CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN I 4.

Health Informatics Advancements List of Tables

5. Restoration and Improvement of List of Figures
Introduction to Plant Design Infrastructure List of Plates
INTRODUCTION 6. Engineering the Tools of Scientific Items for Investigation
Discovery
From urban centers to remote corners of Earth, APPENDICES
the depths of the oceans to space, humanity has Chapters 1-15, Preliminaries, Appendices
A. Market Study Calculations
always sought to transcend barriers, overcome CHAPTERS 1-15 B. Material Balance Calculations
challenges, and create opportunities that C. Chemical Energy Balance
improve life in our part of the universe. In the 1. Introduction and Its Background Calculations
last century alone, many GREAT 2. Literature Survey D. Mechanical Energy Balance
ENGINEERING ACHIEVEMENTS became 3. Market Study Calculations
so commonplace that we now take them 4. Project Schedule E. Piping Design Calculations
mostly for granted. Technology allows an 5. Product and Process Description F. Utility Requirements Calculations
abundant supply of food and safe drinking 6. Process Flow Diagram and Material G. Equipment Specification Calculations
water for much of the world. We rely on Balance H. Financial Analysis Calculations
electricity for many of our daily activities. We 7. Energy Balance and Utility I. Material Safety Data Sheet
can travel the globe with relative ease, and Requirements J. Multiple Design Constraints
bring goods and services wherever they are 8. Health, Safety, and Environmental K. Curriculum Vitae
needed. Growing computer and Aspects
communications technologies are opening up 9. Equipment Specification INTRODUCTION AND ITS
vast stores of knowledge and entertainment. 10. Equipment Cost Summary BACKGROUND
As remarkable as these engineering 11. Equipment Layout
achievements are, certainly just as many more 12. Plant Site Location and Layout Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION AND ITS
great challenges and opportunities remain to be 13. Financial Analysis BACKGROUND
realized. While some seem clear, many others 14. Summary, Conclusions, and • Should begin with a capsule statement of
are indistinct and many more surely lie beyond Recommendations what is being proposed and then should
most of our imaginations. 15. Multiple Design Constraints proceed to introduce the subject.
Grand Challenges for Engineering in the 21st PRELIMINARIES • It should generally cover the following:
century fall into four cross-cutting themes: o purpose of your study, why you
SUSTAINABILITY, HEALTH, SECURITY, Title Page consider it to be important,
and JOY OF LIVING. Approval Sheet o the major issues you intend to
Executive Summary cover,
1. Advanced Personal Learning Acknowledgement o the dependent and independent
2. Energy Advancement Dedication variables involved, and
3. Engineer Better Medicines Table of Contents o your hypothesis if any.
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE o convince your reader that your conducted directly with potential
INTRODUCTION? research will fill the gap in the customers.
literature of your research field. • Gather pertinent data from reliable
I. Problem
• Remember to organize it well and to sources.
II. Objectives of the Design include influential sources and documents. • As much as possible, get the latest data
a. General
• Make sure to have a Synthesis at the end available. For more realistic projection,
b. Specific
of this chapter. include data from the past 10 years.
III. Background of the Study
• The Synthesis should contain the ideas and • Ensure that all information and data
IV. Limitation of the Study (*general
answers facts from the researches that you will use provided is true and include proper
a. Raw Material Availability and combine as the basis to form the plant citation.
b. Water and Energy design project.
HOW TO CONDUCT A MARKET
Availability • Include new and fresh literature sources.
ANALYSIS
c. Land Adequacy • Ensure that only pertinent information and
d. Transportation Facilities sources are included. 1. Determine the purpose of your study.
e. Labor Site and Topography • Have all your sources cited correctly. 2. Look at your industry’s outlook.
f. Years of Projection, Captured 3. Pinpoint target customers.
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE
Market and Marketability 4. Compare your competitors.
LITERATURE SURVEY?
g. Technical Information and 5. Gather additional data.
Capability I. Conceptual Literature 6. Analyze your findings.
h. Equipment Limitation II. Raw Materials (availability) 7. Put your analysis into action.
i. Environmental Limitation III. Products (major)
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE
j. Financial Limitation IV. By-Products
MARKET STUDY?
V. Significance of the Study V. Manufacturing Process (all possible)
VI. Definition of Terms VI. Choice of Process (selected, in-depth) I. General Market Description
VII. Related Literature II. Major Key Players and Competitors
Chapter 2: LITERATURE SURVEY
a. Foreign Literature III. Demand and Supply
• Here you have to enumerate literature b. Local Literature IV. Target Market
sources on your research topic. c. Synthesis V. Marketing Strategy
• The intention is to: Chapter 3: MARKET STUDY Chapter 4: PROJECT SCHEDULE
o demonstrate your knowledge of
the subject and the issues • A market analysis studies the • Presents the project schedule of the
involved, attractiveness and the dynamics of a proposed plant.
o your ability to evaluate relevant special market within a special industry. • This includes the different phases and
literature information, and • Process of determining the viability of a important information in the construction
new service or product through research
 of the project from its conceptualization Chapter 6: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM energy use and suggest areas for
until operational phase. AND MATERIAL BALANCE conservation and savings.
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE • Presents the flow diagrams, qualitative and WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THIS
PROJECT SCHEDULE? quantitative process flows, summary of CHAPTER?
material balances and summary of
I. Project Conceptualization and equipment residence times for the I. Summary of Power Requirements for
Identification manufacturing process. Equipment
II. Process Design Development II. Summary of Power Requirements for
• Ensure that all basis, and/or assumptions
III. Feasibility Study Pumps
used during computation are presented.
IV. Engineering Design / Plant Design III. Summary of Power Utility
• All computations (% composition,
V. Bidding for Contractors Requirement
elemental analysis, reaction/s) should be
VI. Procurement and Construction Phase
presented in a clear and organized way or
VII. Commissioning, Start-up and Pilot
table.
Run
VIII. Operational Phase • Include Quantitative and Qualitative
IX. Gantt Chart Diagram
• Computation for Material Balance and
Chapter 5: PRODUCT AND PROCESS Residence Time per equipment / process
DESCRIPTION shall be under Appendices.
• Presents the detailed discussion of the WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE
product specification, the raw materials PFD AND MATERIAL BALANCE?
and selected manufacturing processes.
I. Tabulated Material Balance
• From all presented processes at Chapter 2
II. Tabulated Residence Time
- Literature Survey, you shall be able to
III. Quantitative PFD
select the process that will be used for the
IV. Qualitative PFD
proposed design.
ENERGY BALANCE AND UTILITY
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE
REQUIREMENT
PRODUCT AND PROCESS
DESCRIPTION? • In process design, energy balances are
I. Product Specification made to determine the energy
II. Raw Material Specification requirements of the process: the heating,
III. Block Flow Diagrams and Process cooling, and power required. In plant
Description operation, an energy balance (energy
audit) on the plant will show the pattern of
LESSON 1: GENERAL DESIGN II. Design Basis process equipment will use established
CONSIDERATIONS 1. The system of units to be used. designs.
2. The national, local or company design
1. DESIGN OBJECTIVES, BASIS, AND codes that must be followed. IV. Fitness Testing
CONCEPTS, TESTING, EVALUATIONS 3. Details of raw materials that are • Determines how well each design
I. Design Objective available. concept meets the identified need
4. Information on potential sites where o Mathematical model of the
All design starts with a perceived the plant might be located, including process
need. In the design of a chemical process, the climate data, seismic conditions, and o Pilot plant
need is the public need for the product, creating infrastructure availability. • Once working model of the process
a commercial opportunity, as foreseen by the 5. Information on the conditions, has been established, can begin to
sales and marketing organization. Within this availability, and price of utility determine equipment sizes and costs.
overall objective, the designer will recognize services such as fuel (gas), steam, • It is important to make sure that all of
sub-objectives, the requirements of the various cooling water, process air, process the designs that are considered are fit
units that make up the overall process. water, and electricity, that will be for the service, i.e., meet the
needed to run the process. customer’s ‘‘must have’’
requirements.
III. Design Concepts
A. Modifications, and additions, to V. Economic Evaluation,
existing plant; usually carried out by Optimization, and Selection
the plant design group. • The primary criterion for design
* Over time, technology is evolving as selection is usually economic
well as chemical processes.
performance, although factors such as
B. New production capacity to meet safety and environmental impact may
growing sales demand and the sale of
also play a strong role.
*Micro-level established processes by contractors.
*Market Study * End of plant design • The economic evaluation usually
Repetition of existing designs, with
entails analyzing the capital and
only minor design changes, including
- Determining customer needs up to detailed design operating costs of the process to
& equipment specification (1-2 years)
designs of vendors’ or competitors’
determine the return on investment.
processes carried out to understand
- Procurement (~1 year) whether they have a compellingly Detailed Design and Equipment Selection
better cost of production.
- Construction (5-6 years) After the process or product concept
C. New processes, developed from
Hence, ideation to operation usually takes around laboratory research, through pilot has been selected, the project moves on to
5-6 years. plant, to a commercial process. Even detailed design. Here the detailed
here, most of the unit operations and specifications of equipment such as vessels,
exchangers, pumps, and instruments are
determined. The design engineer may work operation of equipment under varying pressure process safety management (PSM), hazardous
with other engineering disciplines. and temperature conditions. materials handling, and personal protective
equipment (PPE) requirements.
Procurement, Construction, and Operation ➢ API Standards
* most common ➢ ANSI / ISA Standards
When the details of the design have
been finalized, the equipment can be The American Petroleum Institute (API) The International Society of
purchased and the plant can be built. Finally, develops various standards related to the oil Automation (ISA) develops standards related
once the plant is built and readied for startup, and gas industry. Examples include API 650 to instrumentation, control systems, and
it can begin operation. (design of welded steel tanks for oil storage), automation. ANSI/ISA-5.1 provides
API 620 (design of large, welded, low-pressure guidelines for instrument symbols, while
2. CODES AND STANDARDS storage tanks), and API 521 (pressure- ANSI/ISA-18.2 focuses on alarm
• Materials, properties, and relieving and depressurizing systems). management.
compositions. ➢ NFPA Codes ➢ ASCE Standards
• Testing procedures for performance, *flammable and combustible liquids
compositions, and quality. The American Society of Civil Engineers
• Preferred sizes; for example, tubes, The National Fire Protection (ASCE) publishes standards for civil
plates, sections, etc. Association (NFPA) publishes codes and engineering aspects of plant design, such as
• Methods for design, inspection, and standards related to fire protection and safety. structural design, foundations, and
fabrication. NFPA 30 covers flammable and combustible geotechnical considerations.
• Codes of practice for plant operation liquids, NFPA 45 addresses laboratory design,
and NFPA 70 provides guidelines for electrical ➢ EPA Regulations
and safety. * In the Philippines, there are DENR
systems, among others.
regulations.
➢ ASME B31.3 ➢ IEC Standards
The Environmental Protection
This code covers process piping design, The International Electrotechnical Agency (EPA) enforces environmental
materials, fabrication, inspection, and testing. Commission (IEC) develops standards for regulations in the United States. Chemical
It provides guidelines for the design of piping electrical and electronic systems. In chemical plants must comply with various regulations,
systems, including pressure and temperature plants, IEC 60079 provides guidance on the such as those related to air emissions,
ratings, pipe sizing, and material selection. design and installation of electrical equipment wastewater treatment, and hazardous waste
in explosive atmospheres. management.
➢ ASME BPVC
* For pressurized systems ➢ OSHA Standards
The Boiler Pressure Vessel Code The Occupational Safety and Health
(BPVC) provides rules for the design, Administration (OSHA) sets regulations and
fabrication, inspection, and testing of pressure standards for workplace safety. OSHA
vessels and boilers. It ensures the safe standards address various aspects, including
3. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD) • The primary schematic drawing used for o Miscellaneous - vents, drains,
AND PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION laying out a process control installation flanges, special fittings, sampling
DIAGRAM (P&ID) • Process piping, sizes, and identification: lines, reducers and swages
o Pipe classes and piping line • Interfaces for class changes
Process Flow Diagram
numbers • Computer control system
A process flow diagram (PFD) is a o Flow directions • Identification of components and
diagram commonly used in chemical and o Interconnections references subsystems delivered by others
process engineering to indicate the general o Permanent start-up, flush and
flow of plant processes and equipment. The bypass lines
PFD displays the relationship between major o Pipelines and flowlines
equipment of a plant facility and does not show o Blinds and spectacle blinds
minor details such as piping details and o Insulation and heat tracing
designations. • Mechanical equipment:
o Pressure vessels, columns, tanks,
* Design Applications: Wondershare EdrawMax, pumps, compressors, heat
✓ Process piping exchangers, furnaces, wellheads,
✓ Major equipment items fans, cooling towers, turbo-
✓ Connections with other systems expanders
✓ Major bypass and recirculation o Bursting discs, restriction orifices,
(recycle) streams strainers and filters, steam traps,
✓ Operational data (temperature, moisture traps, sight-glasses,
pressure, mass flow rate, density, etc.), silencers, flares and vents, flame
often by stream references to a mass arrestors, vortex breakers,
balance. eductors
✓ Process stream names • Process control instrumentation and
designation (names, numbers, unique tag
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram identifiers):
o Valves and their types and
• A diagram which shows the
identifications (e.g. isolation,
interconnection of process equipment and
shutoff, relief and safety valves,
the instrumentation used to control the
valve interlocks)
process. In the process industry, a standard
o Control inputs and outputs
set of symbols is used to prepare drawings
(sensors and final elements,
of processes. The instrument symbols used
interlocks)
in these drawings are generally based on
International Society of Automation (ISA)
Standard S5.1
 Sample PFD (Distillation)
Distillation – a separation process; a unit operation
Reboiler - gives back a portion of the bottoms product as a new feed
Driving force – temperature gradient
Reboiler and condenser- to maintain temperature
Reflux – to ensure a controlled temperature on the top

P&ID (3-Phase Separation Vessel)

Pressure-relief
valve (removes
excess pressure)

Feed (oil/water)
coming from the
top
Transmits
data to LC To demist moisture
in the vapor
To create
Follows a division in
mathematical between
equation

To ensure laminar flow

(since the feed is liquid
and the outlet is small,
there is a tendency for a
vortex to be created)
LESSON 2: PIPE AND TUBE SIZING *Applicable in households or with smaller • Uses: Often used in applications that require
applications; with low flow rate, pressure, and precise outside diameters.
1. INTRODUCTION: PIPES VS. TUBES temperature • Material: Often made of mild steel,
aluminum, brass, copper, chrome or stainless
What Is A Pipe? Pipe Vs. Tube steel
Pipes are tubular conduits used for the Pipe • Mechanical and Chemical Properties:
transportation of fluids from one location to Hardness, tensile strength, high precision is the
• Diameter: Refers to the nominal diameter – key to high quality.
another. They are fundamental components in
not the actual diameter. • Connection/Join Welding: Tubes can be
various industries, including plumbing, * Nominal diameter – diameter between the joined quickly and easily with flaring, brazing,
chemical processing, and water distribution. middle of the inside and outside diameter and couplings
• Wall Thickness: Pipe schedule refers to the • Application: Generally used for applications
Pipes are constructed using materials
pipe wall thickness. that require smaller diameters.
such as metals, plastics, fiberglass, or * The greater the schedule number, the greater
concrete, depending on the specific the wall thickness, then the lower the nominal -------------------------------------------------------------
application requirements. diameter.
Pipe Standards | Size | Schedule | Ratings |
*Fiberglass: typically used in unit operations, for • Uses: Used for fluids and gases. Pressure drop Thickness | Piping Analysis
corrosive chemicals, or acids and bases in high should be considered.
concentration • Material: Usually made of carbon steel or low Basics of Pipe
*When the reinforcement of metals is more alloy steel
*Carbon steel is more prone to damage. • OD - outside
expensive, fiber glass is used
*The higher the composition of a material diameter number
*Usually straight and connectors are used in
made of alloy steel, the more expensive. • ID - inside diameter
between pipes to add another direction
*Pipes are more expensive than tubes • Mechanical and Chemical Properties: • NPS – nominal pipe
Pressure rating, yield strength, ductility size
What Is A Tube? properties are more important. • NB – nominal bore
• Connection/Join Welding: Connecting pipes
Tube refers to a hollow cylindrical are often welded. Pipe are classified as NPS and their sizes are as
follows:
structure with a round cross-section, typically • Application: Pipes accommodate larger
made of materials such as metal, plastic, or applications with sizes that range from half-
glass. They serve as conduits for the inch to several feet.
transportation of fluids, gases, or even solids.
Tube
Tubes can be manipulated and formed
• Diameter: Refers to the actual outside • Some sizes are non-standard like 1¼”,
into different shapes, such as bends, elbows, or diameter. 2½”, 3½”, and 5” (not used)
coils, to accommodate specific installation • Wall Thickness: Often specified by a gauge • The most important is 14” and above
requirements. for thinner thicknesses and by fractions of an (NPS is same as OD)
*Softer than pipe (easier to bend) inch or mm for thicker tubing.
Wall Thickness or Pipe Thickness 2. WORKING PRINCIPLE: WHAT IS A 3. RULE OF THUMB: PIPE AND TIBE
PIPING SYSTEM? SIZING PRINCIPLES
• Thickness is expressed by schedule
1) Line velocities and pressure drops,
(SCH.) Piping
• When the schedule increases, wall with line diameter D in inches: liquid
thickness also increases. Piping refers to the system of pipes, pump discharge, (5 + D/3) ft/sec, 2.0
o Pipe Size 1”, SCH 40 = 0.133” fittings, valves, and other components that are psi/100 ft; liquid pump suction, (1.3 +
o Pipe Size 1”, SCH 80 = 0.145” used to transport fluids (liquids or gases) D/6) ft/sec, 0.4 psi/100 ft; steam or
• The schedule number increases the wall within a facility or industrial plant. gas, 200 ft/sec, 0.5 psi/100 ft.
size and that the wall thickness changes 2) Control valves require at least 10 psi
based on the nominal pipe size. Industrial process piping can be drop for good control.
manufactured from wood, fiberglass, glass, 3) Globe valves are used for gases (easier
Standard Schedule Numbers:
steel, aluminum, copper, plastic, and concrete. to sip through tight spaces), for control
• 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, Piping systems are documented in piping and and wherever tight shutoff is required.
160 instrumentation diagrams. Gate valves are for most other
• Some are 5S, 10S. services. *Gate valves: steam or liquid
o S stands for stainless steel Basic Components of A Piping System
4) Screwed fittings are used only on
The iron pipe size (IPS) are: • PIPES: are the primary conduits that sizes 1.5 in. and smaller, flanges or
carry the fluid from its source to its welding otherwise.
• STD – Standard Wall destination. *Screw-type fittings are usually applied in
• XS – Extra Strong Esll • FITTINGS: allows for changes in
water piping
• XXS – Double Extra Strong Wall direction, branching, or connection of
5) Flanges and fittings are rated for 150,
300, 600, 900, 1500, or 2500 psig.
Pressure Temperature Rating (#): pipes to pipes or other components.
- used for points where bends or
• VALVES: control and regulate the connection from one pipe to another is
• The piping rating must be standardized flow of fluids within the piping system required
by the pressure-temperature rating of the to meet process requirements. - when pressure of flowing fluid is too
weakest pressure containing item in the
piping. • EXPANSION JOINTS: allow for the high, the point of connection is more
thermal expansion and contraction of prone to damage or corrosion due to high-
• The weakest item in a piping system
the pipes due to temperature variations pressure drop, thus ensure that the
may be a fitting made of weaker
• INSULATION: control heat transfer, pressure rating of flanges and fitting to be
materials or rated lower due to design and
used for connecting pipers are the same
other considerations. prevent condensation, or maintain
6) Pipe schedule number = 1000 P/S,
• Rating are as follows: specific temperatures.
approximately, where P is the internal
o 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, • SUPPORTS: used to secure and
2500 pressure psig and S is the allowable
support the pipes, preventing
working stress (about 10,000 psi for
------------------------------------------------------------- excessive stress, vibration, or sagging
A120 carbon steel at 500°F). Schedule
40 is most common.
4. DESIGN PRINCIPLES on the unit of measurement used in a To design pipe size for worst case scenario,
particular country or industry. consider applying the following conditions:
• PIPE SIZING: determining the
appropriate diameter or size of a pipe • Design flow rate (2x normal flow)
• PIPE TYPE: based on the material • Design temperature
used • Operating pressure (maximum if
• PIPE SUPPORT: used to secure and possible, ±30%-50%)
support pipes in a piping system B. Pipe Type Based On Material Used
• PIPE STRESSING: used to evaluate
the mechanical behavior of a piping • Steel Pipes
system under various condition *most common
• PIPE SELECTION: choosing the - Steel pipe withstands pressure of 100
most suitable type of pipe • Pipe Schedule psig or more, is durable, and has a long
- Pipe schedule is a system used to operating life cycle.
A. Pipe Sizing specify the wall thickness of pipes. - Steel pipes can be easily connected
The pipe schedule is denoted by a and joined using welding, threading,
• Nominal Size or flanging techniques.
- often referred to as Nominal Pipe Size numerical value followed by the
abbreviation "SCH" or "Schedule." - Steel is a highly recyclable material,
(NPS), is a numerical designation used making steel pipes an environmentally
to standardize pipe sizes in the Common pipe schedules include
Schedule 5S, Schedule 10S, Schedule friendly choice.
industry. It is a convenient way to - The most common pipe schedules for
refer to pipes based on their 40, and Schedule 80.
- The pipe schedule is related to the steel pipes include Schedule 40,
approximate dimensions rather than Schedule 80, and Schedule 160.
their exact measurements. nominal size of the pipe. Higher
- The nominal size of a pipe is typically schedule numbers indicate thicker Types Of Steel Pipe
represented by a whole number, walls, while lower schedule numbers
followed by the abbreviation "NPS." represent thinner walls. o Carbon Steel Pipe
For example, NPS 2 refers to a - is the most common type of steel pipe
Nominal Pipe Size Of 2 Inches. known for its high tensile strength and
resistance to impact, making it
• Outside Diameter suitable for transporting fluids and
- The outside diameter (OD) of a pipe gases under high pressures.
refers to the measurement of the outer o Stainless Steel Pipe
circumference of the pipe. The OD is - is commonly used in applications
typically expressed in units of inches where resistance to corrosion and
(in) or millimeters (mm), depending staining is crucial. It is available in
 different grades, such as 304, 316, and o ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene *air pressure drives the control valve,
410 suitable for different applications Styrene) Pipes needs to be increased to close the valve
*Grades depend on alloy composition - used for drain, waste, and vent (DWV) - The malleability facilitates the bend
systems, sanitary plumbing and and turns needed to make instrument
Composition of Popular Stainless Steels industrial drainage systems. connections in tight spaces.
o CPVC (Chlorinated Polyvinyl
Chloride) Pipes • Fiberglass Pipes
- used for hot water supply systems, *usually found in laboratory scale
sprinkler systems, and industrial *not exposed in industrial scale, fiberglass pipes are
• Plastic Pipes covered with other pipelines
applications that require higher
- Plastic pipes are widely used in
temperature handling. - also known as GRP (Glass Reinforced
various industries and applications
o PEX (Cross-linked Polyethylene) Plastic) pipes or FRP (Fiber
due to their lightweight nature,
Pipes Reinforced Plastic) pipes, are
corrosion resistance, ease of
- used for drain, waste, and vent (DWV) composed of a combination of glass
installation, and cost-effectiveness.
systems, sanitary plumbing and fibers and a thermosetting resin
- Thermoplastic pipes cannot be used
industrial drainage systems matrix.
with hot process fluids. 100–150°C is
o PP (Polypropylene) Pipes - Fiberglass pipes have a high strength-
the maximum use temperature for
- used for hot water supply systems, to-weight ratio, low thermal
most plastic piping. At temperatures
sprinkler systems, and industrial conductivity, excellent resistance to
above this, the piping will sag, melt or
applications that require higher corrosion, and smooth interior
distort.
temperature handling surface, minimizing friction loss and
*For fluids that are not highly corrosive or enhancing flow efficiency.
nonreactive with plastic or not requiring high • Copper Pipes And Tubing
temperature *small connections but heat distribution are C. Pipe Support
important, to preserve temperature profile *usually not placed on the ground for safety, hence
Types of Plastic Pipe situated on pipe racks or elevated
*differs in color - Copper pipes are a popular choice in *for vertical movement or support
plumbing and heating applications due
o PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) Pipes - refers to the components and systems
to their excellent thermal conductivity,
- used for water supply systems, used to provide structural support and
corrosion resistance, and durability.
drainage systems, irrigation, electrical stability to pipes, ensuring their proper
- Soft copper tubing is used to connect
conduit systems, and plumbing alignment, elevation, and protection.
instruments to an air supply and to
applications. - plays a crucial role in maintaining the
carry air signals from one instrument
o HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene) integrity and functionality of piping
to another.
Pipes systems by preventing excessive
*used to introduce instrument air in
- used for water and gas distribution, control valves stress, sagging, vibration, and
wastewater systems, industrial piping, movement.
and agricultural applications.
Pipe Restraint CODES AND STANDARDS FOR guide support, line stop support, and
*support in terms of horizontal movement PIPING SUPPORT DESIGN Trunnion support.
- is focused on preventing the • Secondary Piping Support
movement or displacement of pipes establishes the material, - are pipe supports that are not directly
under certain conditions. design, and inspection criteria attached to the pipe. Support brackets,
- is specifically employed to resist MSS - SP -
to be used in the secondary steel members on which
58 (USA)
forces that could cause pipes to move, manufacturing of standard pipe or primary supports rest, tee post,
shift, or separate. pipe supports goal post, sleepers, racks, etc are
- is necessary when there is a risk of the examples
pipe being subjected to significant provides recommendations
MSS - SP -
external forces, such as pressure, for the selection and
69 (USA)
thermal expansion, or ground application of pipe supports
movement, that could exceed its
inherent resistance. provides recommendations
MSS - SP -
for the fabrication and
Functions Of Piping Support 89 (USA)
installation of pipe supports
• To prevent pipe stresses in excess to
allowable BS - 3974 specification of pipe supports
• To eliminate the leakages in joints (UK) 1, 2, 3
• To absorb excessive line vibrations Piping Support Types
• To counter the undesirable effects of VGB - 510 L • Based on support hardware
seismic, wind, water hammer, slug, and standard supports guidelines
(Germany) rigidity:
other dynamic loadings o Rigid support
• To remove unintentional disengagement RCC - M specifications for pipe o Resilient support/Elastic
of piping from its supports (France) supports support
• To prevent excessive pipe sag o Adjustable support
• To eliminate exposure of elements to MITI 501 • Based on welding:
temperature extremes outside their design technical regulations
(Japan) o Welded Pipe Support
limit o Clamped Pipe Support
• To limit undesirable line movements to • Based on piping insulation:
protect sensitive equipment against Types Of Pipe Support Based On
o Piping Supports for Hot
overloading Attachment With Pipe
Insulation
• To redirect pipe thermal movements to the • Primary Piping Support o Piping Supports of Cold
favorable direction - are pipe supports that are directly Insulation
• To reduce excessive loading in support attached to the pipe. Some examples o Piping Supports for Acoustic
itself include shoe support, clamp support, Insulation
 • Based on pipe support function: • UNION: are similar to couplings but - Stem rising: when valve is turned,
o Resting Support allow for easy disconnection of pipes threading rises but wheel is fixed
o Guide Support or components for maintenance or - Valve rising: when valve is turned, wheel
and threading rise
o Axial Stop or Line Stop repairs
*If not fully open or closed regularly, corrosion is
o Anchor Support • CAP AND PLUG: used to seal the possible.
ends of pipes when they are not in use *When asked about the size of pipeline, go to the
D. Pipe Fittings or need to be closed temporarily nearest valve
- are components used to connect, • CROSS: have a plus-shaped design Name Plate:
control, and direct the flow of fluids and provide four openings for pipes to - Pipe size: 2 in
(liquids or gases) in a piping system. intersect - Pressure reading: 150 psig (max)
They are essential for ensuring the
------------------------------------------------------- • Globe Valve
proper functioning and integrity of the
- used to stop, start, and regulate the fluid
system. Types of Valve used in Piping - Learn about 9 flow
- different pipe fittings serve different Types of Valves - used in systems where flow control is
functions as per layout or process required and leak tightness is also
Valve is a device that regulates, controls, or directs
requirements. Pipe fittings are the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or partially necessary.
manufactured as separate items and obstructing fluid flow. Basically, it controls flow - provides better
procured separately and pressure. shut-off as compared to
*Counterclockwise – open gate valves and it is
Types Of Pipe Fittings *Clockwise – close costlier than gate valve.
- Can be used in
• ELBOWS: used to change the • Gate valve any position (e.g. 10%,
direction of the pipe typically in 45- - the most common type of valve in any 20%, 50%, or 70%
degree and 90-degree angles process plant open)
• REDUCERS: used to connect pipes - a linear motion valve used to start or stop
of different diameters fluid flow • Check Valve
o from bigger to smaller diameter - In service, these valves are either in fully - prevents backflow in the piping system.
*EXPANDERS: from smaller to bigger open or fully closed position. - The pressure of the fluid passing through
diameter - used in almost all fluid services such as a pipeline opens the valve, while any
• VALVES: used to control the flow of air, gas, feed reversal of flow will close the valve.
fluids by opening, closing, or partially water, steam, - Open with the
lube oil, forward flow and
obstructing the pathway
hydrocarbon, closed automatically
• TEE FITTINGS: have a T-shaped and almost in case of back flow.
design and are used to create branches any services. - Arrow under
or splits in a pipeline - provides good pressure reading
• COUPLING: used to connect two shutoff indicates the flow
pipes together, usually permanently direction.
 - Most ball - used when accurate flow reading is
valves are of the required or when chemicals is mixed
quick-acting type,
which requires a 90° • Pinch Valve
turn of the valve - also known as
handle to operate the clamp valve.
valve. - It is a linear
- smaller and motion valve used to
lighter than a gate valve of same size and start, regulate, and stop
rating. fluid flow.
- Ball-type disc - It uses a rubber
• Plug Valve tube, also known as a
- is quarter-turn • Butterfly Valve pinch tube and a pinch
rotary motion valve - is a quarter-turn mechanism to control
that uses a tapered or rotary motion the fluid.
cylindrical plug to valve, that is used - ideally suited for the handling of slurries,
stop or start the flow. to stop, regulate, liquids with large amounts of suspended
- The disk is in and start the flow. solids, and systems that convey solid
plug shape, which has - has a short circular material pneumatically.
a passage to pass the body
flow. - is suitable for large • Pressure Relief Valve
- used as on-off valve applications due to compact, - Or pressure
stop valves and capable of providing lightweight design that requires safety valve are used to
bubble tight shutoff. considerably less space, as compared to protect equipment or
- can be used in vacuum to high-pressure & other valves. piping system during
temperature applications - Best option over plug and ball valve due an overpressure event
- Cylindrical disc to small space needed or in the event of
- Hollow part is exposed in the pipeline vacuum.
when handle is turned towards the user, • Needle Valve - This valve
then closed part when in close position - are similar to a globe releases the pressure or vacuum at pre-
- If handle is towards or parallel to flow of valve in design with the defined set pressure.
pipe, open. biggest difference is the
- Most common example is kuntador sharp needle like a disk. -------------------------------------------------------
- are designed to give
very accurate control of E. Pipe Stressing
• Ball Valve
- is a quarter-turn rotary motion valve that flow in small diameter
- is the process of evaluating the
uses a ball-shaped disk to stop or start the piping systems.
- They get their name behavior and performance of a piping
flow. system under various operating
from their sharp-pointed
conical disc and matching seat.
 conditions, including pressure, moment and the section modulus of the
temperature, and external forces. section.
- ensure that the piping system can
safely handle the expected loads and
operating conditions without
experiencing excessive deformation,
displacement, or failure.
Common Causes Of Pipe Stress
*all fluids have internal pressure
1. Thermal Expansion and Contraction
*maximum stress happens at bends
- Sudden change in temperature leads to a • Axial Stress
tendency of either expansion (increase) or
This stress is the result of a force acting • Fatigue Stress
contraction
2. Pressure Loads perpendicular to an area of a body, causing the This refers to the stress that occurs due to
3. Weight Loads extension or compression of the material. It cyclic loading or repeated stress cycles over
4. External Loads can also be caused by various factors such as time. It is a phenomenon that can lead to
5. Pipe Misalignment or Misplacement pipe weight and fluid load, external loads, and progressive damage and eventual failure of the
6. Expansion and Contraction due to thermal expansion and contraction. pipe, even when the stress levels are below the
Equipment Movement material's ultimate strength.
7. Fluid Transients
8. Corrosion and Erosion
9. Operational Charges

MAIN TYPES OF PIPING STRESSES

• Hoop Stress
*most common

When a fluid, gas, or liquid is flowing

through a pipe, it exerts pressure on the inner
walls of the pipe. This internal pressure creates
a circumferential stress, known as hoop stress, • Bending Stress
which acts perpendicular to the longitudinal
D. Pipe Size Selection
axis of the pipe. This is the normal stress that an object
withstands when it is subjected to external load Pipe size selection is a critical aspect of
at any cross-section. The bending stress is also designing a piping system to ensure its
defined as the ratio between the Bending
efficient and effective operation. The selection Efficiency Inputs required are as follows:
of an appropriate pipe size depends on several P = pressure
factors such as: Proper piping material selection and T = temperature
system design control the flow rate and Q = flow rate
• Flow rate: pipe must be able to velocity in a way that minimizes energy costs.
accommodate the required flow rate For finding recommended pipe size,
without causing excessive fluid velocity, The net result is that there is a assume a pipe size and calculate its gas velocity
which can lead to pressure drop, erosion, minimum cost as manifested in the net present using the following formulas:
value. The diameter corresponding to this
or turbulence. Formula for calculating gas velocity is given
minimum cost is known as the economic pipe
• Pressure drop - a larger pipe diameter can below:
diameter.
help reduce pressure drop, but it may also
increase initial costs and require larger Reliability And Service Of Life
pumps or higher energy consumption.
• Fluid properties - fluids with higher Optimizing the pipe size and velocity of
viscosities may require larger pipe sizes to the fluid not only improves the system
minimize frictional losses, while corrosive efficiency but can also increase the service life
fluids may necessitate the use of specific by:
materials or coatings. • Reduced pressure drop
• Velocity limits - excessive fluid velocity • Lower frictional losses Volumetric flow actual can be calculated using
can cause increased pressure drop,
• Enhanced heat transfer this formula:
erosion, noise, and vibration, while very
• Mitigation of erosion and corrosion
low velocities can result in sedimentation
and;
or settling of particles within the pipe.
• Adequate safety margins
• Standards and Codes - such as ASME T = Temperature (K)
Q = Flow rate (Nm3/hr)
B31.3 for process piping or ASME B31.1 ------------------------------------------------------- P = Pressure (MPaabs)
for power piping provide guidelines for
pipe size selection based on design Pipe Line Sizing by Velocity for Gases | Simple
Science Area of cross section for pipe can be calculated
criteria, material selection, and specific using this formula:
applications. How to calculate pipe size:
Consider a pipeline through which gas is
RANGES OF VELOCITY IN PIPES passing through:
D = Pipe inner diameter (m)
EXAMPLE CALCULATION: Consider one 1-inch schedule 160 pipe: pipes, and maximizes system performance. By
following best practices, an accurately sized
piping system can be achieved, resulting in
improved efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and
overall satisfaction in various industrial,
commercial, and residential applications.05
Proper pipe and tube sizing is a critical aspect
of designing a functional and efficient piping
system. Choosing the right size helps minimize
Consider half inch pipe with schedule 160: issues such as pressure drop, reduce frictional
losses, mitigate erosion and corrosion, and
ensure system safety. It also promotes long-
term reliability, extends the service life of the
Hence, 1-inch schedule 160 pipe is recommended pipes, and maximizes system performance. By
for this application.
following best practices, an accurately sized
PRACTICE PROBLEM: piping system can be achieved, resulting in
improved efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and
overall satisfaction in various industrial,
commercial, and residential applications.
Factors to consider for pipe sizing:
Basic Piping Design
To design pipe size for worst case scenario,
consider applying following conditions:
In general, recommended gas velocity shall be • design flow rate (2x normal flow)
less than or equal to 25 m/s: • design temperature
• minimum operating pressure
-------------------------------------------------------
CONCLUSION

In English system, less than 10-30 ft/s. Proper pipe and tube sizing is a critical aspect
of designing a functional and efficient piping
Hence, half inch schedule 160 pipe is not system. Choosing the right size helps minimize
recommended for this application. issues such as pressure drop, reduce frictional
losses, mitigate erosion and corrosion, and
ensure system safety. It also promotes long-
term reliability, extends the service life of the
LESSON 3: FLOW OF FLUIDS o NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID: o value of Mach number should be
fluid that doesn’t obey Newton’s greater than 0.3
1. INTRODUCTION: FLUIDS law of viscosity
* mayonnaise, butter TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
FLUID FLOW
o IDEAL PLASTIC FLUID: • Steady Flow: the velocity of the fluid is
- a transport process: the rate of transfer when shear stress is proportional constant at any point
of matter or energy depends on factors to the velocity gradient and
• Unsteady Flow: the fluid’s velocity can
like the properties of the material and exceeds the yield value
differ between any two points
the system's geometry *usually caused by bends or flow measuring
- key fundamental ideas for fluid flow TYPES OF FLUIDS based on
compressibility device, sudden change in pressure or flow
include the following Conservation • Viscous Flow: fluid flow in which
Laws: • INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID frictional effects become significant
o Conservation of Mass, o matter that cannot be compressed • Non-viscous Flow: fluid flow in which
Conservation of Energy, and with the application of external frictional effects become negligible
Conservation of Linear pressure
Momentum o volume cannot be reduced with FLUID FLOW EQUATION
TYPES OF FLUIDS the application of a pressure on the Mass flow rate: movement of mass per unit
fluid time
• IDEAL FLUID: cannot be compressed o density cannot be changed with
and the viscosity doesn’t fall in this the application of a pressure on the Mass flow rate = ρAV
category; imaginary fluid fluid
*used in computations; exists on ideal o value of Mach number should be Sample Problem: A fluid moves through a
conditions less than 0.3 tube of 15 m/s, the tube has a transverse area
*used to quantify the behavior of fluid in a *Mach number: ratio of the speed of of 0.4 m2. If the density of the fluid is ρ = 1.5
certain condition, consequently, providing the a body to the speed of sound in the grams/m3, what is the amount of mass flowing
deviation from reality surrounding medium; dimensionless through the tube?
*pressure and temperature are linear quantity
• REAL FLUID: all the fluids possess • COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
Solution:
viscosity o matter that can be compressed • ρ = 1.5 grams/m3
o NEWTONIAN FLUID: fluid with the application of external • A = 0.4 m2
that obeys Newton’s law of pressure • V = 15 m/s
viscosity o volume can be reduced with the 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
*Newton’s Law of Viscosity: shear stress application of a pressure on the
fluid 𝑔 𝑚
is directly proportional to the velocity 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (1.5 3
)(0.4 𝑚2 )(15 )
o density can be changed with the 𝑚 𝑠
gradient
application of a pressure on the 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝟗 𝒈/𝒔
*water, honey, blood fluid
2. Working Principles 𝝆𝑫𝑽 3. Working Equations
Reynolds Number [𝑵𝑹𝒆 = ]
𝝁
Conservation of Mass Power Requirements
For plant design, it is important to consider the
This principle applies to fluid flow, Reynolds number to understand the behavior A convenient formula in common
where the total mass entering a system must be of the fluid, calculate pressure drops, and engineering units for power consumption in
equal to the total mass exiting the system. determine the appropriate pipe sizes. the transfer of liquids is:
Mass flow rates and concentrations need to be *Fluid Flow:
accurately calculated and maintained
throughout the plant design. - Laminar: Re < 2000
- Transitional: 2000 < Re < 4000
Bernoulli's Principle - Turbulent: Re > 4000
Bernoulli's principle describes the Optimum Pipe Diameter
Fluid Properties
relationship between fluid pressure, velocity, Peters and Timmerhaus (1980;
and elevation in a streamlined flow. Density, viscosity, and specific heat
Chapter 1 References) devised two shortcut
Bernoulli's equation is often applied to affect fluid flow design. These qualities affect
rules for optimum steel pipe diameters of 1-in.
determine pressure differences, flow pressure drop, flow, heat transfer, and system
or higher for turbulent and laminar flow:
velocities, and potential energy changes in a performance. Plant design and equipment
fluid system. selection require accurate fluid property data.
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Friction, pipe fittings, valves, and
equipment cause fluid flow system pressure D is in inches, Q in cuft/sec, p in lb/cuft, and u
drop. To maintain system pressure, pressure in cP.
*Relates fluid pressure, velocity, and elevation
from one point to another. drop must be calculated. Head loss estimates Power-Law for Transitional Flow
assist size and select pumps based on energy
Conservation of Energy loss. For power-law fluids, which exhibit
In fluid flow systems, this principle is non-Newtonian behavior, the equation for the
Pump and Fan Selection critical Reynolds number may differ from that
important for determining the energy balance,
including the calculation of fluid pressure, Plant design requires selecting the right of Newtonian fluids
velocity, and head loss due to friction and other pumps and fans for fluid circulation and • Transitional Flow: refers to a flow
factors. It is crucial to ensure that the energy transfer. When choosing pumps and fans, regime in fluid dynamics that exhibits
supplied to the system is equal to the energy consider flow rate, pressure, system resistance, characteristics of both laminar flow
consumed or dissipated. and efficiency. A well-designed pumping and turbulent flow
system can save energy and money.
 • Economic Balance: Power needed to calculate friction losses in such cases
overcome frictional losses depends on assume ideal conditions
pipe flow velocity. Fluid velocity • as pipes age, they may experience
Power-Law for Turbulent Flow increases frictional losses and power corrosion, scale formation, or other
loss. Higher velocities increase energy forms of deposits that can roughen the
The Dodge and Metzner correlation, consumption and operating expenses. inner surface; these irregularities
proposed in 1959, provides a mathematical Higher velocities need larger pipe cause increased friction, leading to
equation to estimate the friction factor for sizes and equipment, which can higher pressure drop and energy losses
power-law fluid flow in pipes. increase system capital costs.
By adding 20-40% to the calculated friction
• Turbulent Flow: type of fluid flow, FRICTION DUE TO FITTINGS AND losses, engineers can ensure that the system is
either in gases or liquids, where the VALVES designed to handle any potential buildup of
fluid experiences irregular deposits or roughening of the pipe surface.
When calculating friction losses in
fluctuations and mixing; involves
pipe lines caused by fittings, valves, and flow FOULING FACTORS
continuous changes in the speed and
disturbances, engineers use the concepts of
direction of the fluid at a given point. *usual in handling highly corrosive or polymeric
equivalent lengths of pipe or multiples of the
materials
velocity head.
There are recommended fouling
The equivalent length of pipe
factors for heat transfer, such as heat
represents the length of a straight pipe that
exchanger fouling resistance, but no
would cause the same pressure drop as the
4. Rule of Thumb commonly accepted or standardized fouling
fitting or disturbance.
factors for friction losses in fluid flow systems.
VELOCITY IN PIPES The velocity head is a measure of the
Over 10 years, water line pressure
In practice, velocities in pipe lines are due to kinetic energy of the flowing fluid and is
drops have doubled.
two main factors: related to the fluid velocity.
Pipe deposits and fouling cause
• Occurrence of erosion: Pipeline FRICTION CORRELATIONS
pressure drop.
erosion can occur when fluid velocity It is generally recommended to include a factor
reaches a particular limit. High-speed Fouling and friction losses depend on
of safety of 20-40% when calculating friction
fluid particles erode the pipe wall by fluid composition, flow rate, pipe material, and
losses
abrasion. Erosion causes pipe operating circumstances; regular cleaning and
thinning, leaks, and failure. Velocity • when pipes are new and clean, the chemical treatments can reduce fouling and
restrictions keep fluid flow within a inner surface is generally smooth, and keep the fluid flow system running smoothly.
safe range to prevent erosion and pipe the friction losses are relatively low; Engineers and operators must monitor fluid
system damage. the correlations or equations used to flow systems for increasing pressure drop or
lower flow rates, which may indicate fouling.
SONIC VELOCITY from one point to • Provide sufficient straight pipe lengths
another upstream and downstream for accurate
The velocity of a disturbance or a measurement.
RECTANGULAR
wave propagating through the fluid; a pressure
WEIR: used to • Follow recognized industry standards for
wave that moves through the fluid with a
calculate the rate of orifice plate design and installation.
constant velocity which depends on the bulk
flow of the body of • Calibrate orifices periodically for accurate
modulus of the fluid and it's density
water flow measurement.
Let's consider a scenario where a fluid PITOT TUBE: an • Select compatible materials and coatings
is flowing at an average velocity 'v' through a instrument for for the fluid and process conditions.
pipe of length 'l' meters. If you were to tap the measuring a flowing • Install and maintain orifices following best
pipe at one end, the speed at which the tapping fluid velocity (speed) practices.
sound travels to the other end is called the • Maintain accurate documentation for
sonic velocity, denoted by 'c'. tracking and troubleshooting.
In fluid dynamics, the sonic velocity is ORIFICES CONTROL VALVES
estimated as 343 meters per second (or 1,125 *easiest to install and cost-effective
feet per second) in dry air at room temperature • No viscosity
and sea level. The fluid's temperature, • Serve as versatile devices in pipelines, correction necessary
pressure, and composition affect this value. finding applications in both flow rate if viscosity ≤ 20
measurement and fluid mixing; their centistokes
METERING DEVICES simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and • For sizing a flashing
*incorporated in piping system to generate change reliability make them popular choices for control valve add the
in velocity, pressure drop, or uniformity
various industries where accurate flow Cv's (liquid sizing
*results pressure drop, which in turn, can change to
flowrate
measurement or efficient fluid mixing are coefficient) of the
essential liquid and the vapor
A rule of thumb for metering devices • Mixing orifices are primarily focused on • Design tolerance.
is to ensure accuracy and reliability in promoting fluid blending, while flow Many use the greater of the following:
measuring various quantities such as measurement orifices prioritize accurate
electricity, water, gas, or other forms of flow rate measurement. Qsizing = 1.3 Qnormal Qsizing = 1.1 Qmaximum
energy. • Type of trim: use equal percentage
ORIFICE: used as Here are simplified guidelines for orifices:
whenever there is a large design
fixed throttles that • Size the orifice based on desired flow rate uncertainty or wide range ability is
generate head loss and pressure drop. desired; use linear for small uncertainty
VENTURI: used to • Ensure Reynolds number falls within cases; limit max/min flow to about 10 for
measure the speed of a recommended range for desired flow type. equal percentage trim and 5 for linear; and
fluid, by measuring
the pressure changes
 equal percentage trim usually requires one where a standing wave can be set up. It
larger nominal body size than linear. may be cheaper to design some small
• For good control where possible, make the vessels to withstand an explosion than to
control valve take 50%-60% of the system provide a safety relief system. It is typical
flowing head loss to specify as minimum plate thickness (for
• For saturated steam keep control valve carbon steel only).
outlet velocity below 0.25 mach
• Keep valve inlet velocity below 300 ft/sec 5. Design Principles
for 2" and smaller, and 200 ft/sec for larger
sizes
SAFETY RELIEF VALVES
*to avoid overpressure

• Check metallurgy for light hydrocarbons

flashing during relief. Very low
temperatures can be produced
• Always
check
for
reaction
force
from the
tailpipe.
• Hand
jacks are
a big
help on large relief valves for several
reasons. One is to give the operator a
chance to reseat a leaking relief valve. Flat
seated valves have an advantage over
bevel seated valves if the plant forces have
to reface the surfaces (usually happens at
midnight)
• The maximum pressure from an explosion
of a hydrocarbon and air is 7x initial
pressure, unless it occurs in a long pipe
LESSON 4: TRANSFER OF SOLIDS TYPES OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING • DENSE PHASE
*differs in terms of air pressure *slow flow rate or small air pressure; used
Transfer of solids involves the when handling fragile materials
movement of bulk materials such as powders, The forms of pneumatic conveying are the
granules, or other solid forms from one dilute phase and dense phase. Each type moves Dense phase system is essentially a batch
location to another within a facility. materials using air pressure and an enclosed process, characterized by low velocity, high
line or tube. The difference between them is pressure and high product to air ratio.
A greater variety of equipment is their method of creating air pressure and how
employed for to and from storage and between the material travels through the system. This pneumatic conveying is perfect for
process equipment. fragile materials and mixtures because of its
• DILUTE PHASE low speed and air volume, which prevents
CONVEYING SYSTEMS *tendency to require large air pressure or materials from breaking down.
volume due to push or pull
• PNEUMATIC
- transfers powders, granules and There are two methods for moving
other dry bulk materials through materials using dilute phase pneumatic
an enclosed horizontal or vertical conveying, which are positive and negative.
conveying line
• MECHANICAL A positive or blowing phase system
- transport large amounts of product uses a fan or blower to create pressure in the
horizontally, vertically or at an line and suspend the material.
incline through a powder A negative or vacuum system, work in
processing system reverse. Instead of pushing or blowing material
through the line, they create a vacuum and pull
1. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING Basic Equipment Arrangements of
material through.
Pneumatic Conveying Systems
Working Principle
*if the material is too heavy, strong air is required,
resulting to loud noise and great loss

Bulk goods can be moved by means of

air through pipelines.
The flowing conveying air transmits a
propulsion force on the bulk material and thus
conveys it through the conveying line.
Figure (a) Vacuum system with several
sources and one destination, multiple pickup
 ADVANTAGES OF PNEUMATIC 2. MECHANICAL CONVEYING
CONVEYING *elevator and escalator

1. Suitable for long-distance and high- Working Principle

capacity transfers.
The conveyor utilizes mechanical
2. Can handle fine powders and granular
power to move the solid material along a
materials.
predetermined path.
3. Provides a closed and dust-free
transfer system. Mechanical conveying operates based
Figure (b) pressure system with rotary valve 4. Allows for flexibility in routing and on the principles of friction and mechanical
feeder, one source and several layout design. power transmission.
destinations, multiple discharge; 5. Can handle multiple pickups (requires
negative conveying) and discharge • Granular solids refer to materials that exist
points (positive conveying). in a granulated form, typically consisting
of small particles or grains.
DISADVANTAGES OF PNEUMATIC • Mechanical conveying movement for
CONVEYING granular solids may be horizontal or
1. Can be complex to design, install, and vertical or both. Distances of several miles
maintain. They involve various may be covered by belts servicing
components which require careful construction sites or mines or power
integration and regular maintenance. plants. Capacities range up to several
Figure (c) pressure systemwith Venturi feed 2. Can cause material segregation and hundred tons/hr.
for friable materials degradation. Here are some examples of granular solids
3. Generates noise and dust due to the that are commonly handled using
operation of blowers, compressors, mechanical conveyors and elevators:
and other equipment.
4. Presents challenges when handling • Grains: wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats, and
cohesive materials that tend to stick to rye
surfaces. • Sand and Gravel: Granular materials
*handle materials without moisture used in construction and landscaping
content or tendency to stick into surfaces; applications
lightweight materials • Fertilizers: ammonium nitrate, urea,
potash, and phosphate-based fertilizers
Figure (d) pull-push system in which the fan • Plastic Granules: polyethylene (PE),
both picks up the solids and delivers them polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), and other plastic resins
Codes for Characteristics of Granular The tangent of the angle of repose is
Material the coefficient of sliding friction.
The characteristics of granular This property is a factor in the power
materials can vary depending on factors such needed to transfer the material by pushing or
as particle size, density, flowability, dragging as in pneumatic, screw, flight, and
abrasiveness, and hazards. The codes for these Redler equipment.
characteristics are standard methods and
parameters used to describe and measure them COMMON TYPES OF MECHANICAL
in engineering and scientific contexts. CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS
(c) Inclined or retarding conveyor for lowering
1. BELT CONVEYOR materials gently down slopes.
- are the most common type of
mechanical conveyors. They consist MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE
of a continuous belt that moves over FOR BELT CONVEYOR
pulleys or drums to transport
PROBLEM: In a manufacturing plant, a belt
materials.
conveyor moves 16,000 kg of pineapple
- Belt conveyors are versatile and
wastes simultaneously at a belt speed of
widely used in industries such as
492.13 ft/min on a conveyor belt with a weight
mining, agriculture, food processing,
of 600 kg, on a slider bed with a friction factor
and manufacturing.
Angle of Repose and Allowable Angles of of 0.035 at an angle of inclination of 30°. What
Inclination Basic Arrangements of Belt Conveyor is the power required to operate the conveyor?

(a) Horizontal conveyor with discharge at an 2. SCREW CONVEYOR

intermediate point as well as at the end. - use a rotating helical screw blade to
move materials along a trough. They
The angle of repose is a measure of the (b) Inclined conveyor, satisfactory up to 20°
are suitable for handling bulk
incline at which conveyors such as screws or with some materials.
materials, including granular solids
belts can carry the material. and powders, in industries such as
 agriculture, wastewater treatment, and material and influences the flowability and 4. DRAG CHAIN CONVEYORS
chemical processing. potential for material fallback. - also known as Redler machine, this is
a type of mechanical conveying
TYPES OF SCREWS USED IN The capacity of a standard pitch system used to transport bulk
CONVEYORS screws drops off sharply with the inclination. materials horizontally or on a slight
incline.
It is commonly employed in various
industries for handling a wide range of
Standard shape with pitch equal to the materials, including powders, granules, flakes,
diameter, the paddles retard the forward and other bulk solids.
movement and promote mixing.
TYPES OF DRAG CONVEYORS

3. BUCKET ELEVATORS Tubular drag chain conveyors operate by

- are vertical conveyors that use buckets dragging a chain with attached discs or paddles
attached to a belt or chain to transport inside a sealed tube or pipe.
Short pitch suited to transfer of material up materials vertically. They are Enmasse drag chain conveyors operate on the
inclines of as much as 20 commonly used to lift bulk materials, principle of moving material in a closed,
such as grains, minerals, and rectangular trough using a single or double
fertilizers, from lower to higher levels chain with flights.
in industries like agriculture, mining,
and food processing. 5. SOLID FEEDER
- also known as a bulk material feeder,
Cut flight screws combine a moderate mixing TYPES OF BUCKET ELEVATORS is a device used to accurately and
action with forward movement, used for light,
reliably feed bulk solids from a
fine, granular or flaky materials • Centrifugal bucket elevators
storage container or hopper into a
- use centrifugal force generated by a
downstream process.
high-speed centrifugal discharge
pulley to throw the material out of the Solid feeders are commonly used in
buckets and into the discharge chute. industries such as mining, pharmaceuticals,
Ribbon flights are suited to sticky, gummy or food processing, chemical processing, and
• Continuous bucket elevators agriculture.
viscous substances
- use a chain or belt with specially
Angle of Inclination of Screw Conveyors designed buckets to continuously lift
and discharge the material.
The angle of inclination determines
the amount of power required to transport the
ADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL - used to transport of even sticky and
CONVEYING abrasive solids up inclines of 20° or so
- 12 in. diameter conveyor: handles 1000–
1. Suitable for a wide range of materials, 3000 cuft/hr (40 to 60 rpm)
including large, coarse, or irregularly
shaped solids. BUCKET ELEVATORS
2. Can handle heavy-duty applications and
high temperatures. - with 20×20 inches capacity can reach
3. Offers precise control over the material 1000cuft/hr at a speed of 100ft/min, but
flow. speeds to 300ft/min are used
4. Requires lower initial investment DRAG CHAIN CONVEYOR
compared to pneumatic conveying.
- units range in size from 3 in. square to 19
DISADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL in. square
CONVEYING - may travel from 30 ft/min (fly ash) to 250
1. Often require a significant amount of ft/min (grains)
space for installation, especially for long- PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR
distance or complex layouts
2. Can cause material contamination or - for high capacity, short distance (400 ft)
cross-contamination. transport simultaneously
3. Can have limitations when it comes to - either vacuum or low pressure (6–12 psig)
incline or vertical lift. is employed with a range of air velocities
4. Often require regular maintenance to from 35 to 120 ft/sec
ensure optimal performance of
CONCLUSION
components such as belts, chains,
bearings, and pulleys. Transport of solids is a vital process in
numerous industries. Efficient and reliable
3. RULES OF THUMB: Conveyors for handling of bulk materials is essential for
Particulate Solids maintaining smooth operations and
maximizing productivity. By implementing
BELT CONVEYOR
suitable conveying and feeding solutions,
- for high capacity and long distances, up industries can minimize material loss and
inclines of 30° max ensure smooth operations throughout their
- 24 in. wide belt can carry 3000 cuft/hr at a manufacturing or processing facilities.
speed of 100 ft/min (widely used)
SCREW CONVEYOR