Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
Lecture-5
Measurement Errors
5.1 Introduction
The error is the failure of instrument in exactly specifying the value of the
quantity to measured, and hence the departure of the measured value from the
true value.
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important in
any measurement system to qualify the maximum error in order to reducing it
from the instrument output reading.
By proper analysis of the measurement data, the error can be predicted and
avoided or eliminated from the instrument output reading.
5.2 Classification of Errors
Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified under
three main categories:
1. Gross Errors
The gross errors are mistakes or blunders include:
- Misreading of instrument.
- Incorrect adjustment of instrument.
- Improper application of instrument.
- Computational mistakes.
(1- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
2. Systematic Errors
Systematic errors in the output of any instrument are due to factors
inherent in the manufacture of the instrument. This type of errors can be reduced
or corrected. Systematic errors may be subdivided into:
a. Instrumental Errors
These are defects or shortcoming of instruments that may arise due to:
- Tolerance in the components of the instrument.
- Wear in instrument components over the period of time.
- Error in calibration.
- Using unsuitable or defective elements in the structure of instrument.
b. Environmental Errors
The environmental errors are introduce by physical effects (temperature,
humidity, …..) that influence the instrument, the quantity to be measured and the
experimentalist.
C. Observational Errors
The observational errors pertain to habits of the observer, such as:
- Imperfect techniques.
- Poor judgment.
- Peculiarities in making observation.
(2- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
d. System disturbance due to measurement
In general, the process of measurement always disturbs the system being
measured. The magnitude of disturbance varies from system to another and is
affected by the type of the instrument used for measurement.
Measurements in electrical circuits are prone to errors induced through the
loading effect on the circuit when instruments are applied to make voltage and
current measurements.
To illustrate the loading effect, we shall consider the simple electric circuit
shown in Fig.(5.1). in this circuit, the voltage across the resistance R 2 is to be
measured by a voltmeter whose internal resistance Rs.
I R1 A
Rs
V R2
B
Voltmeter
Fig.(5.1) The Loading effect on circuit by voltmeter
(3- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
If we denote the voltage that exist prior to measurement by E o, i.e.
= …………………………………………………………………………………………(5.1)
or
= …………………………………………………………………………………(5.2)
When the voltmeter is added to the circuit at measurement, the resistance
between the points A and B will be RAB, where
= ……………………………………………………………………………………(5.3)
Therefor; the voltage Em measured by voltmeter will be:
= ………………………………………………………………………………………(5.4)
or
= ……………………………………………………………………………(5.5)
= …………………………………………………………………………(5.6)
And from (5.2) and (5.6) we get:
( )
= ( )
…………………………………………………………………………(5.7)
The percentage error in measurement due to the loading effect of voltmeter is
given by:
= − × % ……………………………………………………………(5.8)
It is obvious that as Rs gets larger, the ratio Em/Eo gets closer to unity and shown
that the error will be minimized. Therefore; in the design strategy, it should be to
(4- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
make Rs as large as possible in order to minimize the disturbance of the
measurement system.
e. Modifying inputs in measurement systems
The variation of the environmental conditions away from the calibration
conditions cause the characteristics of the measuring instruments to vary to some
extent. The environmental condition variation is considered as input to the
measuring system because their effect is the same as the value of the measured
quantity had changed.
In general, it is very difficult to avoid the modifying input because it is
impossible to control the environmental conditions surrounding the measurement
system. But, the effect of the modifying input on the instrument output can be
reduced with:
- Proper analysis.
- Careful instrument design.
- Using some techniques such as the method of opposing inputs, using high
gain feedbacks, using signal filtering, …………………, etc.
3. Random Errors
The random errors are accidental errors whose magnitude and sign
fluctuate in a manner that cannot be predicted from the knowledge of the
measuring system and the condition of measurement.
The random errors are also known as the residual errors. Generally, the random
errors are minimized by employing the statistical analysis for a large number
measurement readings.
(5- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
Examples – L5
Ex5.1 Classify the error types
Sol.
1. Gross errors.
(1) Instrumental errors.
(2) Environmental errors.
(4) System disturbance due to measurement.
(5) Modifying input errors.
3. Random errors.
Ex5.2 Define the following terms:
(1)Error.
(2) Random errors.
Sol.
(1) The error is the failure of instrument in exactly specifying the value of the quantity
to measured.
(2) The random errors are accidental errors whose magnitude and sign fluctuate in a
manner that cannot be predicted from the knowledge of the measuring system and
the condition of measurement.
Ex5.3 List the points according to which modifying input errors can be minimized.
Sol.
The effect of the modifying input on the instrument output can be minimized with:
1. Proper analysis.
2. Careful instrument design.
3. Using some techniques such as the method of opposing inputs, using high gain
feedbacks, using signal filtering, …………………, etc.
Ex5.3 In the circuit shown in Fig.(1), the voltage across terminals A and B is
measured by a voltmeter has an internal resistance RS = 1000 Ω.
(1) Derive an expression for the loading effect caused by the measurement
process.
(2) Determine the error caused by the internal resistance of the
measuring instrument if R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 200 Ω and R3= 300 Ω.
(3) Determine the error if the voltmeter is replaced by one whose internal
resistance RS= 5000 Ω. Compare between the two results.
(6- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
Sol.
(1)
Or,
=
+ +
And
Or,
=
+ +
But,
=
+
By substituting in , we get:
(7- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
= .
+ + +
+
Or,
=
( + )( + )+
With some arrangements, we get:
=
( + + )+ +
Now,
( + + )+ +
=
+ +
Or,
( + + )+ +
=
+ +
Or,
( + + )
=
( + + )+ +
(2)
= − × %
Where,
( + + )
=
( + + )+ × + ×
Or
(8- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
Instrumentations and Measurements Measurement Errors
= = = .
+ +
Therefore,
= ( − . ) × %
Or,
= %
(3)
When = Ω
( + + )
=
( + + )+ × + ×
Or,
= = = .
+ +
Therefore,
= ( − . ) × %
Or,
= %
(9- Lecture-5) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif
