Controlled Fusion, from
Basic Plasma Physics
to Nuclear Engineering
Jean-Marie Noterdaeme
University Gent, Belgium
Belgian Nuclear Higher Education Network
Max Planck Institute for Plasmaphysics, Germany
JET, United Kingdom
ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005
• basic principles
• hurdles and achievements
• ITER
• nuclear aspects
• synergy of
fission and fusion
Fusion and fission work
on the same principle
Mass per nucleon
D n n
T U
He n
Fusion Fission
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.3
A number of reactions are possible
“easiest”:
• D+D “largest” cross section
• D + 3He at “lowest” temperature
• D+T
• D + T → 4He + n + ∆E
n + 6Li → 4He + T
n + 7Li → 4He + T + n
keV
D + Li → 4He + 4000 GW d/ Ton 1 eV ≈ 104 K
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.4
Conditions to achieve the reaction
Fission
Fusion
energy in center of mass
conditions to achieve fusion reaction:
sufficiently high energy → high enough temperature → plasma state
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.5
What is a plasma : fourth state of matter
Increasing Temperature
A plasma is electrically conducting and very reactive
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.6
Conditions to sustain reaction
• fission: reaction propagated by neutrons → don’t loose them
• fusion: for the reaction to propagate,
conditions must be maintained
power must be large enough to compensate for the losses
hot enough: T, temperature
dense enough: n, density
well enough insulated: τE, confinement time
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.7
What is the meaning of the confinement time τE?
Temperature
1/e
Time
τE
τE is a measure of how fast the plasma looses its energy
The loss rate is smallest, τE largest
if the fusion plasma is big and well insulated
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.8
Lawson Criterium
power must be large enough to compensate for the losses
n2 <σ (Τ) v> + external power radiation losses n2 T1/2
Pfusion Pexternal convection and conduction n T / τE
for Pexternal = 0 ⇒ n (density) x τE (confinement time) > function of T (Temperature)
Lawson Criterium
for Pexternal ≠ 0
Q = Pfusion / Pexternal ⇒ n x τE > function of T and Q
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.9
Lawson Criterium
n x τE > f (T)
n τE
(Pext = 0)
n x τE > f (T, Q = Pfus/Pext)
(Pext ≠ 0)
n x τE > f (T)
sometimes
also transformed into
(taking into account temperature
dependence near minimum)
n x τE x T > 3 1021 (m-3 s keV)
T
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.10
How can a plasma be confined ?
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.11
Magnetic confinement
Particles move freely along field lines:
how can we prevent losses in that direction ?
two solutions
• pinching the field lines at the end
reflection (“mirror”)
linear arrangement
but still losses at the end
• closing the field lines on themselves
no end losses
toroidal confinement
however: a pure toroidal field does not work
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.12
Toroidal field alone is insufficient
B large
B smaller
+ ---------
-
++++++++
+
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.13
Two major ways to avoid this charge separation
----
++++
Stellarator Tokamak
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.14
JET: the European
Components Tokamak
of a Tokamak
• plasma • 60 m3
volume
• magn. • up to 4 T
field.
• plasma • up to 5 MA
current
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.15
• basic principles
• hurdles and achievements
• ITER
• nuclear aspects
• synergy of
fission and fusion
Heat and particle transport
“ classical transport”
step size ( 5 T, 10 keV)
ion (H) = 2 mm
electron = 0.05 mm
step size
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.17
Heat and particle transport
but, there are instabilities and turbulence
heavy fluid
light fluid
light fluid
heavy fluid
plasma magnetic field
step size
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.18
Transport dominated by turbulence
For diffusive processes:
• Confinement time τE ∝ a2/κ
(a = small Plasmaradius,
QuickTime™ and a
κ = heat conductivity)
Microsoft Video 1 decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
smaller κ ⇒ larger τE
Turbulence – one of the central theme of plasmaphysics
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.19
Improvement of the confinement
For diffusive processes:
• Confinement time τE ∝ a2/κ
(a = small Plasmaradius,
κ = heat conductivity)
smaller κ ⇒ larger τE
turbulence can be suppressed by a variation of rotation speed
(shear in rotation) leading to an improvement of τE
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.20
What has been achieved ?
16 MW
in a D-T plasma,
with 20 MW input
into the plasma
τE
total output : max 16 MW
record (Q = 0.8) but
not yet self sustaining !
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.21
How far are we on the road
to the sustained fusion conditions
Evolution of the performance over the years
n τE matches that of computers “Moore’s law”
n τE T = 1021
single parameter: n τE T
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.22
• basic principles
• hurdles and achievements
• ITER
• nuclear aspects
• synergy of
fission and fusion
We need a larger machine
• for a sustained reaction : n τE > f (T)
• we need a larger confinement time
Temperature
thus
- better insulation 1/e
Time
- larger machine τE
how much larger ?
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.24
Size from scaling laws
≈30 years AUG JET
ITER
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.25
ASDEX Upgrade
≈30 years
R = 1.65 m, a =0.5 m, τE = 0.1 s
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.26
JET, without and with plasma
≈30 years
R = 3 m, a = 1 m, τE = 0.5 s
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.27
ITER
≈30 years
R = 6.2 m, a = 2 m, τE = 3 s estimated cost :
4 000 Million Euro
Volume 850 m3
Current 15 MA
Magnetic field 5.3 T
Fusion power 400 MW
Heating power 40- 90 MW
Q 10
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.28
The overall dimension of the machine are H = 24 m, D = 28 m
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
The reactor building (partially underground) will fit
under the first level of the Eiffel tower (H = 58 m)
are needed to see this picture.
and is dwarfed by the size of an oil platform
(512 m)
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.29
Fission reactor
Olkiluoto 3, in Finland
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.30
EPR and ITER buildings
both approximately 60 m high
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.31
A site was recently chosen
• there were originally 4 candidate sites
• then 2
• at the end of June 2005: decision for Cadarache
Canada
France
Japan
Spain
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.32
Cadarache, near Aix en Provence
Tore Supra ITER Building
(existing French Tokamak)
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.33
Construction schedule: 10 years
ITER International LICENSE TO TOKAMAK ASSEMBLY FIRST
Organization CONSTRUCT STARTS PLASMA
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
EXCAVATE
Bid TOKAMAK BUILDING
Contract
PFC BUILDING
OTHER BUILDINGS
Complete
First sector Complete VV blanket/divertor
TOKAMAK ASSEMBLY
Install PFC Install CS
cryostat
COMMISSIONING
Bid Vendor’s Design
MAGNET
Contract PFC TFC CS Last TFC Last CS
fabrication start
Bid
VESSEL
Contract First sector Last sector
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.34
• basic principles
• hurdles and achievements
• ITER
• nuclear aspects
• synergy of
fission and fusion
Both nuclear, but there are differences
Fusion reaction: 2D+ 3T → 4He + n + Energy
Mass per nucleon
Fission reaction: 235U + 1n → x. n + Y + Z + Energy
Mass Energy Neutron Neutron Products
input output output energy
Fusion 5 17.6 1 14.1 4He
Fission 236 200 ≈2 radioactive
Z
for the same power :
fuel mass smaller by factor approx 4
(amount of fuel in reactor at any time much smaller)
approx. 5 x more neutrons
with higher energy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
dpa: 10 vs 150 MeV
no radioactive products, but structure becomes activated
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.36
Fusion material
Specific Activity (Bq/kg)
Dose Rate ( Sv/h)
after 2.5 y irradiation
Forthy and Taylor
with averaged neutron wall load of 2 MW/m2
Euromat96 Conf.
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.37
Strong demands on materials
Power per unit area : ITER vs PWR
Average Power/Area:
approx. same 0.5 MW/m2
Peaking factor: 10 vs. 2
QuickTime™ and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.38
Power flux vs power density
sun, at surface ≈ 0.25 W / m3
sun, power producing core 0.3 R ≈ 10 W / m3
sun center ≈ 250 W / m3
10 10
Power flux (W/ m )
2
≈ 60 MW / m3
10 8
6 0.5 MW/m2
10
10 4
≈ 500 kW / m3
100
1
0.01 1 100 10 4 10 6 10 8
≈ 1 kW / m3
3
Power density (W/ m )
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.39
The Fusion Reactor
• a reactor may or may not be based on the tokamak concept
– tokamak presently the best to achieve the fusion conditions
– other concepts may have advantages as reactors
• fusion has some definite positive points
– D and Li readily available and not geographically localized
– about 1 truck load /year necessary for a power plant
– reaction cannot run away (conditions, fuel inventory a few seconds)
– largest conceivable accident will not require evacuation
– no direct emissions (CO2)
– final products of the reaction are not radioactive
– material will be activated by neutrons, but some choices possible
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.40
Towards commercial power
electrical
Tokamak physics
physics
power commercial
Plasma
production fusion power
Concept improvements, Stellarator
Decision
point
DEMO
Facilities
ITER
14 MeV neutron source
Technology
ITER-relevant technology
Fusion power technology – DEMO-
relevant
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.41
• basic principles
• hurdles and achievements
• ITER
• nuclear aspects
• synergy of
fission and fusion
Synergy of Fission and Fusion
• nuclear fusion is a nuclear process and will need nuclear engineers
• fission and fusion will only be accepted
if the public opinion becomes more positive towards nuclear energy
• for public acceptance: critical issues are waste management and safety
• long term fission requires reprocessing and breeders
• fusion could in the long term take over from fission
• for the next decades, there is a strong role for fission
thereby a one through cycle, without reprocessing would suffice
• this could lead to better acceptance
J.-M.Noterdaeme ICENES 2005, Brussels, August 22, 2005 2005.19.43
To Remember
• nuclear fusion has made substantial progress
• we are embarking on the next step: ITER
• ITER will be a nuclear machine
• the prospect of fusion as a long term energy option
could influence positively the further development of fission
