehensible,
discernible, flexible, reversible. (Plag, 2002: 119)

-al

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 This relational suffix attaches almost exclusively to Latinate bases
(accidental, colonial, cultural, federal, institutional, modal). All
derivatives have stress either on their penultimate or
antepenultimate syllable. If the base does not have its stress on one
of the two syllables preceding the suffix, stress is shifted to the
antepenult of the derivative (e.g. cólony - colónial). (Plag, 2002:
119)

Apart from the allomorphy already discussed in chapter 2, section 2

(-ar after bases ending in [l], -al elsewhere), there are the two
variants -ial (as in confidential, labial, racial, substantial) and -ual
(as in contextual, gradual, spiritual, visual). With bases ending in
[s] or [t], -ial triggers assimilation of the base-final sound to [S] (e.g.
facial, presidential). The distribution of -ial and -ual is not entirely
clear, but it seems that bases ending in -ant/ance (and their variants)
and -or obligatorily take -ial (e.g. circumstantial, professorial).
(Plag, 2002: 120)

-ary

Again a relational adjective-forming suffix, -ary usually attaches to

nouns, as in complementary, evolutionary, fragmentary, legendary,
precautionary. We find stress-shifts only with polysyllabic base
nouns ending in -ment (cf. compliméntary vs. mómentary). (Plag,
2002: 120)

-ed

This suffix derives adjectives with the general meaning ‘having X,

being provided with X’, as in broad-minded, pig-headed, wooded.
The majority of derivatives are based on compounds or phrases
(empty-headed, pig-headed, air-minded, fair-minded). (Plag, 2002:
120)

-esque

The suffix -esque is attached to both common and proper nouns to

convey the notion of ‘in the manner or style of X’: Chaplinesque,
Hemingwayesque, picturesque, [Link] is a strong
preference for polysyllabic base words. (Plag, 2002: 120)

-ful

Adjectival -ful has the general meaning ‘having X, being

characterized by X’ and is typically attached to abstract nouns, as in
beautiful, insightful, purposeful, tactful, but verbal bases are not
uncommon (e.g. forgetful, mournful, resentful). (Plag, 2002: 120)

15
-ic

Being another relational suffix, -ic also attaches to foreign bases

(nouns and bound roots). Quite a number of -ic derivatives have
variant forms in -ical (electric - electrical, economic -
economomical, historic - historical, magic - magical etc.).
Sometimes these forms are clearly distinguished in meaning (e.g.
economic ‘profitable’ vs. economical ‘money-saving’), in other
cases it remains to be determined what governs the choice of one
form over the other. Derivatives in -ic are stressed on the
penultimate syllable, with stress being shifted there, if necessary
(e.g. héro - heróic, párasite - parasític). (Plag, 2002: 120-121)
-ing

This verbal inflectional suffix primarily forms present participles,

which can in general also be used as adjectives in attributive
positions (and as nouns, see above). The grammatical status of a
verb suffixed by -ing in predicative position is not always clear. In
the changing weather the -ing form can be analyzed as an adjective,
but in the weather is changing we should classify it as a verb (in
particular as a progressive form). In the film was boring, however,
we would probably want to argue that boring is an adjective,
because the relation to the event denoted by the verb is much less
prominent than in the case of changing. (Plag, 2002: 121)

-ish

This suffix can attach to adjectives (e.g. clearish, freeish, sharpish),

numerals (fourteenish, threehundredfourtyish), adverbs (soonish,
uppish), and syntactic phrases (e.g. stick-in-the-muddish, out-of-the-
wayish, silly-little-me-late-again-ish) to convey the concept of
‘somewhat X, vaguely X’. When attached to nouns referring to
human beings the derivatives can be paraphrased as ‘of the character
of X, like X’, which is obviously closely related to the meaning of
the non-denominal derivatives. Examples of the latter kind are
James-Deanish, monsterish, summerish, townish, vampirish. Some
forms have a pejorative meaning, e.g. childish. (Plag, 2002: 121)

-ive

This suffix forms adjectives mostly from Latinate verbs and bound
roots that end in [t] or [s]: connective, explosive, fricative, offensive,
passive, preventive, primitive, receptive, speculative. Some nominal
bases are also attested, as in instinctive, massive. (Plag, 2002: 121).

Apart from some exceptions (e.g.álternate - altérnative), there is no

stress shift, but a number of fairly systematic base alternations can
be observed: [d] → [s] (e.g. conclude - conclusive), [iv] → [ɛpt ]

16
 (e.g. receive -receptive), [djus] → [dʌkt] (e.g. produce -productive).
Probably modeled on the highly frequent derivatives with verbs in -
ate, some forms feature the variant -ative without an existing verb
in -ate: argumentative, quantitative, representative. (Plag, 2002:
122).

-less

Semantically, -less can be seen as antonymic to -ful, with the

meaning being paraphrasable as ‘without X’: expressionless,
hopeless, speechless, thankless. (Plag, 2002: 122)
-ly

This suffix is appended to nouns and adjectives. With base nouns

denoting persons, -ly usually conveys the notion of ‘in the manner
of X’ or ‘like an X’, as in brotherly, daughterly, fatherly, womanly.
Other common types of derivative have bases denoting temporal
concepts (e.g. half-hourly, daily, monthly) or directions (easterly,
southwesterly). (Plag, 2002: 122)

-ous

This suffix derives adjectives from nouns and bound roots, the vast
majority being of Latinate origin (curious, barbarous, famous,
synonymous, tremendous). Like derivatives in -al, -ous formations
are stressed either on the last but one syllable or last but two syllable
(the so-called penult or antepenult), with stress being shifted there,
if necessary (e.g. plátitude - platitúdinous). There are further
variants of the suffix, -eous (e.g. erroneous, homogeneous), -ious
(e.g. gracious, prestigious), and -uous (e.g. ambiguous, continuous).
(Plag, 2002: 122)

17
Stress Patterns
According to Roach (1983: 88), in order to decide on stress placement, all

or some of the following information should be considered:

i. “Whether the word is morphologically simple, or whether it is complex as

a result either of containing one or more affixes (that is, prefixes or suffixes)

or of being a compound word.”

ii. “The grammatical category to which the word belongs (noun, verb,

adjective, etc.).”

iii. “The number of syllables in the word.”

iv. “The phonological structure of those syllables.”

Two-syllable words

Single-syllable words present no problems since if they are pronounced in

isolation, the only syllable is stressed. Meanwhile in two-syllable words, the choice

is either the first syllable; or the second syllable that is stressed. Conforming to

Roach (1983: 89), the basic rule is that “if the second syllable of the verb contains

a long vowel or diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, the second

syllable is stressed”. For example:

‘apply’ /əˈplʌɪ/ ‘attract’ /əˈtrakt/

‘arrive’ /əˈrʌɪv/ ‘assist’ /əˈsɪst/

“If the final syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no) final consonant, the first

syllable is stressed.” (Roach, 1983: 89). For example:

‘enter’ /ˈɛntə/ ‘open’ /ˈəʊp(ə)n/

‘envy’ /ˈɛnvi/ ‘equal’ /ˈiːkw(ə)l/

18
“A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains əʊ (e.g. ‘follow’ /ˈfɒləʊ/, ‘borrow’

/ˈbɒrəʊ/).” (Roach, 1983: 89).

“Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the same rule.” (Roach,

1983: 89). For example:

‘lovely’ /ˈlʌvli/ ‘divine’ /dɪˈvʌɪn/

‘even’ /ˈiːv(ə)n/ ‘correct’ /kəˈrɛkt/
‘hollow’ /ˈhɒləʊ/ ‘alive’ /əˈlʌɪv/

“As with most stress rules, there are exceptions, for example ‘honest’, ‘perfect’,

both of which end with two consonants but are stressed on the first syllable.”

(Roach, 1983:89).

“Nouns require a different rule: if the second syllable contains a short vowel the

stress will usually come to the first syllable. Otherwise it will be on the second

syllable.” (Roach, 1983: 89). For example:

‘money’ /ˈmʌni/ ‘estate’ /ɪˈsteɪt/

‘product’ /ˈprɒdʌkt/ ‘balloon’ /bəˈluːn/
‘larynx’ /ˈlarɪŋks/ ‘design’ /dɪˈzʌɪn/

“Other two-syllable words such as adverbs and prepositions seem to behave like

verbs and adjectives.” (Roach, 1983: 89).

Three-syllable words

The stress pattern of three-syllable words is obviously more complex. “In

verbs, if the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one

consonant, that syllable will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the

preceding (penultimate) syllable.” (Roach, 1983: 90). For example:

‘encounter’ /ɛnˈkaʊntə/ ‘determine’ /dɪˈtəːmɪn/

19
“If the final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or ends with more than

one consonant, that final syllable will be stressed.” (Roach, 1983: 90). For example:

‘entertain’ /ɛntəˈteɪn/ ‘resurrect’ /rɛzəˈrɛkt/

“Nouns require a different rule. Here, if the final syllable contains a short vowel or

əʊ, it is unstressed; if the syllable preceding this final syllable contains a long vowel

or diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that middle syllable will

be stressed.” (Roach, 1983: 90). For example:

‘mimosa’ /mɪˈməʊzə/ ‘disaster’ /dɪˈzɑːstə/

‘potato’ /pəˈteɪtəʊ/ ‘synopsis’ /sɪˈnɒpsɪs/

“If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the middle syllable contains a short

vowel and ends with not more than one consonant, both final and middle syllable

are unstressed and the first syllable is stressed.” (Roach, 1983: 90). For example:

‘quantity’ /ˈkwɒntɪti/ ‘emperor’ /ˈɛmp(ə)rə/

‘cinema’ /ˈsɪnɪmə/ ‘custody’ /ˈkʌstədi/

“Most of above rules show stress tending to go on syllables containing a long vowel

or diphthong and/or ending with more than one consonant.” (Roach, 1983: 90).

“However, three-syllables simple nouns are different. If the final syllable is

[unstressed] of this type, the stress will usually be placed on the first syllable.”

(Roach, 1983: 90). For example:

‘intellect’ /ˈmʌni/ ‘marigold’ /ˈlarɪŋks/

‘alkali’ /ˈprɒdʌkt/ ‘stalactite’ /ɪˈsteɪt/

20
“Adjectives seem to need the same rule, to produce stress pattern (…)” (Roach,

1983: 90). For example:

‘opportune’ /ˈɒpətjuːn/ ‘insolent’ /ˈɪns(ə)l(ə)nt/

‘derelict’ /ˈdɛrəlɪkt/ ‘anthropoid’ /ˈanθrəpɔɪd/

Complex words
According to Roach (1983: 96), an affix will have one of three possible

effects on word stress:

i. “The affix itself receives the primary stress (…)” e.g. Japan

/dʒəˈpan/ + -ese → Japanese /dʒapəˈniːz/.

ii. “The word is stressed just as if the affix was not there (…)” e.g. boy

/ˈbɔɪ/ + -ish → boyish /ˈbɔɪɪʃ/.

iii. “The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a

different syllable (…)” e.g. magnet /ˈmaɡnɪt/ + -ic → magnetic

/maɡˈnɛtɪk/.

Lexical Strata
English affixes can be grouped in two broad classes on the basis of their

phonological behavior:

One type is neutral and the other type is non-neutral. Neutral affixes
have no phonological effect on the base to which they are attached,
but non-neutral ones affect in some way the consonants or vowel
segments, or the location of stress the base to which they are
attached. (Katamba, 1993: 89).

The difference between the behavior of neutral and non-neutral affixes was

dealt with in the terms of strength of boundaries which is expressed by the symbol

21
of ‘+’ and ‘#’. The difference in boundary strength leads to the third difference

between the two levels;

Non-neutral affixes tend to be phonologically more integrated into

their base than neutral affixes, with non-neutral suffixes causing
stress shifts and other morpho-phonological alternations, while non-
neutral suffixes do not affect their bases phonologically. Finally,
non-neutral affixes are generally less productive than neutral
affixes. (Plag, 2002: 215)

Ordering Strata
Many linguists assumed the existence of two levels or strata in English

derivational morphology; English derivational suffixes and prefixes each belong to

one of two levels (stratum);

The concept of cyclic rule application has built heavily on work by

Siegel (1974) and Allen (1978), who assume the existence of two
levels or strata in English derivational morphology. English
derivational suffixes and prefixes each belong to one of two levels.
(Plag, 2002: 214).
Each stratum of the lexicon has associated with it a set of
morphological rules that do the word-building. These
morphological rules are linked to a particular set of phonological
rules that indicate how the structure built by the morphology is to be
pronounced. (Katamba, 1993: 92)

Furthermore, Plag (2002: 214) have a listed a number of suffixes according

to the level to which they supposedly belong:

Level I suffixes: +al,+ate, +ic, +ion, +ity, +ive, +ous

Level I prefixes: be+, con+, de+, en+, in+, pre+, re+, sub+

Level II suffixes: #able, #er, #ful, #hood, #ist, #ize, #less, #ly, #ness, #wise

Level II prefixes: anti#, de#, non#, re#, sub#, un#, semi#

22
Derivation in Lexical Morphology
In derivational, the ordering strata in the lexicon reflects the ordering of

word-formation processes. Primary affixes (e.g. -ic in phonemic), which are

phonologically non neutral, are attached first at stratum 1. But the processes of

attachment of secondary affixes (e.g. -ly as in widely), which are phonologically

neutral, happen at stratum 2;

A natural consequence of assuming that the strata in the lexicon are

ordered in this way is that stratum 1 affixes are closer to the root of
the word, and neutral affixes are added on the outside as an outer
layer. (Katamba, 1993: 92-93).

It can be depicted as follow:

[root]

[stratum 1 affix – root – stratum 1 affix]

[stratum 2 affix – stratum 1 affix – root – stratum 1 affix – stratum 2 affix]

Lexical Rules
It is proposed in the lexical phonology and morphology model; lexical rules

are cyclic. “This means that phonological rules are occupied with morphological

rules found at the same stratum in the lexicon.” (Katamba, 1993: 106). The diagram

model by Plag (2002: 216) presented below is based on different studies in lexical

phonology in order to bring out clearly the most important aspect of the theory; the

interaction of morphological and phonological rules;

In the words of Mohanan, lexical phonology can be compared to a

factory, with the levels as individual rooms in which words are
produced: ‘There is a conveyor belt that runs from the entry gate to
the exit gate passing through each of these rooms. This means that
every word that leaves the factory came in through the entry gate
and passed through every one of these rooms’ (1986:47). (Plag,
2002: 217)

23
 The illustration above shows the derivation of the potential compound word

Mongolianism. This word is derived by first subjecting the underived lexical item

Mongol to +(i)an suffixation. Having attached -ian, the form Mongolian is

transferred to the ‘level 1 phonology’ box, where stress is assigned on the syllable

immediately preceding the suffix. Mongólian is then, on the next cycle, transferred

to level 2 morphology where it receives the suffix -ism and is handed over to level

2 phonology. Not much happens here for the moment, because -ism, like all level 2

suffixes, is stress-neutral. The form is transferred back to level 2 morphology where

it is inserted into a compound structure together. The compound goes to level 2

phonology to receive compound stress and is then handed back to become

pluralized, i.e. adopt regular inflectional -s. Back in level 2 phonology again,

inflectional -s is interpreted phonologically (as one of the three possible regular

allomorphs). The word is now ready to leave the lexicon and to be inserted into a

syntactic structure.

24