Engineering Calculus III (GEG217)

A Comprehensive Introduction

Dr Oluwafemi A. George
Dr John Ogbemhe

Department of Systems Engineering

University of Lagos

November 6, 2023

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 1 / 68
 Outline
1 Introduction
Course Schedule
Course Objectives
Course Requirements
Weekly Schedule
2 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Introduction to matrices
Matrix Operation
Matrix Scalar Multiplication & Matrix Multiplication
Transpose of matrices
Determinant
Example
Minor and Cofactors
Adjoint
Inverse of a matrix
Linear transformations
Applications of linearEngineeringtransformations
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 2 / 68
 Course Overview

This course will introduce students to the basic concepts of

matrices, complex numbers, complex functions, and their
applications.
The course will cover topics such as linear transformations,
conformal mapping, the Cauchy-Riemann equations, complex
line integrals, Laurent series and numerical methods for complex
analysis.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 3 / 68
 Course Schedule

Week 1: Matrices and Linear Transformation

Week 2: Elementary Complex Analysis
Week 3: Logarithmic, Exponential and Circular Complex function
Week 4: Mapping by complex functions
Week 5: Limit, Continuity and Differentiability of Complex
function
Week 6: Cauchy-Riemann’s Equations
Week 7: Complex Line Intergrals
Week 8: Integration of functions of Complex Variables
Week 9: Applications of Complex Analysis
Week 10: Numerical Methods for Complex Analysis

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 4 / 68
 Course Objectives

Define matrices and complex numbers.

Perform basic matrix operations and complex number operations.
Represent complex numbers graphically.
Define complex functions and their basic properties.
Identify analytic functions.
Apply the Cauchy-Riemann equations to analyze the behavior of
complex functions.
Define complex line integrals.
Apply Cauchy’s integral theorem to evaluate complex line
integrals.
Apply Cauchy’s integral formula to solve problems in complex
analysis.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 5 / 68
 Course Objectives Cont’d

Integrate complex functions using Cauchy’s residue theorem.

Expand complex functions in Laurent series.
Apply Laurent series to solve problems in complex analysis.
Apply conformal mapping to solve geometric problems.
Apply potential theory to solve problems in fluid dynamics.
Apply Fourier analysis to solve problems in signal processing.
Implement numerical methods for complex functions.
Integrate complex functions numerically.
Solve complex differential equations numerically.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 6 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.
Completing assigned classwork and homework problems, which
form an important component of the continuous assessment
(CA), is sacrosanct.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.
Completing assigned classwork and homework problems, which
form an important component of the continuous assessment
(CA), is sacrosanct.
You are expected to take a semester test, which will form a
major component of the CA.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.
Completing assigned classwork and homework problems, which
form an important component of the continuous assessment
(CA), is sacrosanct.
You are expected to take a semester test, which will form a
major component of the CA.
You are expected to take a semester examination.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.
Completing assigned classwork and homework problems, which
form an important component of the continuous assessment
(CA), is sacrosanct.
You are expected to take a semester test, which will form a
major component of the CA.
You are expected to take a semester examination.
Grade = CA (40); Exams (60)
Course Materials
Textbook: Complex Analysis by James Stewart

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.
Completing assigned classwork and homework problems, which
form an important component of the continuous assessment
(CA), is sacrosanct.
You are expected to take a semester test, which will form a
major component of the CA.
You are expected to take a semester examination.
Grade = CA (40); Exams (60)
Course Materials
Textbook: Complex Analysis by James Stewart
Other resources:

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.
Completing assigned classwork and homework problems, which
form an important component of the continuous assessment
(CA), is sacrosanct.
You are expected to take a semester test, which will form a
major component of the CA.
You are expected to take a semester examination.
Grade = CA (40); Exams (60)
Course Materials
Textbook: Complex Analysis by James Stewart
Other resources:
Complex Variables by John B. Conway

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Course Requirements
Attendance and participation are essential to fulfilling the
prerequisites for writing the examination.
Completing assigned classwork and homework problems, which
form an important component of the continuous assessment
(CA), is sacrosanct.
You are expected to take a semester test, which will form a
major component of the CA.
You are expected to take a semester examination.
Grade = CA (40); Exams (60)
Course Materials
Textbook: Complex Analysis by James Stewart
Other resources:
Complex Variables by John B. Conway
Mathematical Analysis with Applications by Richard Courant
and Herbert Robbins
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 7 / 68
 Week 1: Matrices and Linear Transformation

Week 1: Matrices and Linear Transformation

Topics
Introduction to matrices
Matrix operations
Linear transformations
Applications of linear transformations

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 8 / 68
 Week 2: Elementary Complex Analysis

Week 2: Elementary Complex Analysis

Topics
Complex numbers
Complex functions
Analytic functions
Cauchy-Riemann equations

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 9 / 68
 Week 3: Logarithmic, Exponential and Circular
Complex function

Topics
Logarithmic functions
Exponential functions
Circular functions
Trigonometric functions

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 10 / 68
 Week 4: Mapping by complex functions

Topics
Conformal mapping
Riemann mapping theorem
Applications of conformal mapping

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 11 / 68
 Week 5: Limit, Continuity and Differentiability of
Complex function

Topics
Limits of complex functions
Continuity of complex functions
Differentiability of complex functions

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 12 / 68
 Week 6: Cauchy-Riemann’s Equations

Topics
Cauchy-Riemann equations
Analytic functions
Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar coordinates

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 13 / 68
 Week 7: Complex Line Integrals

Topics
Complex line integrals
Cauchy’s integral theorem
Cauchy’s integral formula

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 14 / 68
 Week 8: Integration of functions of Complex
Variables

Topics
Integration of complex functions
Cauchy’s residue theorem
Laurent series

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 15 / 68
 Week 9: Applications of Complex Analysis

Topics
Conformal mapping
Potential theory
Fourier analysis

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 16 / 68
 Week 10: Numerical Methods for Complex Analysis

Week 10: Numerical Methods for Complex Analysis

Topics
Numerical methods for complex functions
Numerical integration of complex functions
Numerical solution of complex differential equations

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 17 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.
4 Represent linear transformations using matrices.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.
4 Represent linear transformations using matrices.
Learning Outcomes
1 Define a matrix and its elements.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.
4 Represent linear transformations using matrices.
Learning Outcomes
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.
4 Represent linear transformations using matrices.
Learning Outcomes
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Matrices and Linear Transformation
Learning Objectives
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.
4 Represent linear transformations using matrices.
Learning Outcomes
1 Define a matrix and its elements.
2 Perform basic matrix operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and transposition.
3 Calculate the determinant of a matrix.
4 Represent linear transformations using matrices.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 18 / 68
 Introduction to matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers, arranged in rows and
columns, whereas a vector is an array of scalars.
Definition
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of uv numbers enclosed within
a bracket, denoted by capital letters such as A, B, or C.
Given that:
 
a11 a12 .... a1n
 . . .... . 
 
A=  . . .... .  = (aij )u×v

 . . .... . 
am1 am2 .... amn
A is a matrix of order u × v i th row j th column element of the matrix
denoted by aij .
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 19 / 68
 Matrix Operation
The operations of matrices primarily involve three algebraic
operations: addition, subtraction, and scalar matrix multiplication.
Addition & Subtraction of matrices
Given two matrices A and B, such that
 
a11 a12 .... a1n
 . . .... . 
 
A = [aij ] =  .
 . .... .   (1)
 . . .... . 
am1 am2 .... amn
and
 
b11 b12 .... b1n
 . . .... . 
 
B = [bij ] =  .
 . .... .   (2)
 . . .... . 
bm1 bm2 .... bmn
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 20 / 68
 Matrix Operation Cont’d

Then, their addition A + B is defined as

   
a11 a12 .... a1n b11 b12 .... b1n
 . . .... .   .
  . .... . 
 
[aij + bij ] = 
 . . .... .  +
 . . .... .  =
 . . .... .   . . .... . 
am1 am2 .... amn bm1 bm2 .... bmn
 
a11 + b11 a12 + b12 .... a1n + b1n

 . . .... . 


 . . .... . 

 . . .... . 
am1 + bm1 am2 + bm2 .... amn + bmn

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 21 / 68
 Matrix Operation Cont’d
Likewise, A - B is defined as
   
a11 a12 .... a1n b11 b12 .... b1n
 . . .... .   .
  . .... . 
 
[aij − bij ] = 
 . . .... . − .
  . .... .  =
 . . .... .   . . .... . 
am1 am2 .... amn bm1 bm2 .... bmn
 
a11 − b11 a12 − b12 .... a1n − b1n

 . . .... . 


 . . .... . 

 . . .... . 
am1 − bm1 am2 − bm2 .... amn − bmn

where ij represents the element in i th row and j th column.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 22 / 68
 Example
Perform addition and subtraction operations on the following sets of
matrices
   
−1 2 1 3
(a) +
0 1 −1 2

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 23 / 68
 Example
Perform addition and subtraction operations on the following sets of
matrices
   
−1 2 1 3
(a) +
0 1 −1 2
   
0 1 −2 0 0 0
(b) +
1 2 3 0 0 0

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 23 / 68
 Example
Perform addition and subtraction operations on the following sets of
matrices
   
−1 2 1 3
(a) +
0 1 −1 2
   
0 1 −2 0 0 0
(b) +
 1 2 3  0 0 0 
2 1 0 0 1
(c) 4 0 −1 + −1 3
  
3 −2 2 2 4

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 23 / 68
 Example
Perform addition and subtraction operations on the following sets of
matrices
   
−1 2 1 3
(a) +
0 1 −1 2
   
0 1 −2 0 0 0
(b) +
 1 2 3  0 0 0 
2 1 0 0 1
(c) 4 0 −1 + −1 3
  
3 −2  2  2 4
1 −1
(d) −3 + 3 
  
−2 2

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 23 / 68
 Example
Perform addition and subtraction operations on the following sets of
matrices
   
−1 2 1 3
(a) +
0 1 −1 2
   
0 1 −2 0 0 0
(b) +
 1 2 3  0 0 0 
2 1 0 0 1
(c) 4 0 −1 + −1 3
  
3 −2  2  2 4
1 −1
(d) −3 + 3 
  
−2 2

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 23 / 68
 Example
   
0 4 1 2
(e) 7 0 + 2 3
3 1 0 4

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 24 / 68
 Example
   
0 4 1 2
(e) 7 0  + 2 3 
3 1  0 4 
1 4 7 1 2 3
(f ) −
8 6 2  4 5 6 
1 2 4 2 0 0
(g ) −3
 0 1 −  1 −4 3
2 1 2 −1 3 2

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 24 / 68
 Example
   
0 4 1 2
(e) 7 0  + 2 3 
3 1  0 4 
1 4 7 1 2 3
(f ) −
8 6 2  4 5 6 
1 2 4 2 0 0
(g ) −3
 0 1 − 1
  −4 3
2 1 2  −1 3 2
5 9 −2 2 0 1
(h) 1 2 3 − 5
  7 −1
4 2 1 9 7 8

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 24 / 68
 Example
   
0 4 1 2
(e) 7 0 + 2 3
 3 1  0 4 
1 4 7 1 2 3
(f ) −
 8 6 2  4 5 6 
1 2 4 2 0 0
(g ) −3 0 1 −  1 −4 3
2 1 2  −1 3 2
5 9 −2 2 0 1
(h) 1 2 3 − 5 7 −1
  
 4 2 1   9 7 8
0 1 −2 7 −6 1
(i) −
1 0 −1 0 −2 0

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 24 / 68
 Example
   
0 4 1 2
(e) 7 0 + 2 3
 3 1  0 4 
1 4 7 1 2 3
(f ) −
 8 6 2  4 5 6 
1 2 4 2 0 0
(g ) −3 0 1 −  1 −4 3
2 1 2  −1 3 2
5 9 −2 2 0 1
(h) 1 2 3 − 5 7 −1
  
 4 2 1   9 7 8
0 1 −2 7 −6 1
(i) −
1 0 −1 0 −2 0
3 0 −2 9 0 1
(j) −
1 6 3 5 1 1
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 24 / 68
 Solution

1 Step 1: Analysis
Since the last pair of equal matrices is the final one, the terms of
each pair are added.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 25 / 68
 Solution

1 Step 1: Analysis
Since the last pair of equal matrices is the final one, the terms of
each pair are added.
(c), are not equal their sum is undefined.
Similarly, when matrices are equal or of same dimension, their
corresponding terms may be subtracted from each other.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 25 / 68
 Solution

1 Step 1: Analysis
Since the last pair of equal matrices is the final one, the terms of
each pair are added.
(c), are not equal their sum is undefined.
Similarly, when matrices are equal or of same dimension, their
corresponding terms may be subtracted from each other.
2 Step 2:Add or Subtract
Step two involves adding or subtracting matrix pair values.
When subtracting, each matrix member following the negative
sign is subtracted from its predecessor.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 25 / 68
 Solution

1 Step 1: Analysis
Since the last pair of equal matrices is the final one, the terms of
each pair are added.
(c), are not equal their sum is undefined.
Similarly, when matrices are equal or of same dimension, their
corresponding terms may be subtracted from each other.
2 Step 2:Add or Subtract
Step two involves adding or subtracting matrix pair values.
When subtracting, each matrix member following the negative
sign is subtracted
  from
 its predecessor.
    
−1 2 1 3 −1 + 1 2 + 3 0 5
(a) + = =
0 1 −1 2 0 + −1 1 + 2 −1 3

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 25 / 68
 Solution

1 Step 1: Analysis
Since the last pair of equal matrices is the final one, the terms of
each pair are added.
(c), are not equal their sum is undefined.
Similarly, when matrices are equal or of same dimension, their
corresponding terms may be subtracted from each other.
2 Step 2:Add or Subtract
Step two involves adding or subtracting matrix pair values.
When subtracting, each matrix member following the negative
sign is subtracted
  from
 its predecessor.
    
−1 2 1 3 −1 + 1 2 + 3 0 5
(a) + = =
0 1 −1 2 0 + −1 1 + 2 −1 3

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 Solution Cont’d

       
0 1 −2 0 0 0 0 + 0 1 + 0 −2 + 0 0 1 −2
(b) + = =
1 2 3 0 0 0 1+0 2+0 3+0 1 2 3

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 Solution Cont’d

       
0 1 −2 0 0 0 0 + 0 1 + 0 −2 + 0 0 1 −2
(b) + = =
1 2 3 0 0 0 1+0 2+0 3+0 1 2 3

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 Solution Cont’d

       
0 1 −2 0 0 0 0 + 0 1 + 0 −2 + 0 0 1 −2
(b) + = =
1 2 3 0 0 0 1+0 2+0 3+0 1 2 3

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 Solution Cont’d

 
−6 0 −3
=
−4 5 1

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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 Matrix Scalar Multiplication & Matrix
Multiplication

Matrix Scalar Multiplication

Some examples of scalar matrix multiplication are shown below:
   
1 6 −2 −12
(-2)9 3 = −18 −6 
6 0 −12 0
(α + β)A = αA + βA; (αβ)A
α(A + B) = αA + αB
0.A = 0; 1.A = A
The scalar quantities are respectively −2, (α + β & αβ), α, and (0 &
1).

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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 Matrix Scalar Multiplication & Matrix
Multiplication

Matrix Scalar Multiplication

Some examples of scalar matrix multiplication are shown below:
   
1 6 −2 −12
(-2)9 3 = −18 −6 
6 0 −12 0
(α + β)A = αA + βA; (αβ)A
α(A + B) = αA + αB
0.A = 0; 1.A = A
The scalar quantities are respectively −2, (α + β & αβ), α, and (0 &
1).

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 28 / 68
 Matrix Scalar Multiplication & Matrix
Multiplication (Cont’d)

Matrix Multiplication
Definition
Two matrices A and B are said to be confirmable for product AB if
number of columns in A equals to the number of rows in matrix B.

Let A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )n×r be two matrices. The product
matrix C = AB, is matrix of order m × r
n
X
where cij = aij bkj = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + ...... + ain bnj (3)
k=1

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 Matrix Scalar Multiplication & Matrix
Multiplication (Cont’d)

Rules for multiplying matrices:

(AB)C = A(BC)
k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB), k is scalar (number)
A(B ± C) = AB ± AC and (B ± C)A = BA ± CA
AB ̸= BA
OA = AO = O, O is zero matrix
IA = AI = A, I is Identity matrix

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 Example

Find the product of

 
  −2 4 2
1 0 3 
(a) 1 0 0
2 −1 −2
−1 1 −1

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 Example

Find the product of

 
  −2 4 2
1 0 3 
(a) 1 0 0
2 −1 −2
−1 1 −1
 
  2 3
1 2 −3 4  −5 0 

(b)
0 −5 −1 1  6 −2
−1 −3

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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 Example

Find the product of

 
  −2 4 2
1 0 3 
(a) 1 0 0
2 −1 −2
−1 1 −1
 
  2 3
1 2 −3 4  −5 0
(b) 
0 −5 −1 1  6 −2
 −1 −3

  4 1 4 3
1 2 4 
(c) 0 −1 3 1
2 6 0
2 7 5 2

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 Example

Find the product of

 
  −2 4 2
1 0 3 
(a) 1 0 0
2 −1 −2
−1 1 −1
 
  2 3
1 2 −3 4  −5 0
(b) 
0 −5 −1 1  6 −2
 −1 −3

  4 1 4 3
1 2 4 
(c) 0 −1 3 1
2 6 0
   2 7 5 2
1 6 0 −1
(d)
9 3 −1 2

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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 Solution (a)
Step 1: Analysis.
Since the number of columns of the first matrix is the same number
as the rows of the second, the two matrices are able to be multiplied
resulting in a 2 × 3 matrix.
Step 2: Perform the
 row-by-column
 operations.
  −2 4 2  
1 0 3 c11 c12 c13
× 1 0 0 =
 
2 −1 −2 c21 c22 c23
−1 1 −1
c11 = (1)(−2) + (0)(1) + (3)(−1) = −2 + 0 + (−3) = −5
c12 = (1)(4) + (0)(0) + (3)(1) = 4 + 0 + 3 = 7
c13 = (1)(2) + (0)(0) + (3)(−1) = 2 + 0 + (−3) = −1
c21 = (2)(−2) + (−1)(1) + (−2)(−1) = −4 + (−1) + 2 = −3
c22 = (2)(4) + (−1)(0) + (−2)(1) = 8 + 0 + (−2) = 6
c23 = (2)(2) + (−1)(0) + (−2)(−1) = 4 + 0 + 2 = 6 
−5 7 −1
Step 3: Write the products into a matrix form.
−3 6 6
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 Transpose of matrices

Definition
′
Transpose of m × n matrix A, denoted AT or A , is n × m matrix
with rows and columns of A transposed in AT

(AT )ij = Aji (4)

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 Properties of Transpose:
(i) (A + B)T = AT + B T
(ii) (AT )T = A
(iii) (kA)T = kAT for scalar k
(iv) (AB)T = B T AT
 T
0 4  
0 7 3
For example, the transpose of 7 0 =
4 0 1
3 1

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 Determinant

Definition
Let A = (aij )n×n be a square matrix of order n, then |A| is called the
determinant of matrix A.
Case 1: Determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix
Let
 
a11 a12 a a
A= , then|A| = 11 12 = a11 × a22 − a12 × a21
a21 a22 a21 a22

Case 2: Determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix

Let  
b11 b12 b13
A = B = b21 b22 b23 
b31 b32 b33

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 Definition Cont’d
Then,

b22 b23 b b b b
|B| = b11 − b12 21 23 + b13 21 22
b32 b33 b31 b33 b31 b32

|B| = b11 (b22 × b33 − (b23 × b32 )) − b12 (b21 × b33 − (b23 × b31 ))

+b13 (b21 × b32 − (b22 × b31 ))

Properties of determinant
The determinant of a matrix A and its transpose AT are equal
|A| = |AT |
Let A be a square matrix
(i) If A has a row (or column) of zeros then |A| = 0
(ii) If A has two identical rows ( or columns) then |A| = 0
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 Properties of determinant Cont’d
If A is triangular matrix then |A| = 0 is product of the diagonal
elements.
If A is a square matrix of order n and k is a scalar then
|kA| = k n |A|

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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 Example
 
1 3 4
Calculate the determinant of the matrix 2 6 8
1 9 5
Solution
1 3 4 b11 b12 b13
2 6 8 = b21 b22 b23
1 9 5 b31 b32 b33
= b11 (b22 × b33 − (b23 × b32 )) − b12 (b21 × b33 − (b23 × b31 )) +
b13 (b21 × b32 − (b22 × b31 ))
b11 = 1, b12 = 3, b13 = 4, b21 = 2, b22 = 6, b23 = 8, b31 = 1, b32 =
9, b33 = 5
= 1(6 × 5 − (8 × 9)) − 3(2 × 5 − (8 × 1)) + 4(2 × 9 − (6 × 1))
= 1(30 − 72) − 3(10 − 8) + 4(18 − 6) = −42 − 6 + 48 = 0
1 3 4
Therefore, 2 6 8 = 0
1 9 5
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
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 Minor and Cofactors

Definition
Let A = (aij )n×n be a square matrix. Then Mij denotes a sub matrix
of A with order (n − 1) × (n − 1) obtained by deleting its i th row and
j th column. The determinant |Mij | is called the minor of the element
aij of A.

The cofactor of aij is denoted by Aij and is equal to (−1)i+j |Mij |.

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 Example

Find the minors of the following matrix and use the results to
determine
 its cofactors
5 4 2
2 3 1
3 −2 −1

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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 Solution
Step 1: Determine the minors
3 1
M11 = Minor of a11 = = 3 × −1 − 1 × −2 = −3 + 2 = −1
−2 −1
2 1
M12 = Minor of a12 = = 2 × −1 − 1 × 3 = −2 − 3 = −5
3 −1
2 3
M13 = Minor of a13 = = 2 × −2 − 3 × 3 = −4 − 9 = −13
3 −2
4 2
M21 = Minor of a21 = = 4 × −1 − 2 × −2 = −4 + 4 = 0
−2 −1
5 2
M22 = Minor of a22 = = 5 × −1 − 2 × 3 = −5 − 6 = −11
3 −1
5 4
M23 = Minor of a23 = = 5 × −2 − 4 × 3 = −10 − 12 = −22
3 −2
4 2
M31 = Minor of a31 = = 4 × 1 − 2 × 3 = 4 − 6 = −2
3 1
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 Solution Cont’d

5 2
M32 = Minor of a32 = =5×1−2×2=5−4=1
2 1
5 4
M33 = Minor of a33 = = 5 × 3 − 4 × 2 = 15 − 8 = 7
2 3
Step 2: Determine the cofactors using the results of the minors
c11 = Cofactor of M11 = (−1)1+1 × −1 = −1 × −1 = −1
c12 = Cofactor of M12 = (−1)1+2 × −5 = −1 × −5 = 5
c13 = Cofactor of M13 = (−1)1+3 × −13 = 1 × −13 = −13
c21 = Cofactor of M21 = (−1)2+1 × 0 = −1 × 0 = 0
c22 = Cofactor of M22 = (−1)2+2 × −11 = 1 × −11 = −11
c23 = Cofactor of M23 = (−1)2+3 × −22 = −1 × −22 = 22

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 Solution Cont’d

c31 = Cofactor of M31 = (−1)3+1 × −2 = 1 × −2 = −2

c32 = Cofactor of M32 = (−1)3+2 × 1 = −1 × 1 = −1
c33 = Cofactor of M33 = (−1)3+3 × 7 = 1 × 7 = 7

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 Adjoint

Definition
The transpose of the cofactor matrix with element aij of A denoted
by adj(A) is called adjoint of matrix A.

Theorem
For any square matrix A,
A(adjA) = (adjA)A = |A|I where I is the identity matrix of same
order.

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 Adjoint Cont’d
Proof.
Let A = (aij )n×n
Since A is a square matrix of order n, then adj A is also in the same
order.  
a11 a12 .... a1n
a21 a22 .... a2n 
 
Consider A =   . . .... .  
 . . .... . 
a a .... ann
 n1 n2 
A11 A12 .... A1n
A21 A22 .... A2n 
 
Then, AdjA =   . . .... .  
 . . .... . 
An1 An2 .... Ann
Now consider the product A(adjA)
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 Adjoint Cont’d
  
a11 a12 .... a1n A11 A12 .... A1n
a21 a22 .... a2n   A21 A22 .... A2n 
 

A(adjA) =  . . .... .   . . .... . 


 . . .... .   . . .... . 
an1 an2 .... ann An1 An2 .... Ann
Pn Pn Pn 
a A a1j A2j .... j=1 a1j Anj
Pj=1 1j 1j Pj=1
 nj=1 a2j A1j n n
P
j=1 a2j A2j .... j=1 a2j Anj 


= . . .... . 

Pn . . .... .
 
Pn Pn
a A a A .... j=1 anj Anj
 j=1 nj 1j  nj 2j
j=1
|A| 0 .... 0
 0 |A| .... 0
=0

0 .... 0
0 0 .... |A|

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 Adjoint Cont’d
Pn
aij Aij = |A| and nj=1 aij Akj = 0 when i ̸= k.
P
Since j=1
 
1 0 .... 0
0 1 .... 0
= |A| 
0 0 .... 0


0 0 .... 1
= |A|In
where In is unit matrix of order n.
Theorem
If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then |adjA| = |A|n−1

Also show that (AB)adj(AB) = adj(AB)AB = |AB|I and

(adjB.adjA)AB = adjB(adjAA)B = |AB|I

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 Some results of adjoint

(i) For any square matrix A, adj(A)T = adjAT

(ii) The adjoint of an identity matrix is the identity matrix.
(iii) The adjoint of a symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix.

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 Inverse of a matrix
Definition
If A and B are square matrices of the same size, such that
AB = BA = I , then each is said to be inverse of the other. The
inverse of A is A−1 , while that of B is B −1 .

Theorem (Existence of the Inverse)

The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to have
an inverse is that |A| =
̸ 0(That is A is non singular).
If A does not have an inverse, it is called singular or non-invertible.

Proof.
(i) The necessary condition
Let A be a square matrix of order n and B is inverse of it, then

AB = I
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 Inverse of a matrix Cont’d

|AB| = |A||B|
Therefore, |A| = ̸ 0
(ii) The sufficient condition:
If |A| =
̸ 0, then we define the matrix B such that
1
B= (adjA)
|A|
1 1
Then, AB = A (adjA) = A(adjA)
|A| |A|
1
= |A|I = I
|A|
1 1 1
Similarly , BA = (adjA)A = A(adjA) = |A|I = I
|A| |A| |A|
Thus AB = BA = I , and B is inverse of A given by A−1 = |A| 1
(adjA)
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
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 Inverse of a matrix Cont’d

Theorem (Uniqueness of the Inverse)

If the inverse of a matrix exists, it is unique.

Proof.
Let B and C be inverses of the matrix A then, AB = BA = I and
AC = CA = I
B(AC ) = BI
BA(C ) = B
C =B

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 Inverse of a matrix Cont’d

Properties of inverse
(A−1 )−1 = A, i.e., inverse of inverse is original matrix (assuming
A is invertible)
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 (assuming A, B are invertible)
(A−T )−1 = (A−1 )−T (assuming A is invertible)
I −1 = I
(αA)−1 = α1 A−1 (assuming A is invertible, α ̸= 0)
If y = Ax, where x ∈ Rn and A is invertible, then
x = A−1 y : A−1 y = A−1 Ax = Ix = x

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 Example

 
1 −1
Let A = find A−1
1 2  
2 1
Solution A−1 = = 1
|A|
adj(A)
since 1
3
1 2  
2 1
|A| = 1 × 2 − (−1 × 1) = 3 and adj(A) =
1 2

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

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 Linear transformations
The main focus of linear algebra is the analysis of linear functions,
represented on a finite and dimensional vector space. A typical
example of this sort includes the analysis of shear transformation.
In order to fully understand the concept of linear function or
transformation, let us consider the following:
Definition
Given two vectors û and v̂ (not necessarily having the same
dimension), and a scalar C . If T is a linear transformation, then it
follows that:

T (û + v̂ ) = T (û) + T (v̂ ) (5)

T (C û) = CT (û) C ∈ R (6)

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 Linear transformations Cont’d
The principle of additivity applies to T in (5), while in (6)
homogeneity is attributed to T . The same definition is true if û and
v̂ are complex vectors, except that in (6), C ∈ C.
Example

Determine whether
 the following
 transformations are linear or not.
  w1 − w2    
w1 w 1 w1 + w2
(1) → w1 + w2  (2) →
w2 w2 w2 + 2
2 × w1
Solution 1
T (û + v̂ ) = T (û) + T (v̂ )
Let    
x1 y
û = and v̂ = 1
x2 y2
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 Linear transformations Cont’d
Solution 1 Cont’d
   
x1 y
T (û + v̂ ) = + 1
x2 y2
 
x1 + y1 − (x2 + y2 )
= x1 + y1 + (x2 + y2 )
2 × (x1 + y1 )
 
x1 + y1 − x2 − y2
T (û + v̂ ) = x1 + y1 + x2 + y2  = LHS
2x1 + 2y1
   
x1 y1
T (û) + T (v̂ ) = T +T
x2 y2

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 Linear transformations Cont’d
Solution 1 Cont’d
   
x1 − x2 y1 − y2
= x1 + x2  + y1 + y2 
2x1 2y1
 
x1 − x2 + y1 − y2
T (û) + T (v̂ ) = x1 + x2 + y1 + y2  = RHS
2x1 + 2y1
Therefore, T (û + v̂ ) = T (û) + T (v̂ ) is satisfied.
Applying definition 6

T (C û) = CT (û) C ∈ R
    
x1 Cx1
T (C û) = T C =T
x2 Cx2
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
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 Linear transformations Cont’d
Solution 1 Cont’d
 
Cx1 − Cx2
T = Cx1 + Cx2  = LHS
2Cx1
  
   x1 − x2
x
CT (û) = C T 1 = C x1 + x2 
x2
2x1
 
C (x1 − x2 )
= C (x1 + x2 ) = RHS
C × 2x1
Since definitions 5 and 6 are satisfied, this transformation is linear.
Can you try the second example?
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 57 / 68
 Computer Graphics:

-Reflection with respect

 to x-axis:
     
2 2 u1 u1 1 0 u1 u1
L : R → R ,L =A = =
u2 u2 0 −1 u2 −u2
For example, the reflection for the triangle with vertices (-1,4), (3,1),
(2,6)
 is           
−1 −1 3 3 2 2
L = ,L = ,L =
4 −4 1 −1 6 −6
The plot is given below.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 58 / 68
 Reflection with respect to x-axis
(2, 6)
(−1, 4)

(3, 1)

(3, −1)

(−1, −4)

(2, −6)
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 59 / 68
 Computer Graphics: Cont’d

-Reflection with respect

 to y = −x:
    
2 2 u 1 u1 0 −1 u1 −u1
L : R → R ,L =A = =
u2 u2 −1 0 u2 −u2
Thus,
 thereflection
  for the 
triangle
 with
 vertices
 (-1,4),
 (3,1),
 (2,6) is
−1 −4 3 −1 2 −6
L = ,L = ,L =
4 1 1 −3 6 −2
The plot is given below.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 60 / 68
 -Reflection with respect to y = −x:

(2, 6)
(−1, 4)

(−4, −1) (3, 1)

(−6, −2)
(−1, −3)

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 61 / 68
 Computer Graphics: Cont’d
-Rotation:       
2 u1
2 u1 cos(θ) −sin(θ) u1
L : R → R ,L =A =
u2 u2 sin(θ) cos(θ) u2
For example,
 as θ = π/2,   
cos(π/2) −sin(π/2) 0 −1
A= =
sin(π/2) cos(π/2) 1 0
Thus, the rotation for the triangle with vertices (0,0), (1,0), (1,1) is
      
0 0 −1 0 0
L = =
0 1 0 0 0
,
      
1 0 −1 1 0
L = =
0 1 0 0 1
,
Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department
Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 62 / 68
 -Rotation: Cont’d
      
1 0 −1 1 −1
L = =
1 1 0 1 1
,
The plot is given below.

(0, 1) (1, 1)
(−1, −1)

(0, 0) (1, 0)

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 63 / 68
 -Shear in the x-direction:
   
2 u12 u1 + ku2
L : R → R ,L = ,k ∈ R
u2 u2
For example, as k = 2,    
u1 u1 + 2u2
L =
u2 u2
Thus, the shear for the rectangle with vertices (0,0), (0,2), (4,0),
(4,2) in the x-direction is

               
0 0 0 4 4 4 4 8
L = ,L = ,L = ,L =
0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2

The plot is given below.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 64 / 68
 -Shear in the x-direction:

(0, 2) (4, 2) (8, 2)

(0, 0) (4, 0)

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 65 / 68
 Cryptography

Suppose we are interested in setting up a meeting with our friend, for

security purpose, we first code the alphabet.

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 66 / 68
 Classwork

Determine
  whether
 or not this transformation is linear.
w1 w1 + w2
→
w2 w2 + 2

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 67 / 68
 Thank You

Thank you for your attention!

Dr Oluwafemi A. George Dr John Ogbemhe (Department

Engineering
of Systems
CalculusEngineering
III (GEG217)
University of Lagos)
November 6, 2023 68 / 68