speed and distance time graphs

• Speed is a term we use in everyday life. We will look at how speed is defined and how
distance-time graphs can be used to represent the movement of an object.
• Speed is a measure of how fast an object is moving, regardless of direction.
• If we look at the total distance travelled over the time taken for a journey, we can
calculate the average speed of an object.
distance moved , s
average speed, v =
time taken ,t
• We can also write this symbolically:
v=s/t
• This shows the average speed over a whole journey. If we are looking at a car, the
speedometer will show changes in speed from instant to instant as the car accelerates
or decelerates.
• The speedometer in a car shows the instantaneous speed.

With distance-time graphs,

We can see that this car is distance accounts for the total
moving at a constant speed distance travelled up to that
because the gradient of the line point in time, regardless of
is constant. direction travelled.

A curved line on a distance-time Given this, can a distance-time

graphs shows changing speed – graph ever look like the graph
either deceleration or below?
acceleration. No! To have a negative gradient
means that the total distance
travelled is decreasing, which
does not make sense.

• Displacement is also a vector

and means the distance moved
in a particular direction from a
specified point.
• Displacement-time graphs can
therefore have negative
gradients because the object can
move back towards the starting
point.
 Acceleration And time Graphs
• Acceleration is what happens to an object when its velocity  A scientist called Galileo was
increases. interested in how the distance a
• Deceleration is what happens to an object when its velocity ball rolls downhill depends on
decreases. the time it has been rolling.
• A plane will accelerate to reach take-off velocity after takeoff  He noticed that the ball got
while a football will decelerate as it rolls over the ground. faster in a predictable way and
• Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity: showed that the rate of increase
of speed was steady or uniform.
change∈ velocity Δ v final velocity , v−initial vleocity , u  We call this uniform
acceleration, a = = acceleration. Most acceleration
time taken ,t timetaken , t
is non-uniform, changing from
Or symbolically: instant to instant.
 We will deal with uniform
( v−u)
a= acceleration only in this chapter.
t

Velocity-Time Graphs

• The velocity-time graph can give

us information about an object
during its journey. The gradient of
a velocity-time graph can tell us
about the acceleration.

• We can find the acceleration of an

object by finding the difference
between final and initial velocity
and dividing by the time period we
are looking at.

• The area under a velocity-

time graph is equal to the
distance travelled by
(displacement of) the
object in a particular time
interval.

• The main calculations you

will use to find the area
from a velocity-time graph
is the area of a rectangle
(graph a) and the area of a
triangle (graph b) or a
combination of the two.
 Equation in motion

 use the relationship between final speed, initial speed, acceleration, and distance
moved:
 (Final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + (2 x acceleration x distance moved)
 v2 = u2 + (2as)
 We have seen before an equation to calculate acceleration:
( v−u)
a=
t
 You may need to rearrange the equation to make another term (v, u, or t) the subject.
You will also need to use the following equation:
 v2 = u2 + 2as
Where;
 v = final velocity
 u = initial velocity
 a = acceleration
 s = displacement (or) distance

Example:
 balanced and unbalanced forces

 Forces are simply pushes and pulls of one thing on another

 Sometimes we see their effects quite clearly and sometimes we don’t.

 The size of the force is not the only important thing the direction that the
force acts in matter too.
 This is because force is a vector quantity meaning it has both direction and
magnitude
 And scalar quantities have only magnitude and no direction

 The unit for force is newton (N)

 A force of one newton will make a mass of one kilogram accelerate at one
meter per second squared.

As we can see with the car there are usually multiple forces acting on an object at any one
time. As force is a vector one direction must be positive (push from the man) and one
negative (friction). And if the forces are equal in magnitude and in opposite direction the
resultant force will be zero.

Newton’s first law

If an object is at rest, or moving
with constant velocity, it will
remain at rest or moving at
constant velocity unless acted on
by a resultant external force.

Hooke’s law
Changing shape
 Robert Hooke measured the
• We have seen that forces can make things accelerate or decelerate increase in length due to different
but they can also change the shape of an object. load forces on springs.
• Sometimes the change of shape is temporary or permanent.  He found that the graph of
extension against a force produces a
• We will look now at temporary changes of shape experienced by straight line.
elastic materials like rubber bands and metal springs.  While a spring obeys Hooke’s law it
• Springs are coiled lengths of metal which can be stretched or has elastic behavior which means it
compressed by applying a force to them. will return to its original shape one
the deforming force is removed.
• Springs, when stretched and then released, will return to their  Rubber bands do not follow Hooke’s
original shape unless too large a force stretches them. law. But metal wire do.
Weight, Mass, and Terminal Velocity

 This field strength is the force that acts on each

kilogram of mass.

 And to find out the weight of an object by using

this equation W = m * g where w is weight m is
mass and g is gravitational field strength.

 We tend to consider gravitational field strength

for large objects, but all objects have
gravitational field strength.
 Near to and on earth the value of gravitational
field strength is around 10 N/kg
 And on the moon the gravitational field strength
is 1.6 N/kg.
 Mass is the measure of how much matter
something is made up of.
 If you went to the moon your mass would not
change.

 But weight is the force that acts on an object

because of gravity.
 The magnitude of this force depends on the mass
of the object and the strength of gravity.

 Gravitational field strength has the symbol (g)

Air Resistance At position a) the falling object has no vertical

As an object that moves through air it experiences a speed and so produces no drag. The resultant
force called air resistance or drag. force is caused by acceleration due to gravity.
So, the object accelerates and gains speed.
The size of the drag force is dependent on the shape
and speed of the object. As the object gains speed the drag force
increases. This opposes weight and makes the
Fast vehicles such as sport cars have streamlined resultant force and acceleration downwards
shapes and smooth surfaces to produce less drag. smaller and smaller. The object gains speed at
This is important because drag force increases with the a decreasing rate.
speed of the object.

Terminal Velocity
Finally, at position c) the
drag force has matched
the weight and there is no
more acceleration. As
there is no more
acceleration the speed no
longer increases – the
object is now falling at its
terminal velocity.
 Momentum and collisions

 Momentum is the measure of how difficult it is to stop a moving object and

depends on the mass and velocity of an object.
 Momentum is a vector quantity.

The equation for momentum is:

Momentum, p (kg m/s) = mass, m (kg) x velocity, v (m/s) Or p = m x v

 We have seen the equation linking force, mass, and acceleration; F=ma
 We can relate this idea to momentum by saying that an unbalanced force acting on an
object causes a change in momentum of that object.
 For example, the space shuttle below:

 The shuttle is moving with some initial velocity u, and therefore an initial momentum
mu.
 When the engine starts, a resultant force F causes acceleration. The force acts for t
seconds.
 When the engine turns off, there is a new final velocity v, and so a new final momentum
mv.
 And by bring this all together we can say that the initial momentum is mu, and the final
momentum is mv, and so the change in momentum is mv-mu.
 The rate of change of momentum is mv-mu/t
 As newton found a proportional relationship between force and change in momentum, we
finally get :
(mv−mu)
F=
t

 The momentum of an object can change. However, the total momentum of a system does
not change
 Which means the total momentum before a collision is equal to the total of momentum
after the collision.
 Car safety and Newton’s law
 If there is a crash, you can use the equation for momentum to calculate the force
involved.
 Steep roads often have escape lanes filled with deep, soft sand which slows heavy, out
of control vehicles like lorries.
 If a crash must happen, it is usually better for the driver if the takes longer to end!

 The sand increases the time it takes for the lorry to stop – this means that the force on
the driver decreases, which is good for driver safety.
 If a vehicle stops very quickly, such as in a crash, the force is larger, and injury is more
likely. If a vehicle stops over a longer time, the force of impact is less and so injury is less
likely.

Car safety features

Crumple zones – crumple zones Air bags – They increase the Seat belts – They stop you from
are areas of a vehicle that are time taken for the head’s tumbling around the inside of
deigned to crush in a controlled momentum to reach zero, and the car if there is a collision.
way in a collision. They increase so reduce the forces on it. They However, they are designed to
the time taken to change the also act a soft cushion and stretch a bit in a collision. This
momentum of the driver and the prevent cuts. increases the time taken for the
passengers in a crash which body’s momentum to reach
reduces the force involved. zero, and o reduces the forces
on it to

Newton’s 3 Law
 Newton’s Third Law states: for
every action there is an equal and
opposite rection.
 This means that when you push
something. It pushes back with
equal magnitude of force bit in
the opposite direction.
 Turning Effects of Forces

 A force can have a Turing effect – it can make an object turn around a fixed pivot point.
When the anti-clockwise turning effect of forces are balanced by turning forces in the
clockwise direction the object will not turn because it is now in balance.
 If one moment is larger than the other, the beam shown below will rotate in that
direction.
 If the moments are balanced, the beam remains where it is.

 The turning effect of a force about a pivot

is called its moment.
 The moment of a force has the definition:

Force, F (N) x perpendicular

Moment of a force (Nm) = distance from pivot, d (m) = F x d

 The moment is measured in newton meters

 Perpendiculars means ‘at a right angle to’ so the distance between the force and the
pivot is 90 degrees to the direction of the force.

Centre of gravity
 Try balancing your pen or ruler on your finger.
 When the ruler is balanced, the anti-clockwise moment
equals the clockwise moment.
 The weight of the ruler is the only downward force, as
the ruler has its mass evenly spread through it, it is not
surprising that it balances at the center.

Forces on a Beam
 If a person moves across a beam,
each end of the beam provide a
normal reaction force which balances
with the weight. As the person
moves from one end of the beam to
a reaction force is greater at the end
where the person is closer.
Introduction to Electricity
 Household Electricity

 The electricity that is used in our homes is called mains electricity and it is supplied from
power stations.
 Electricity usually enters our homes through cables underground, then to a meter which
measures your usage then to a fuse box than a circuit breaker before reaching
appliances.
 A circuit breaker is a safety device that switch of the electricity is a circuit if dangerous
levels of electricity enter the circuit.
 Our homes are split into several circuits these are called ‘ring main’ circuit.
 And all of them connect to a main fuse box. And we can connect to a ring main by using
the plug sockets.

Safety – Fuses
 Fuses need to be replaced once they have ‘blown’.
 Fuses and switches in a circuit should be placed on the live wire, to prevent dangerous
current getting through.
 Circuit breakers in a fuse box work in a similar way but you can switch it back, but with
the fuse you must keep replacing it every time it blows.

Safety – Double insulation

 A lot of modern appliances are double insulated.
 This means that the case of the appliance is made of an insulator (usually plastic), rather
than conductors like metal.
 Plastics are not good conductors of electricity or heat.
 Remember, there is a heating effect associated with current.
 Current and voltage

 Current is the rate of flow of charge

 It is measured in Amps, A 1000mA = 1A
 When current flows in a solid conductor charge usually carries electrons. And these are
called free or delocalized electrons.

Conductors, Insulators, Electric Current

 The free electrons in conductors normally have random movement
 Due to this random motion, there is no net flow of charge.
 If a cell or a battery is connected across the metal/conductor, then the electrons will
flow from the negative to the positive terminal of the cell.
 The cell has given the electrons a ‘push’ and created a net/overall flow of charge
 The movement of electrons from the negative to the positive terminal is also known as
electron flow.

Alternating Current and Direct Current

 Cells and batteries provide direct current (d.c.) – current/voltage which only travels in
one direction with the same value. It is also known as direct current.
 While a.c. supply goes up and down and then moves in the opposite direction of the
source. This is also known as alternating current

Potential Difference (Voltage)

 We often use cells or batteries to move charges around a circuit. We can think of cells as
electrons ‘electrons pumps’. They transfer energy to the charges.
 The energy transferred per each unit of charge by the cell is measured in volts (V) and is
often called potential difference.
 We measure the potential difference using a voltmeter. We connect a voltmeter in a
parallel to a component we are investigating.
 The voltmeter will measure the energy transferred by each coulomb of charge.
 Equations Practice

E = Energy
P=IxV
V = Voltage
E=Pxt
Q = charge
Q=Ixt
P = power
E=QxV
t = time
E=IxVxt
I = current

Measuring Current
 Current, I, is measured using an ammeter in series in a circuit the unit is the Amp (A)
 The definition of 1 ampere is when 1 coulomb of charge Is passing a point per 1 second.
 One coulomb is equal to the charge carried by around 6x1018 electrons

Energy and potential difference

 As the charge moves around the circuit the energy they carry is transferred to the
components they pass through.
 The energy is transferred to the surroundings as heat and light
 If the energy is transferred to a speaker most of the energy is turned into sound energy

Power and Energy

 Power is often used in electricity to tell you how much energy an appliance uses per
second.
 The power (P) of an appliance is equal to the voltage (V) across it multiplied by the
current (I) flowing through it.

Bringing together out two equations

 E = Pt and P = IV, when we put them together, we get E = I x V x t
 Series and Parallel Circuits
 All components in a circuit provides some resistance to the flow of charge. Wires have a very low resistance, so charges
pass through easily.
 Some components however have a high resistance, by design and necessity (e.g., resistors, bulbs).
 Therefore more energy is required to move the charges through. This high energy usually results in heat due to more
electrons colliding and transferring energy to the positive ions in the components.

 Resistance can be measured by comparing the energy supplied across and the current through the component.
 The energy supplied is ‘shared’ between components, so adding another bulb would reduce the brightness of others.
 This is because as another component as adding ‘ resistance’ increasing the sum of resistance of the whole circuit.

 The current depends on the applied voltage and the nature of the components.
 Current is the same everywhere. It changes depending on the voltage or the resistance.
 The voltage is shared between components
 Total Resistance is the sum of all component’s resistance Rtotal = R1 + R2 … + Rn

 If the components are identical, they have the same resistance, and so it takes the same potential difference to push
electrons through them.
 If they are not equal, then one will take more share of the voltage

 A switch or break in any loop only affects that loop.

 Energy supplied is not shared between loops adding another loop will not reduce brightness of the others.
 This means that the battery will just ‘run out’ quicker.

 Current splits between loops, the current in each branch depends on the total resistance in that branch.
 This can be calculated using rearranged V=IR
 The voltage is the same in each loop, it is equal to the battery. Which means the more loops, the less total resistance.

 In the worked example below, we see that resistor R1, with the lowest resistance of 1 Ω, receives the highest proportion
of the total current.

 Conversely, the branch which contains the resistor R3, with a resistance of 6 Ω, receives the lowest proportion of the
total current.
 Resistance
 To calculate the voltage across each resistor we use the
equation V = IR. The current passing through all the resistors Most electrical failures happen when too
is 1.5 A. much current passes through a component in
an electrical device.
R1: V = 1.5 x 1 = 1.5 V
This may be because of short circuits,
R2: V = 1.5 x 5 = 7.5 V excessive load, and incorrect design. But
R3: V = 1.5 x 2 = 3.0 V things like fuses, circuit breakers, and current
limiters can help combat this.
 Notice how the voltage in series all add up to the voltage
provided by the cell.

We have stated that the resistance is related

to the potential difference across a
component and the current flowing through
it.
By using the equation V = IR when the
current is directly proportional to the to the
potential difference (this means the
resistance is constant because V/I gives a
constant value of R.
This is known as Ohm’s law, the current
passing through a resistor at constant
temperature is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the resistor.
If a component has a constant resistance, it
follows Ohm’s law and is an ohmic resistor.
Examples of ohmic resistors include fixed
resistors and wires.
 Special Resistors

 In many circuits you will find components  Variable resistors, they are designed so
like those shown in this image. that you can alter their resistance.
 They are called fixed resistors. They are  In the circuit, we can see how a variable
included in circuits to control the sizes of resistor can be used as a dimmer switch.
currents and voltages.  If the variable resistor is set to have high
 The fixed resistor in the circuit below is resistance, it leads to a decrease in the
used to keep the correct current and current in the circuit, so the bulb is dim.
voltage for the bulb. Without the resistor,  If the variable resistor is set to have low
the 1.5 V bulb would ‘blow’ or break. resistance, it leads to an increase in the
current in the circuit, so the bulb is bright.

 Diodes are special resistors that allow current to flow through them easily but only in one direction.
 Remember, we use conventional current as standard when discussing the flow of charge the diode
circuit symbol ‘points’ in the direction it will allow conventional current to flow in.

 A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes with changes in temperature.

 Thermistor can be used in temperature-sensitive circuits such as fire alarms, fridges/freezers, or
computers.
 In a typical thermistor, the resistance of the thermistor decreases as the temperature increases.
 So this also means that lower resistance leads to higher current in the circuit.

 A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has it’s resistance change when light is shone upon it.
 In the dark an LDR has high resistance (so low current) and in bright light low resistance (so high current)
 LDRs are used in light-sensitive circuits in devices such as photographic-exposure equipment, automatic
lighting controls, and burglar alarms.
 Electric Charge and Friction

Static electricity is the result of an imbalance

of electric charge. It can be useful but also
dangerous.

Lighting is an example of the buildup of static

electricity. At these temperatures, the air
immediately around the flash expands at
supersonic speeds and causing thunder.

As the sound wave expands and slows down

as it interacts with air and ground particles, a
low rumbling noise cane be sometimes heard.

Charging by friction:
It is possible to charge some objects just by rubbing them together. This charging only works if the objects are made
from different materials and these materials are electrical insulators. We can use the circuit below to find out if
material is an electrical insulator or conductor. The insulators would cause the bulb to remain unlit, a conductor
would cause the bulb to light up.

Forces Between Charges:

You can ‘stick’ charged objects to other insulators. For example, a negatively charged balloon can be brought close to
a wall. The wall is initially neutral – the positive and negative charges are evenly spread out. The negative charges on
the balloon repel the electrons in the wall while the positive protons are locked in place. This means that the wall
near the balloon becomes net positive , so we see the force of attraction between the balloon and wall.

Charging by Friction – specific example:

Some insulators can be charged by rubbing them with a dry cloth. Rubbing a polythene rod with a dry cloth transfers
electrons to the surface of the rod from the cloth, making the rod negatively charged. While rubbing a Perspex rod
with a dry cloth transfers electrons from the surface of the rod to the cloth, making the rod positive.
 Uses of Static Electricity
If you use a spray gun to paint an awkwardly shaped object you will waste a lot of paint and it will take
a long time. Electrostatic spraying can make this process more efficient and is an example of a use of
static electricity.

1. As the drops of paint emerge, they have

the same charge, so these charges repel
each other and so spread out.

2. As they have spread out the paint drops

form a thin spray.

3. The bicycle frame is connected to an

electrical supply and given the opposite
charge to that of the paint drops.

4. Therefore, the paint drops are attracted

to the bicycle frame.

Many modern inkjet printers use inkjets and electrostatic forces to direct a fine jet (stream) of ink
drops onto paper.

1. Each drop of ink is given an electric charge.

2. It is then directed to fall between a pair of

deflecting plates.

3. One plate is positive, and the other negative

– causing the charged ink to drop to change
its path.

4. By changing the charge on the deflecting

plates hundreds of times a second – detailed
ink images/words are formed on the printing
paper.

 Lighting is an example of static electricity build a

discharge. Particles of ice and water in the clouds can
collide with each other, causing static electrical charge to
build up in the cloud.
 The positively charged particles rise to the top of the
cloud and negatively charged particles sink to the bottom
of the cloud.
 When the charge builds up reaches a high level, a giant
spark, lighting, can be seen,
 It is the same principle as smaller electric shocks.

Lighting can travel between the regions of the cloud, or between

the cloud and the ground (relative to the negative cloud, the
ground is electrically positive).
Electrostatic Precipitators:
Many factories and power station create a large amount of smoke.
This smoke carries small particles of dust and ash
into the environment – causing health problems
and damage to buildings.
Electrostatic precipitators can help eliminate this
problem and prevent the dust and ash from being
released.
As the smoke rises it passes through a mesh of
wire that is highly charged. These pass on a charge
to the particles.
The charged particles then move up towards
earthed plates, which they are attracted to and
stick to.
What’s left is a ‘cleaner’ smoke.

Problems With static:

There are times when static is an issue such as when aircraft get charged by friction with air in
flight.
The plane can discharge on landing, as it becomes earthed
– this can cause sparking. If this occurs during refueling, it
could explode.
A conducting line is connected to the plane after it lands, to
carry these charges away safely.

Some other problems with static charge include:

1. Clothing can become charged when it rubs with other insulators, leading to shocks.
2. Cars can become charged after long journeys on dry days, leading to static discharge as
we move out of the car.
3. Fuel tankers on roads need Earthing before transferring fuel.
 Properties of waves
Waves transfer energy from one place to another without moving the
substance they travel though. Waves can also transfer information
with no matter being transferred.
When a wave moves through a substance, its particles will move from
their equilibrium (resting position) and then back to equilibrium when
the wave has passed.
The two types of waves are Transverse and longitudinal:
1. Transverse wave particles move
perpendicular to the direction of
energy transfer. For example, light
waves.
2. Longitudinal wave particles move
parallel to the direction of energy
transfer. For example, a sound wave.

Waves are either mechanical or electromagnetic:

1. Mechanical meaning they travel though matter via collisions of particles transferrin
energy.
2. Electromagnetic meaning they travel through a vacuum and no medium (particles) is
needed.

The maximum movement of particles from equilibrium position is called its amplitude (A). The
distance between a particular point on a wave and the same point on the next wave (e.g., peak
to peak) is called the wavelength, (λ). The
wavelength is a distance and so usually
has the unit metres, m.
Frequency is how many waves pass a
point every seconds. It is measured in
Hertz (Hz).
The time period, T, is the time it takes for
one complete wave to pass a point. The time period is measured in seconds (s). We can relate
1
the frequency and time period with the equation T =
f
Wavefronts are seen when we place separate but similar waves side by side. A wavefront can
be more properly said to be a line where all the vibrations are in phase and the same distance
from the wave source.

Wave equation

 Wave speed = frequency x wavelength v = f x 

 Wave speed is measured in meters per second (m/s).
 Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). (1 Hz = 1 wave/second)
 Wavelength is measured in meters (m).

We can study the behavior of wave using ripple tank. When the
motor is turned on the wooden bar vibrates – producing wavefronts on the water surface.
By shining a light on these wavefronts from above, we can see shadow patters on a tray or
white paper laid beneath the main tank. We can then observe wave properties such as
reflection and refraction from this wave pattern.

The motor can be adjusted to produce a small number of waves each second. This creates a low
frequency which we can see means the waves have long wavelength.
At higher frequencies the water waves have shorter wavelengths. So, in waves: high frequency
equals short wavelengths and low frequency equals long wavelengths.
 Reflection, Refraction, and Doppler

The wave that hits a surface is known as the ray of

incidence. A normal is an imaginary line at 90o (right angle)
to the surface. We measure the angle of incidence between
the normal and the incidence ray. The wave that reflects of
the surface is known as the ray of reflection. We measure
the angle of reflection between the normal and the
reflected ray.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection .
And this is true for all waves, including wavefronts as well as
waves.
Straw appears bent or in another place, this is because light rays has changed direction.
This is because of the different densities in mediums. Refraction is the change in the wave
speed and direction of light that occurs at a boundary between two mediums with
different densities.
1. When light enters a more optically dense medium it bends towards the normal. (e.g.,
from air into glass)
2. When light enters a less optically dense medium it bends away from normal (e.g.,
from glass or water into air).
 The EM Spectrum

All electromagnetic waves have the following properties:

1. They transfer energy.
2. They are transverse waves.
3. They all travel at the same speed – the speed of light.
4. They can be reflected and refracted.

You must know the order of the spectrum, which named section is at each end, sues of each
section, and the wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional.
 The EM Spectrum 2

Radio waves Microwaves Ultraviolet

Broadcasting and communications: Cooking and communication: Lighting:
 Longest wavelength, shortest  Long waves, short frequency.  Lots of cheap, commercial
frequency.  Water molecules in our food lighting is due to fluorescent
 Radio waves are emitted by absorb microwaves. bulbs.
transmitter.  Radar communication.  UV ray beams in and are
 Radio waves can be detected by a  Satellite Communication. converted to white light by
receiver (which is designed to turn chemicals inside the tube.
waves back into information).

X-rays Visible light Gamma rays

Imaging: Optical Fibers and Photography: Cancer treatment and sterilization:

 Possibly the most obvious  Obviously, the main benefit is that visible  Gamma rays are highly
use; we can image objects light is the bit of the EM spectrum you can ionizing, meaning they
using X-rays. see and so have sight. damage all cells.
 Very commonly used in  This is also, typically, the section of the EM  Sometimes, this can be
medicine. spectrum we use for photography. useful! We take advantage
 Visible light can be sent along optical fibers of this effect to sterilize
for communications purposes. medical equipment and
food, as it will kill all the
Infrared pathogens.
 We can also use gamma rays
Heaters and Night vision: to target and kill some types
 All objects, including your body, emit infrared (IR) radiation. of cancer cells.
 The hotter an object is, the more energy it emits in infrared.
 Heaters and grills transfer energy by infrared radiation.
 Special cameras designed to detect infrared waves can be used to create images when
there is no visible light.
 The human body can suffer skin burns if it absorbs too much infrared radiation.
 Refractive index and Total Internal Reflection
Refraction Rules:
1. When light enters a more optically dense medium it bends towards the normal.
2. When light enters a less optically dense medium it bends away from the normal.
3. Why? This is because glass is denser than air and it slows down the light.
4. Only if the ray enters the new medium at exactly 90o does it change speed without a
change of direction.

Refractive Index:
 The refractive index of a material is a measure of how strongly that material will bend a
ray of light, it has the symbol n.
sin i
 We can use the equation n ¿ where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of
sin r
refraction.

Refraction:
 When a ray of light with a small angle of incidence passes from glass into air, most of the
light is refracted out of the glass.
 We also see that a small amount of the light ray has been reflected within the glass at the
boundary.

Critical Angle:
 Increasing the angle of incidence, more light is reflected within the glass and less is
refracted out.
 The angle of refraction is also increasing in response.
 At the critical angle most of the light is refracted along the boundary.

Total Internal Reflection:

 Once i is greater than c, all the light is reflected at the boundary. No light is refracted.
1
 We can use the equation sin c = where n is the refractive index of the medium the
n
wave is travelling though.
 Using TIR
Optical fibers:
 The fiber is made of two types of glass:
 The center core has a high
refractive index.
 The outer core has a low
refractive index.
 Light entering the inner core of an optical fiber always strikes at an angle > c.
 The fiber therefore acts as a ‘light pipe’.

 Optical fibers are often used in telecommunications systems rather than copper
wires as less energy is lost.
 Electrical signals are converted into light energy in the form of a pulse of light.
 Pulses of light are sent into the end of an optical fiber and a light-sensitive detector
at the other end converts the pulses back into electrical signals which then flow into
receiver.

Prisms and there uses:

 We can use a ray box and glass prism to redirect light in such a way that it
changes speed at the first and final boundary, but only changes direction due to
total internal reflection inside the prism.
 A periscope uses prisms to redirect light using total internal reflection so that it
enters our eye parallel to its original path.
 Reflectors on bicycles and cars use total internal reflection.
 This is used for safety – when a headlight from a vehicle hits a bicycle reflector at
night, then the reflector will appear bright making the bicycle easier to see.
 Sound Waves

All waves can be refracted

including sound waves.
For example, if a sound wave
travels though warm air, then it
travels faster than it does on
cold air.
This result in a change of
direction – refraction.

Investigating the Speed of Sound:

1. Stand a set distance from a wall.
2. Make a sound and record the time taken for the sound to echo (reflect back).
3. We then use the equation Speed = Distance / time. (We are timing how long it takes for
the sound wave to travel to the wall and back, so our distance is doubled).

Sonar:
1. Ship emits a sound wave under water.
2. Some of these sound waves reflect back towards the ship.
3. The time it takes between being emitted and detected is measured.
4. As we know the speed of sound in water, the depth of water can be measured.

Why would mapping the depth of the seabed be useful?

 Create underwater maps.
 Shipwrecks.
 Ocean currents.
 Underwater hazards.
 Pitch Frequency and Audible Range
Frequency: Number of waves passing a point every second.

 High wave frequency means high pitch, and the opposite is true.
 The unit of frequency is measured in Hertz – Hz.
Measuring sound:
 Oscilloscope can be used to investigate alternating
current – such as the electrical signal produced by a
microphone.
 The microphone receives the sound wave and converts it to
an electrical signal.
 The oscilloscope displays the ac current as a wave.
 We can calculate the peas potential difference and time period/frequency from this.
Oscilloscopes:
 The oscilloscope displays waves on a grid:

 The y-axis shows voltage (with each box having a value of a certain number of
volts).
 The y-axis can be changed to zoom in or out of the
wave vertically – using a control called the “Y gain”.
 The x-axis is time base.
 Loudness: When a loud sound is displayed on an
oscilloscope screen in wave form, we see a larger
amplitude of the wave, and a smaller amplitude if the
sound is quit.
Using Oscilloscopes:
 We can find the period of the wave by looking at the x-axis
(the time base).
 If we find the time period of wave, we calculate:
1
Frequency, f (Hz) =
Time period , T (s)

Audible Range:
 On average, humans can hear a range of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
 Some animals can hear below 20 Hz / or above 20 000 Hz.
 Sounds made with a frequency of above 20 000 Hz are called ultrasound, and infrasound
is when the frequency is below 20 Hz.
 Energy Transfers
 Energy is not a thing, it’s a concept. You cannot hold energy in your hand, but you can
use it to mathematically describe physical or chemical changes.
 In science you’ll come across energy resources, energy stores, energy pathways, energy
transfers, energy efficiency and energy usage.
 The demand for energy increases every day because the world population is increasing.
There are several ways to describe energy stores:
 Chemical energy – Energy stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules.
 Gravitational potential energy store – Energy stored in an object at a height.
 Kinetic Energy store – Energy stored in an object that is moving.
 Elastic energy store – Energy stored in an object that has been stretched or squashed.
 Thermal energy store –A sum of its particle movement and potential energies.
 Magnetic Energy store – The energy stored due to being within a magnetic field.
 Nuclear Energy Store – The energy stored within atoms.
 Electrostatic Energy store – The energy stored due to being in an electric field.
Energy Pathways:
 We know energy can be stored, and that energy transfer describes the loss of energy
from one store and gain by another. But Pathways are a way of describing that transfer.
 There are four ways; electrical, Mechanical, radiation (e.g., light, sound), heating.
 We can label these on our flow diagrams.
 One pathway may directly lead to another.
 Add the pathways to your 5 previous energy
transfers.
Conservation of Energy:
 The principle of the conservation of energy
states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transferred from one
store into another.
 The main reason it is becoming harder to find viable energy source is because often the
store that energy is transferred into is not a reusable store – the energy is called wasted
energy.
Energy diagrams:
 There are two types of diagrams you can draw to describe an energy transfer:
 Flow (left) and Sankey (right).
 Sankey diagrams need to be drawn to scale for example 10J = 1cm
 Efficiency
Energy transfers:
 We can use different ways to show how energy is transferred.
 Energy transfer diagrams show the energy input (contribution), the energy transfer
process and the energy output (production).
 The system can be simple with just one main energy transfer taking place, for example a
bow and arrow:

Sankey
Diagrams:
 An example is the energy flow for a car:
 Electrical energy from the car’s alternator drives the lights, radio, etc., Changes
the battery and the starter
motor.
 Kinetic energy comes from the
car engine.
 Wasted energy is due to
electrical heating in the wires
and lights, frictional heating in
moving parts, and as noise.
 Wasted energy is transferred to
thermal energy store of the car
and surroundings.

Efficiency:
 The energy going into a system will be equal to the energy going out as we know energy
is conserved.
 However, the output energy is not always considered useful and so we use efficiency to
describe the ratio of useful output for total energy input.
 Crudely put, efficiency is basically how good a
process or device is at converting energy.
 There are no unit as it is a ratio, it is either written as a
decimal or fraction between 0 and 1 or a percentage.
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
 The particle motion is equivalent to the temperature.
 Heating or heating a pathway (process) to transfer energy occurs when two objects of a
different temperature come in close proximity.
 Hot and cold are relative terms – usually relative to room temperature. But all things we
know are hotter than absolute zero (-273oC). At this temperature atoms stop moving
entirely.

The energy stored within an object due to the kinetic energy of its particles and molecular potential
energies is called thermal (internal) energy. The kinetic energy of the particles is called the temperature.
When an object that is hotter is next to an object that is colder there will be a transfer of energy by
heating. An object that is gaining thermal energy from another is being heated and an object that is
transferring thermal energy to another is heating. When two systems in thermal contact are the same
temperature no heat transfers between them. They are in thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer can be by
conduction (including convection) or radiation.

Conduction:
 This is when energy is transferred to or through a substance by heating, causing particle
vibrations to transfer energy neighboring particles by collisions. These collisions cause
energy to be transferred between particles kinetic energy stores.
 The energy is shared across the particles in the object and so they start to move
vigorously – this would be seen as an increase in temperature.
 This process continues throughout the object from one end which is vibrating a lot to
the other end, which is vibrating a little, or in other words from the hot end to the cold
end.
 Heat naturally flows from a hot place to a cold place and so in the absence of a heat
source, conduction will stop when the internal energy in the substance is equal.

Conduction – Thermal Conductivity:

 Thermal conductivity: is a measure of how quickly energy is transferred though a
material in this was. Materials with high thermal conductivity transfer the energy
between their particles quickly.
 Conductors have high thermal conductivity.
 Insulators have low thermal conductivity.

Conductors:
 Conduction is most effective in solids and especially in metals. Conductors are materials
that transfer heat away from hot parts to cold parts easily.
 Metals are good conductors because they have free moving electrons. These can pass
though the metal quickly, transferring energy because they are colliding with atoms.
Insulators:
 Insulators do not transfer energy from hot parts to cold parts easily, this is because they
do not have these free electrons which is why heat transfer is much slower.
 Given that all insulators are poor conductors of heat and electricity, this is why they
make useful handles on cooking tools.
 If you were to hold an unlight match 1cm away from a Bunsen burner flame it would not
get hot enough to burst into flames – this shows air is a bad conductor of heat and good
insulator. This makes it very useful for keeping heat in, like double glazing or wool
clothing.

Convection:
 Convection happens due to the movement of fluids (liquids and gases). The particles are
freely able to move around each other.
 Similar to conduction, energy is transferred by heating the thermal store of the fluid.
Thermal energy migrates from hot places to cold places within the fluid.
 Again this energy is shared across the kinetic energy stores of the fluid
particles.
 Basically its describes particles of a fluid with a lot of thermal energy moving
and taking the place of particles with less thermal energy.

Infrared Radiation:
 Radiation does not involve particles like the conduction and convection. This means they
are not mechanical wavs like sound. Energy transfer by radiation can work when objects
are not touching, or through the vacuum of space.
 All objects transmit and absorb energy to and from their surroundings by infrared
radiation.
 Different objects emit or absorb different amounts of radiation depending on their
temperature, color, and their surface.
 Temperature (emit): the hotter an object is, the more infrared radiation it gives off. For
example when energy from the sun hits an object some of this is absorbed. This makes
the molecules vibrate more and so the object gets hotter.
 Surface and color (emit and absorb):
 A dull black surface is a good radiator and good absorber of radiation – it takes in
and gives out a lot of radiation.
 A bright shiny surface is a poor radiator and poor absorber of radiation – it takes
in and gives out little radiation.

Radiation
The four ways energy can be transferred is mechanically, electrically, and via radiation and
heating.

Conduction – Explained:
 Heating causes the particles in the heated part of the material to vibrate, which increases
their kinetic energy.
 The vibrating particles collide with the particles next to them, transferring energy to their
kinetic energy store.
 The energy in the particles will eventually be dissipated (transferred to the thermal energy
stores of the surroundings).

Convection – Explained:
 Convection: is the transfer of thermal energy through fluids by the upward movement of
warmer, less dense regions fluid.
1) An example of this is heated water – the hotter region of water expands increasing the
volume, but the mass stays the same, therefore decreasing its density.
2) The lower density hot water rises above the denser cold water.
3) Cold water replaces the hot water. The cold water is now heated while the previously hot
water is cooling down.
4) The cycle repeats – this is convection current.

Radiation – Explained:
 Thermal energy can also be transferred as radiation.
 Thermal energy is the transfer of energy by infrared (IR) waves.
 Meaning they have the same properties:
 They can travel through a vacuum.
 They travel though a vacuum at the speed of light.
 Conduction and convection require a medium to work, radiation does not.
 Properties of radiation:
 Radiation acts in a straight line.
 Radiation is fast.
 It does not require a medium to travel.
 Hotter objects emit more heat radiation. We can use thermal imaging cameras to pick up
on the heat being emitted from bodies as IR waves.
 Dark and matt surfaces are better emitters and absorbers of thermal radiation than light
shiny surfaces.
 Core Practical 8

 Some materials conduct thermal energy faster than others.

 Thermal conductivity: is a measure of how quickly energy can be transferred through a
material by conduction.
 A material with high thermal conductivity will transfer energy by conduction
quickly.
 A material with low conductivity will transfer energy by conduction slowly.

Materials that have a high thermal conductivity will transfer energy faster than other materials
with a low thermal conductivity.
All metals are good thermal conductors, but
some are much better than others. The lefthand
rod is steel and the righthand rod is copper.
Copper has the higher thermal conductivity of
the two metals.
In exam questions you may see thermal
conductivity measured in units such as W/m °C.
You do not need to know this unit of
measurement, just don’t let it surprise you if you
see it in an exam question.
 Efficiency in the Home
Efficiency = Useful Output Energy Transfer / Total Output Energy Transfer x 100
To increase efficiency you either have to increase the useful output or decrease the wasted
energy.

Problems and Solutions:

 Problem: Friction between moving parts wastes energy (energy is dissipated to
surroundings).
 Solution: Lubrication such as oil can be used to reduce friction.

 Problem: Air resistance wastes energy by transferring it to the surroundings.

 Solution: Streamlining can reduce air resistance.

 Problem: sound from loose parts moving transfers energy to the surroundings through
sound waves (the mechanical pathway).
 Solution: Tighten loose parts.

 Problem: Electrical resistance causes wires to heat up, dissipating energy to the thermal
energy to the thermal stores of the surroundings.
 Solution: Use wires with low resistance or reduce the current.

Homeowners might want to insulate their property to reduce costs, reduce emissions, and
increase comfort.

Insulation Explained:
 Most walls have two layers. This is
because if there is no insulation,
convection can build up causing heat
exchange between the outside and
inside.
 By filling the gap between the outer
and inner wall with insulation,
convection currents can be stopped .
 Heat can be lost through windows via
conduction.
 Double glazing is used to reduce this glass is a good insulator, and the air gap is thick
enough that no significant convection currents build up.
 Roof insulation tends to be shiny and reflective. This is to minimize heat loss radiation.

 GPE and KE
Potential energy: is the energy that an object stores because of its position.

Kinetic Energy:
 Kinetic Energy: The energy a system has because it is moving.
 Kinetic Energy = ½ x mass x speed
Ek = ½ x mass x speed
 A moving object has energy in its kinetic energy store.
 For example if a car is speeding up – energy is being transferred to its kinetic energy store. If
it is slowing down – energy is being transferred away from its kinetic energy store.

Gravitational Potential Energy:

 GPE: The energy a system has because of how high above the ground it is.
 GPE = mass x height x Gravitational Field strength
 Ep = m x h x g
 There are three factors that determine GPE mass, height, gravitational field strength.
 When a ball is in its usual position (on the ground) there is no energy in its GPE store.
 If we change its position by lifting up the energy in its GPE store will increase. It now has
the potential to transfer that energy to another store (e.g., to the kinetic energy store if it
is dropped).

Example:
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can only be transferred from one energy
store to another or from one system to another.
 You need to be able to spot situations where energy is being
transferred from one store to another and then use the
equations to calculate it.

 Imagine you had a ball which you dropped to the ground.

 By calculating the energy in the GPE store of the ball before
you drop it, you would know the amount of energy in the
kinetic energy store of the ball in the moment before it hits
the ground.
 Of course, not all the energy in the GPE store would be
transferred to the KE store because of air resistance.
 Exam question usually tell you to ignore air resistance and
assume that all energy Is transferred from GPE to KE stores.
 Work and Power
Work done = force x distance Moved
W (J) = F (N) x s (m)

Work done:
 When work is done,
energy is transferred
from oner energy store
to another.
 The magnitude of work is
exactly the same as the
magnitude of energy
transferred.
 Work Done (J) = Energy
transferred (J)
 When work is done it shows us that energy has been transferred from one store to
another.
Power:
 Two machines lift the same weight (100N) the same height (2m).
 The first machine does this in 2 seconds. The second machine does it in 4 seconds.
 Power = work done / Time taken
 P(W) = W(J) / t(s)
 Which means the first machine is more powerful because it had a faster delivery of
energy.
 Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or work done.

Watts:
 Power is measured in watts, names after James Watt, a famous inventor, engineer and
scientist.
 We can see that if I joule was transferred in 1 second this would give us a power of 1
watt.
 1 W = 1J/s
 Renewable and Non-renewable Energy
The 3 main energy sources on energy are transport, electricity, heating.
Renewable energy: an energy resource that is being replenished as it is used.
Non-renewable energy: an energy that is not being replenished at the rate it is used.

Generating electricity:
 All electricity generators are based on the generator effect.
 And the aim is to get a turbine spinning.
 This, linked to a generator allows us to produce electricity.

Fossil fuels:
 Fossil fuels are not the same as fossils, but they are called fossil fuels because they are
made in a similar way.
 Fossils: imprints of organisms that died millions of years ago and did not rot away
properly.
 Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels are also made of organisms that died millions of years ago and
did not tor away properly, but instead formed a fuel.
 Hence fossil fuels are considered non-renewable because they take millions of years to
from.
 Coal: Its main use is generating electricity and is found in coal mines.
 Crude oil: Found in oil fields and mainly used for energy – petrol and diesel.
 Natural gas: Found with crude oil and used for heating and generating electricity.

Generating electricity – fossil fuels:

 Fossil fuels are burned.
 This heats up the water which turns it into steam.
 Steam turns the turbine thus we have managed to get a turbine spinning which is the
main requirement for generating electricity.

Problems – Fossil fuels:

 All fossil fuels release carbon dioxide when they are burned, which contributes to global
warming.
 Burning coal and oil can release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which can cause acid
rain which can kill trees and fish.
 Extracting fossil fuels from the ground can damage the environment e.g., oil spills.

 Benefits – Fossil Fuels:
The majority of the world’s electricity is generated through burning coal or natural gas.
xxxxThis is because:

 They are reliable – they are always available, and it is easy to increase electricity
generation at times of higher demand.
 They were relatively cheap.
 They generate lots of electricity – one fossil fuel power station can generate the same
amount of electricity as hundreds of wind turbines.
 The only reason we don’t use crude oil to generate electricity is that the demand for it
as a fuel for transport is so high that it would just be too expensive to generate
electricity from.

Nuclear – Non-renewable:
 Nuclear energy is produced from nuclear fuels such as uranium and plutonium.
 It is the only non-renewable fuel that isn’t fossil fuel.
 It has some of the advantage of renewable energy resources in that it doesn’t release
carbon dioxide.
 But it also has some of the advantages of fossil fuels in that they are reliable.
 It also has its own unique disadvantages, for example the production of radioactive
waste and the risk of nuclear accidents.
 Nuclear fuel rods get hot due to nuclear reactions.
 This heats up the water turning it into steam.
 Steam turns the turbine which is the main requirement for generating electricity.

Hydroelectricity Wind Power

 Supply and Demand
Supply:
 Demand for electricity can change hour by hour, day to day, and in different seasons.
 Controllers of national electricity supplies can predict (to an extent) how much demand
there is at any one time.
 For example, if there are a football match and millions of people boil their kettles for a cup
of tea during half time, there is a sudden spike in the demand for electricity.

Reliability:
 Reliability: whether an energy resource is always available.
 Wind and solar power for example are not reliable.
 We can’t generate electricity from solar power at night.
 We cant generate electricity from wind power when the wind is not strong enough.

Energy Mix:
There is a pressure to end the use of fossil fuels, however there are barriers to doing this. The three
main ones are:

1. Capacity and Cost. Far more renewable plants would be needed. This would produce cheap
electricity but building them in the first place is expensive.
2. Reliability. Renewable energy in generally not reliable.
3. Technology / Existing Infrastructure. The existing infrastructure and technology is designed
around fossil fuels. Switching to renewables will require new technologies and the
replacement of existing
infrastructure.

Energy Storage:
 A mixture of energy resources is
used.
 Energy storage methods also need
to be developed.
 There are many times when more
electricity is being generated than is
needed across the UK, for example
when it is very sunny or windy.

 This is a pumped storage hydroelectric power station.

 When demand for electricity is low, spare electricity is used to
pump water from the bottom reservoir to the top reservoir.
 When demand for electricity is high the water in the top reservoir
is allowed to flow out, past turbines, to generate electricity.
Science and Change:
 The vast majority of the energy used worldwide is from fossil fuels.
 Given that we know that fossil fuels are causing global warming, why have we not
completely switched to using low carbon energy resources such as nuclear or renewable
fuels?
 Ultimately, while scientists have identified the issues that using fossil fuels causes, they
usually do not have the power to make the changes needed.
 There are political, social, economic, and ethical considerations that have prevented us from
reducing fossil fuel use as quickly as could have.
 Density

Density is a measure of the compactness of particles. Solids tend to be very dense compared to
liquids, which are denser than gases. This means to different materials can have the same
volume, but one is denser than the other.

Density Effects:
 The properties of a material affect how it behaves, and how it affects other materials
around it. A balloon filled with helium can fly because this gas is less dense than the air
around it.
 A block of iron would sink in water because the iron is denser than the water.

The Equation:
 The equation that links density, mass, and volume is –

Measuring Density - Regular Solids:

 You use a balance to find the mass, and then measure the volume by
determining the width, length, and depth and multiply them by each
other to get the volume.

Measuring Density – Irregular Solid - Liquid:

 First use a balance to find the mass. Then add a set amount of water to an empty cylinder,
add the Irregular solid to the water filled cylinder and measure the difference. Since it is
known that 1g = 1ml = 1cm3 in water just changes the units and use the equation to find
the density.
 Pressure
Pressure: is the concentration of a force, or the force per unit are.

 Force is measured in Newtons (N), area is measured in square meters (m2), and pressure is
measured in pascals (pa).
force , F ( newtons )
 Pressure, p (pascals) =
area , A ( square metres )

Pressure in Fluids:
 Any object submerged in a liquid experiences equal pressure from all directions, and this
is true at any depth.
 Even if pressure may come at angles, the overall
force at the surface is 90o
 As the depth of the liquid changes, the pressure
increases.
 The equation for a liquid at a depth is:
P=hxρxg Gravitational
field strength
Pressure Hight Density

Pressure in Fluids – Atmospheric Pressure:

 Gases also exert pressure – the atmosphere of the Earth exerts a pressure on us of around
100 000 pa.
 The only reason you don’t feel that is because the pressure inside our bodies is very
similar to this, so we do not notice the external pressure.

Upthrust:
 Upthrust is the force that pushes an object up when submerged in a liquid.
 The main difference between upthrust and buoyancy is a buoyant object floats and
upthrust is a buoyancy force.
 Upthrust acts to oppose the weight of the object and so far an object that is completely or
partially immersed in a fluid, the upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
 Even if an object sinks entirely, upthrust is still acting on the subject, but it doesn’t equal
the weight of the object.