Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

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Land Use Policy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/landusepol

Changing urban green spaces in Shanghai: trends, drivers and policy T

implications
⁎
Zhen Wua,1, Ruishan Chena, , Michael E. Meadowsa,b,2, Dhritiraj Senguptaa,3, Di Xuc,4
a
Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science, Ministry of Education, and School of Geographic Sciences, Institute of Eco-Chongming, East China Normal University,
Shanghai, 200241, China
b
Department of Environmental and Geographical Science, University of Cape Town, South Africa
c
School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 201418, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Urban green spaces play a range of significant roles and have a positive influence on the quality of life in cities.
Urban green spaces Shanghai, a major economic and financial center in China, has set its goal to become a more ecologically in-
Spatial pattern tegrated and livable city. The urban authorities envisage Shanghai as “a city in the forest, a forest in the city”. To
Temporal trends achieve this greener future, the government has developed a series of policies to improve urban greening cov-
Landscape index
erage. Based on land use and land cover data from 1980 to 2015, this paper analyzes temporal and spatial
Driving forces
Greening policy
changes in urban green spaces in Shanghai, and explores the driving forces underlying the observed changes.
Although the total urban green spaces in Shanghai declined from 1980 to 2015, different districts have different
trends. Urban green spaces in the suburbs and the islands have declined, although, the city center increased its
green spaces following several decades of decrease. Several factors have contributed to these changes, including
population increase, conflicting government policies, real estate development, and rising demand for recreation
space. Knowledge of the dynamics of urban green spaces in the city can assist in fostering an appropriate balance
between urban development and environmental protection. To prevent environmental degradation and to plan a
restoration pathway, cities should attempt to keep green spaces in mind during the development process and
integrate the green spaces into urban planning. Understanding the dynamics of green spaces in Shanghai may
offer insights for other cities in developing their own green spaces.

1. Introduction an important topic in sustainable urban development discourse. Urban

green space can be defined as any area within a city that is without
Today, more than half of the global population lives in urban areas buildings, may be natural or human-maintained, public or private and
and, indeed, by 2030, it is expected that two out of every three people are complex and diverse components of the urban ecosystem (Wolch
globally will reside in cities (UN Habitat, 2016). This will inevitably et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2011). The degradation or loss of these green
result in the ongoing expansion and/or densification of urbanized areas spaces reduces the overall quality of urban ecosystems themselves
(Haaland and van den Bosch, 2015). The urbanization process has re- (Fang et al., 2003) but also has direct impacts on human health and
sulted in environmental degradation and the loss of global biodiversity well-being (Tzoulas et al., 2007). Many inter-related problems arise
(Seto et al., 2012), so the dynamics of urban green spaces have become from the fragmentation of urban green spaces, including augmentation

⁎
Corresponding author. Present address: Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science, Ministry of Education, and School of Geographic Sciences, Institute of
Eco-Chongming, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Wu), [email protected] (R. Chen), [email protected] (M.E. Meadows),
[email protected] (D. Sengupta), [email protected] (D. Xu).
1
Address: Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science, Ministry of Education, and School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai
200241, China.
2
Address: Department of Environmental and Geographical Science, University of Cape Town, South Africa. Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science,
Ministry of Education, and School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China.
3
Address: Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science, Ministry of Education, and School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai
200241, China.
4
Address: School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 201418, China.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104080
Received 11 January 2019; Received in revised form 21 June 2019; Accepted 28 June 2019
Available online 05 July 2019
0264-8377/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

of the urban heat island effect (Zhou et al., 2002), changes in the hy- spatial-temporal patterns and trends obtained from land use and
drological regime associated with the greater frequency and magnitude land cover data.
of urban flooding (Gupta and Nair, 2011), and deterioration in air • To detect the changing distribution and integrity of urban green
quality (Santamouris, 2014). However, urban green space has emerged spaces through various landscape indices for Shanghai.
as one of the most important potential solutions to a variety of urban • To identify the underlying driving forces of observed changes in
problems with a view to reinforcing the goal of sustainable develop- urban green spaces.
ment in cities (Yan, 2003). The roles of urban green spaces and their
function and protection have thus become key topics of concern for city 2. Study area, data and methods
authorities in China (Anguluri and Narayanan, 2017; Liu et al., 2005;
Zhao et al., 2013). A series of policies have been developed that are 2.1. Study area
aimed at maintaining and, indeed, bringing more green areas into the
city (Hernández-Moreno and Reyes-Paecke, 2018; Zhou and Wang, Shanghai (120°51′-122°12′E, 30°40′-31°53′N) is a coastal megacity
2011), such as “Regulations of China on Urban Greening”, “Shanghai located in eastern China, with an urban area of some 6340.5 km2
Greening Regulations”. The function of urban green spaces is emerging (Shanghai Municipal Statistics Bureau (SMSB, 2018). From 1980 to
as a planning priority for decision makers and efforts have been made to 2015, Shanghai's urbanization rate, resident population, and per capita
identify and understand their dynamics (Baur et al., 2013; James et al., GDP have changed dramatically. The urbanization rate (ratio of urban
2009). population to total population) in Shanghai increased from 61.35% in
Urban extension is the main cause of the reduction in urban green 1980 to 87.6% in 2016, ranking first in China's cities (Shanghai
space (Nor et al., 2017), and has resulted in the transformation of green Municipal Statistics Bureau (SMSB, 2018). The perceived economic
spaces into construction land. This process has been especially promi- attraction of urban development has resulted in substantial immigra-
nent in Asian and Australian cities, but is widely observed in cities tion and the resident population of Shanghai increased from 11.52
globally (Haaland and van den Bosch, 2015). For example, so-called million in 1980 to 16.07 million in 2000 and, by 2015, it exceeded
infill development resulted in a 5% reduction in green spaces in UK 24.15 million (Shanghai Urban Master Plan (2017–2035)). In addition,
urban areas between 1975 and 2000 (Pauleit et al., 2005). The urban the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) has risen rapidly, from
green spaces of Mashad city, the capital of Khorasan Razavi province of 3,855 CNY in 1985 to 18,942 CNY in 1995, reaching 103,041 CNY by
Iran, were significantly reduced during 1987–2006 (Rafiee et al., 2009), 2015, nearly 27 times higher than in the 1980s (Shanghai Municipal
and they also decreased markedly in Greater Dhaka, Bangladesh, be- Statistics Bureau (SMSB, 2018). Shanghai plays several key roles in
tween 1975 and 2005 (Byomkesh et al., 2012). Elsewhere in China, being the country’s main economic, financial, trade and shipping
green spaces in Beijing decreased by 47.05 km2 annually between 1992 center. The urban area consists of 17 districts which can be divided into
and 2004 as a result of extensive construction and the development of three zones, viz. the city center, the suburbs, and the islands. The city
transportation infrastructure in both the city center and suburban dis- center has eight districts, viz. Jing'an, Changning, Xuhui, Huangpu,
tricts, (Xu et al., 2011); similar trends are evident in Macau (Ye et al., Hongkou, Yangpu, Zhabei and Putuo; the suburbs comprise eight dis-
2018). The expansion of residential and commercial buildings has led to tricts as follows: Jiading, Baoshan, Pudong, Minhang, Qingpu, Song-
dramatic declines in urban green spaces in cities such as Hong Kong jiang, Jinshan and Fengxian; islands include Chongming, Changxing,
(Jim, 2005) and Kuala Lumpur (Akmar et al., 2011). In developing and Hengsha island (Fig. 1).
countries of Asia, rapid loss of urban green spaces has been shown in
cities such as Hanoi, Vietnam (Uy and Nakagoshi, 2007) and Karachi,
Pakistan (Qureshi et al., 2010). 2.2. Data and methods
Shanghai, one of the world’s largest coastal megacities, has been
experiencing rapid urbanization since the 1980s. There is clearly a need This paper examines the temporal and spatial dynamics of changing
for the city to find approaches to more rational urban planning in the urban green spaces in Shanghai, using high-resolution Landsat TM
face of ongoing widespread construction, mitigating the negative im- (Thematic Mapper) data for 1980, 1995, 2005 and Landsat OLI
pacts of, for example, the urban heat island effect and flood damage, (Operational Land Imager) data for 2015. Land use data were classified
ensuring better human health, and achieving sustainable development based on images obtained from the Earth System Science Data Sharing
overall. Indeed, the government has recognized this need and has been Platform - Yangtze River Delta sub-platform of China’s National
striving to increase the area of urban green spaces in recent years. The Geospatial Data Sharing Center5 for the years 1980, 1995 and 2005.
Shanghai government has defined urban green spaces to include all The 2015 Landsat 8 OLI image was downloaded from the China Geos-
woodlands, grasslands, garden plots, wetlands and cultivated lands (Xu patial Data Cloud website.6 After completing atmospheric correction,
et al., 2011) and has proposed that the proportion of green spaces image fusion, stitching and visual interpretation, supervised classifica-
(ecological land) in the city should, by 2020, exceed 50% of its land tion was used to classify the land use and land cover into green spaces
area, resulting in the need for an increase in urban green spaces of more and non-green spaces. 100 pixels were randomly selected in GIS to
than 60 km2 (Shanghai Municipal Government (SMG, 2016a, 2016b). validate the classified results; accuracy exceeded 95% for all the years.
In order to assess the feasibility of the government achieving these The scope of the data set is at prefecture-level throughout Shanghai at a
ambitious goals, it is necessary to understand the temporal and spatial resolution of 30 m. The resultant maps reflect the status of green spaces
dynamics of green spaces in Shanghai. in Shanghai and their spatial distribution over the time period in
In reviewing the situation, we try to identify the spatiotemporal question. The distribution was mapped using ArcGIS 10.0 software.
pattern and trend of green spaces change in Shanghai. Here the city of NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index), downloaded from
Shanghai refers to the municipality and its administrative boundaries. Google Earth Engine,7 was used to examine changes in green spaces in
The main aims of this paper are to document the changing spatial Shanghai for 1986, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 as calculated
distribution of green spaces in Shanghai from 1980 to 2015 and to from remote sensing images of Landsat 5 and Landsat 8 in summer
analyze the relationship between these changes, urbanization and green (June, July, August).
space planning policies. This aim is addressed through the following
objectives in relation to the three major zones of the city, viz. city 5
http://www.geodata.cn
center, suburbs, and the islands: 6
http://www.gscloud.cn/
7
https://code.earthengine.google.com/4ca9a430f6b331-
• To understand the changes of Shanghai green spaces through def89757e1863c2593

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Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

Fig. 1. Location of Shanghai.

Quantitative measures exist that can enrich the landscape pattern indicate more complex patch shapes (Liu, 2000).
information and reflect aspects of its structure and spatial configuration Mean Perimeter-Area Ratio (MPAR) can be used to describe the
(Huang et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2010; Cheung et al., 2016). This study complexity of green patches and is calculated as follows:
employed several so-called landscape indices to describe the spatial P
structure of green spaces, including the ratio of green spaces (RGS) to SMPAR =
A
total urban area, Patch Shape Index (PSI) and Mean Perimeter-Area
Ratio (MPAR) (Liu and Chen, 2000; Xiao et al., 2015). Where, SMPAR is the mean perimeter-area ratio, P is the patch perimeter
The ratio of green spaces (RGS) is a valuable indicator which ex- length, and A is the area of the patch. The larger the value of SMPAR , the
presses the percentage of all green spaces in the city as a percentage of more irregular the shape of the landscape patch is.
total land area (Wu, 1990). The parameter was calculated as follows: Changes in PSI and MPAR therefore reflect dynamics associated
with the complexity of the shape of green spaces (He and Zhang, 2009).
SGreen area
RGS = Per capita green space was also calculated to reveal the nature of the
SLand area relationship between population and green spaces in the city. The
Where, RGS is ratio of green spaces, SGreen area is the area of green spaces, Shanghai Statistical Yearbook documents the number of recreational
SLand area is the total land area. parks and their respective areas and both parameters were recorded for
NDVI, which is dependent on the chlorophyll content of plants and the period studied. Related policy and planning documents on urban
facilitates monitoring of vegetation change, is used to indicate the plant green spaces since the 1980s in China and Shanghai were reviewed, and
growth condition and spatial distribution of vegetation density (Liu and the evolution of urban green spaces policy was explored. The Shanghai
Guo, 2009; Pettorelli et al., 2005). Calculated NDVI values lie between urban master plans have been updated three times since the 1980s,
−1.0 and +1.0, the higher the value, the greater the vegetation cov- including the versions of 1986–2000, 1999–2020 and 2017–2035; the
erage. NDVI index is defined as: contents of these documents that related to green spaces were extracted
and analyzed.
DNNIR − DNR
NDVI =
DNNIR − DNR
3. Results
Where, DNNIR is the reflectance of the near-infrared wavelength band
and DNR is the reflectance of the red wavelength band. 3.1. Changes in green spaces and RGS in Shanghai
The patch shape index (PSI) measures the complexity of a shape by
calculating its degree of deviation from a circle or square of the same 3.1.1. Changes of urban green spaces in the whole city
area. PSI was calculated as follows: The analysis of land use and land cover data indicate that Shanghai
has experienced an overall decline in the area of green spaces (‘green
P
SPSI = area’) between 1980 and 2015. Total green area in Shanghai decreased
2 πA
from 5056.7 km2 in 1980 to 3593.5 km2 in 2015 (Fig. 2), a reduction of
Where, SPSI is the patch shape index, P is the patch perimeter length, A almost 30%. RGS decreased from 79.75% in 1980 to 56.68% in 2015,
is the total area of the patch (the area of green spaces). which shows that the proportional area of green spaces in Shanghai as a
A PSI value closer to 1.0 is achieved when patches are more regular whole has declined.
(circular) in shape; the higher the value, the greater the difference
between the shape of the patch and a circle and, therefore, the more 3.1.2. Changes of urban green spaces in the city center of Shanghai
irregular the shape (Liu and Chen, 2000). Lower PSI values result when Green spaces in the Shanghai city center decreased from 30.9 km2 in
patches have a more regular and simpler geometry, while higher values 1980 to 2.6 km2 in 2005 but then increased to 26.1 km2 to 2015. The

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Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

Fig. 2. Green area and RGS changes in Shanghai (entire city). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article).

Fig. 3. Green spaces distribution and changes in RGS from 1980 to 2015 in the city center.

city center had the lowest RGS in 1980 (10.7%), declining further to in 1980 to 1061.86 km2 in 2015. The islands have maintained the lar-
0.9% (2005), but then increased rapidly to 9.0% (2015) (Fig. 3). gest RGS but, even so, experienced a decrease of 24.1% in the index
over a period of 35 years (1980–2015) (Fig. 5). Although the data in-
dicate that the area of green spaces has increased over time, RGS has in
3.1.3. Changes of urban green spaces in the suburbs of Shanghai
fact declined due to the rapid increase in the geographical area of
RGS in the suburbs decreased from 80.5% (1980) to 49.9% (2015).
Chongming Island. The island had an area of approximately 600 km2 in
Green spaces, as indicated by RGS, have declined in Shanghai’s suburbs
1949, but has more than doubled in size to 2016 due to a combination
from 3940.7 km2 in 1980 to 3280.9 km2 in 2005, and then to
of large-scale land reclamation and the continued deposition of sedi-
2443.9 km2 in 2015 (Fig. 4) as substantial areas were developed as
ments from the Yangtze river (Wu, 2016). The reduced RGS over the
construction and transportation land.
time period means that much of the newly reclaimed area was devel-
According to the land use and land cover data, the most striking
oped for construction and transportation.
changes occurred in the districts of Pudong, Jiading and Qingpu. RGS in
Nevertheless, Shanghai’s islands have the highest RGS values of all
Pudong decreased from 83.0% (1004.3 km2) in 1980 to 51.9%
the city zones, an observation that relates to the proposal by the
(628.08 km2) in 2015. The green spaces in Jiading and Qingpu districts
Shanghai government that Chongming Island is to be developed as a
also experienced a similar reduction trend. In these districts, RGS de-
global ‘eco-island’ and which includes wetland protection as a key
clined from 77.5% in 1980 to 39.0% in 2015 while the area of green
element of natural ecosystem conservation (Huang et al., 2008). Not-
spaces was reduced from 882.3 km2 in 1980 to 444.0 km2 in 2015.
withstanding this, the RGS decreased on the islands between 1980 and
2015. Chongming has been subject to large-scale land reclamation (Wu,
3.1.4. Changes of urban green spaces in the islands of Shanghai 2016) and the area of wetlands/tidal flats on Chongming shrank from
The area of green spaces on the islands increased from 1056.6 km2

Fig. 4. Green spaces distribution and changes in RGS from 1980 to 2015 in Shanghai suburbs.

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Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

Fig. 5. The distribution of green spaces and changes in RGS from 1980 to 2015 in Chongming and associated islands.

13,432 ha in 1990 to 7915 ha in 1997, and 3856 ha in 2000; meanwhile vegetation coverage was lowest in 2015 (Fig. 8), although vegetation
the area of settlements increased from 4 to 107 ha (Zhao et al., 2003). cover in the southeastern part of Chongming Island has increased,
These changes emphasize a decrease in the area of ecological wetlands which is related to the coastal land reclamation.
and an increase in construction land uses (Zhao et al., 2004).
3.3. Changing landscape indices in Shanghai
3.2. NDVI of Shanghai city and individual city zones from 1986–2015
Shanghai's various landscape indices illustrate the temporal and
3.2.1. NDVI in the city center spatial evolution of green spaces in the city and indicate the nature of
The NDVI from 1986 to 2015 was calculated to cast further light on the relationship between landscape pattern and landscape change
the change of green spaces over time. In order to avoid the influence of processes. The trends of PSI and MPAR for the city center, suburbs and
excessive cloudiness, the images of summer (June, July, August) of the islands are similar, in all cases increasing from 1980 to 1995 and
1986, 1991, 1996, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015 in all the sub-areas were decreasing from 1995 to 2015, and both PSI and MPAR are the highest
selected. The NDVI changes in the city center document a decrease from in city center from 1980 to 2005, but the islands exceeded the city
1986 to 1996 and an increase from 1996 to 2015, with the lowest ve- center and the suburbs by 2015 (Table 1). Green spaces have become
getation cover in 1996 (Fig. 6). fragmented in all sub-areas of Shanghai and shifted from a trend of
increase to decrease from 1980 to 2015.
3.2.2. NDVI in the suburbs of Shanghai The PSI and MPAR yield different values in the different zones. In
Vegetation coverage in the suburbs declined from 1986 to 2015, the city center, PSI increased from 1.75 in 1980 to 2.68 in 1995 and
with the most striking changes in Pudong, Jiading and Qingpu. The then decreased to 1.19 in 2015, while MPAR values show the same
decline was especially marked in the eastern coastal parts of Pudong trend, i.e. increasing from 1.97 in 1980 to 3.03 in 1995, and then de-
(Fig. 7). creasing to 1.34 in 2015. Both the suburbs and islands reveal similar
Due to land reclamation, the southeastern part of Pudong has shown trends (Table 1). Increasing PSI and MPAR values mean that patch
the most dramatic changes. This area was water and wetland before shapes on average have become more irregular and fragmented in all
2000, but much has been reclaimed and subject to substantial urban the sub-areas from 1980 to 1995.
development since. Lujiazui (121.50 °E, 31.24 °N), located in Pudong district, is the fi-
nancial center of the city and is an especially informative example to
3.2.3. NDVI in the islands of Shanghai reflect on the fragmentation of urban green space in Shanghai. In 2000,
The NDVI of the islands has been decreasing from 1986 to 2015, and the district was characterized by large and continuous green spaces, but

Fig. 6. NDVI in the city center from 1986 to 2015.

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Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

Fig. 7. NDVI in the suburbs from 1986 to 2015.

Fig. 8. NDVI in the islands from 1986 to 2015.

Table 1 the Shanghai Statistical Yearbook).

Changes in landscape indices of urban green spaces in sub-areas. Taking parks as an example of urban green space, it is notable that
Year PSI MPAR the number of parks in Shanghai have increased from 45 to 165 be-
tween 1980 and 2015, indicating that the government has strengthened
1980 1995 2005 2015 1980 1995 2005 2015 the planning and management of this type of recreational area with the
aim of improving the quality of life, especially in the city center. The 8
City center 1.75 2.68 1.89 1.19 1.97 3.03 2.13 1.34
Suburbs 1.47 1.97 1.5 1.3 1.66 2.23 1.7 1.47
districts in the city center, which account for just 5.57% of the total city
The islands 1.56 1.66 1.64 1.36 1.76 1.87 1.85 1.54 area, have 88 parks, representing more than half of the total number in
Shanghai as a whole (Fig. 11).
Both the number and area of parks in Shanghai have been increasing
from this time onwards, the rapid development of Pudong new district since 1980, reflecting that the government has prioritized the devel-
was accompanied by a dramatic increase in the number of buildings opment of green spaces, especially in the densely populated city center.
and these green spaces became fragmented (Fig. 9).

3.5. Evolution of urban green space policies in Shanghai

3.4. Population and green area per capita
The Shanghai government has proposed many urban greening po-
According to the population statistics of Shanghai, the population licies since the 1980s (Fig. 12). In 1983, the government issued the
has increased from 11.52 million to 24.15 million between 1980 and “Shanghai Landscape Greening System Plan” and the “Central City
2015, and the population density has increased from 1862 in./km2 Greening System Plan” which focus on increasing green spaces along
(inhabitants per area) to 3809 in./km2. The green area per capita de- rivers, roads and parks in the city center (Shanghai Municipal
creased rapidly as the population increased (Fig. 10; data sourced from Government (SMG, 1983). Between 1986 and 1998, Shanghai built a

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Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

Fig. 9. The fragmentation of urban green spaces in Lujiazui (Shanghai).

green belt outside of the city center, the Lujiazui Center Green Space, Plan" and formed a "Ring, Wedge, Gallery, Garden" spatial pattern
Huangpu riverside promenade, and several recreational parks. In 1994, (Shanghai Municipal Government (SMG, 1994), which not only aimed
Shanghai issued the “Urban Green Spaces System Planning Program at improving the urban environment and enhancing urban health, but
(1994–2010)” which has proposed a "Central City Public Green Spaces also meeting the requirement to reduce noise and air pollution on both

Fig. 10. The population and green area per capita in Shanghai (entire city).

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Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

Fig. 11. The number and area of parks in Shanghai (entire city).

sides of major roads. Between 1983 and 1994, urban green space protection, including the concepts of “Ecological Civilization”, “Green
system planning was implemented, and more attention was paid to the Development” and "Ecological Red Line" which are emphasized by
connectivity of green spaces. Since 2002, the Shanghai government has China’s central government as an umbrella for future development, the
aimed at creating an urban environment that promotes more harmo- green spaces received increasing attention. In the latest urban master
nious interactions between people and nature (Shanghai Municipal plan (2017–2035), 23% forest coverage is planned throughout
Government (SMG, 2002a). The concept has also shifted from “green Shanghai by 2035, and per capita park space is expected to be increased
spaces in the city” to “the city within green spaces”. The former only to 13 m2, while the city is envisioned to become a more sustainable eco-
recognized green spaces as a land use type, however, while the later city (Shanghai Municipal Government (SMG, 2018). These policies
conceptualized green space as an integrated system that supports the have all contributed to the observed changes in Shanghai's green
function of the city. The “Shanghai Land Use Master Plan (2006–2020)” spaces. Governments at different administrative levels have recognized
designed a multi-level ecological land use structure in Shanghai the importance of green space and include it specifically in land use and
(Shanghai Municipal Government (SMG, 2008). In 2010, the govern- urban development plans. The implementation of the eco-island plan of
ment proposed a “Basic Ecological Network Plan” which defined the Chongming island is a good example of this. The plan requires forest
area and spatial configuration of parks, forest and wetland, and deli- cover to reach 35%, an increase in natural wetland from 38% to 45%,
neated an eco-line to restrict the urban build-up development and per capita park area to be raised from 6.8 m2 to 20 m2.
(Shanghai Municipal Government (SMG, 2010).
Along with the national policy and action on environmental

Fig. 12. Policies evolution on urban green spaces from 1983 to 2018.

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Z. Wu, et al. Land Use Policy 87 (2019) 104080

4. Discussion diverse (Zhao et al., 2013) as their evolving distribution and structure
are related to the combined effects of population growth and the im-
4.1. Spatio-temporal trends of urban green spaces plementation of urban greening policies (Yang et al., 2014). Population
growth places pressure on urban infrastructure, and green spaces are
Urban green space plays important roles in urban areas, thus un- sacrificed to make way for buildings and other infrastructure
derstanding its pattern and trajectory can help urban planning and (Byomkesh et al., 2012). This has been confirmed in Hong Kong (Jim,
human well-being. The land classification used in this paper illustrates 2005), Islamic Mahaud (Rafiee et al., 2009) and Dhaka (Byomkesh
the temporal and spatial evolution of Shanghai's green space. The RGS et al., 2012). However, population growth is not the only cause of the
and NDVI changes in Shanghai shows that there has been a decline in decline in green spaces (Xu et al., 2011), since institutional factors, such
green spaces from 1980 to 2015, which has been experienced in other as the implementation of a development vision or spatial zoning master
cities as urbanization has increased. Such a pattern is common, and has plan (for example the Shanghai Master Plan (1999–2020)(Shanghai
been widely reported. For example, urban green spaces in Beijing Municipal Government (SMG, 2002b), can also contribute (Fan et al.,
(China), Macau, Hong Kong (China), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), Hanoi 2017).
(Vietnam) and Karachi (Pakistan) have all decreased in recent decades In general, greening policies are major drivers of green spaces re-
(Xu et al., 2011; Ye et al., 2018; Jim, 2005; Akmar et al., 2011; Uy and covery in cities (Yang et al., 2014).and strategic greening policies can
Nakagoshi, 2007; Qureshi et al., 2010). Green space in central parts of lead to a substantial increase in green spaces in cities (Davies and
some cities is the lowest and characteristically less than in the suburbs Lafortezza, 2017; Harris et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2013; Zhou and Wang,
(You, 2016; Jiang et al., 2018). However, both the number and area of 2011). Many cities around the world have proposed so-called green
parks in Shanghai have been increasing from 1980 to 2015. This reflects development as a means to maintaining the balance of environmental
the implementation of the greening policies, indicating that the gov- protection and socioeconomic development (Huo and Liu, 2011). Such
ernment's management and planning of green space has increased. The government policies have also enabled urban residents to appreciate
spatial and temporal trends of green spaces differ between the city the benefits of green spaces. China has leveraged control over the
center, suburbs and islands of Shanghai. This variation has been mea- supply of land to encourage urban greening (Wolch et al., 2014) and is
sured through different parameters such as population density, devel- prioritizing eco-city development. Under this framework, the Shanghai
opment stage, time frame to construct residential zones, and the socio- government has initiated policies and measures to maintain the balance
economic status of these residents (Xiao et al., 2017; Barrera et al., between urbanization development and residents’ demand for green
2016; Haaland and van den Bosch, 2015). spaces. These policies are intended to provide guidelines for Shanghai's
Interpretation of remote sensing images can provide an under- green spaces development, and expanded the government's manage-
standing of the changing pattern and process of urban green spaces, ment and planning of green spaces from the city center to the entire city
although a detailed analysis needs to examine the dynamics of different (Liu et al., 2007). However, the suburbs are often a focus of new de-
green spaces types and integrate different sources of data, including velopment with subsequent negative impacts on green spaces (Xu et al.,
government statistics, planning documents and historical maps. 2011). For example, the area of green spaces decreased in Pudong after
Comparing green space trends in different cities casts light on the de- 1980 mainly due to the construction of ports, the international airport
gree to which there is a transition towards more sustainable cities and and widespread real estate development. Given the potentially vul-
may assist planners to develop greener cities. nerable coastal location of the city as a whole, it is important to have an
appropriately green and ecological ‘defense’ to secure sustainable de-
4.2. Fragmentation of green spaces in Shanghai velopment (Ma et al., 2018). In 2016, the Shanghai government set a
goal of building a world-class Chongming eco-island (Shanghai
An increasing rate of urbanization is predicted in China (Chen et al., Municipal Government (SMG, 2016a, 2016b), and proposed to develop
2013; He et al., 2016; Song and Ding, 2007). Urban expansion and the island as a kind of global icon with the aim of developing an eco-
sprawl have led to a reduction in natural or semi-natural vegetation logically sustainable environment, balanced resource utilization and
around the city center and the suburbs (Johnson, 2001). Between 1990 high human settlement quality (Shanghai Chongming District
and 2010, urbanization in China was characterized by exponential Government (SCDG, 2017). These policies are important driving forces
growth as the urban built-up area increased by more than 2.3 times, for green space dynamics, and are aimed at avoiding further losses of
most notably in the southeast coastal regions of the country (Wang green spaces in Shanghai.
et al., 2012). The area of green spaces has decreased and/or become
fragmented due to the rapid pace of urbanization, which is associated 5. Conclusion
with increased population pressure on resources and a concomitant
increase in buildings and infrastructure. However, with improvement in Green space plays an important role on the quality of life and urban
living standards due to China’s rapid economic growth, the environ- health, and there is growing interest in understanding its spatial pattern
mental consciousness of urban inhabitants has gradually strengthened and temporal dynamics to plan for the urban future. The present study
such that the focus of city governments has shifted from being solely combines land use and land cover data and statistical yearbook data to
GDP-oriented to one in which the quality of life plays a more prominent illustrate temporal and spatial changes of such green spaces in
role in planning and the development of new green spaces (Kong and Shanghai. Although the area of green spaces has decreased in the last
Nakagoshi, 2006). The demand for housing arising from the growing three decades, there is a transition from a net loss to a net gain of green
urban population, coupled with improved living standards, has resulted spaces in the city center of Shanghai, and the shape and distribution of
in conflicts between land use for urban construction and green spaces. green spaces has become more regular and less fragmented. Remote
Green spaces are consumed during urban development, or may only be sensing, used in conjunction with data from other sources can be in-
incorporated into suitable gaps within the constructed land, resulting in tegrated as powerful tools to validate and understand the trend of green
their fragmentation (Fig. 13). However, when both government and the spaces change in cities. This study offers insights as to how the temporal
population of the city embrace the importance of urban green space, and spatial evolution of green spaces can inform urban planning and, in
transformation to a ‘city in the forest’ may occur. so doing, offers a perspective for other cities that have experienced si-
milarly rapid expansion. Urban governments should plan the develop-
4.3. Understanding the driving policies on urban green spaces dynamics ment and preservation of an urban green spaces network at an early
stage to avoid the substantial environmental and health costs associated
Driving forces underlying the change in urban green spaces are with rapid urbanization and to circumvent the additional financial

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Fig. 13. The process of fragmentation of urban green spaces.

burdens of subsequent regeneration. The methods employed in the landusepol.2018.09.008.

analysis of changing urban green spaces in Shanghai can be applied in Huang, B., Ouyang, Z., Zheng, H., Zhang, H., Wang, X., 2008. Construction of an eco-
island: a case study of Chongming Island, China. Ocean Coastal Manage. 51 (8–9),
other cities to promote more effective and equitable planning of urban 575–588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2008.06.007.
green spaces. Our research highlights the immediate need for govern- Huang, L., Wu, J., Yan, L., 2015. Defining and measuring urban sustainability: a review of
ments to develop careful planning and strategic interventions for green indicators. Landscape Ecol. 30 (7), 1175–1193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-
015-0208-2.
spaces to improve quality of life for urban residents. Huo, Y., Liu, T., 2011. Eco-economic Construction: the path choice for green development
in China. Ecol. Economy 10, 63–64 (In Chinese).
Acknowledgements James, P., Tzoulas, K., Adams, M.D., Barber, A., Box, J., Breuste, J., Elmqvist, T., Frith,
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The authors thank anonymous reviewers for their valuable feed- Ward Thompson, C., 2009. Towards an integrated understanding of green space in
back. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the the European built environment. Urban For. Urban Greening 8, 65–75. https://doi.
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National Natural Science Foundation of China (41771119) and funding urban climate Co-movement: a case study in Shanghai Mainland Area. Sustainability
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