14

SEMICONDUCTOR
UNIT – IX
CHAPTER
Electronic
Devices
ELECTRONICS:
MATERIALS,
DEVICES AND
SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Syllabus
¾¾ Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only)
¾¾ Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, diode as a rectifier; Special purpose p-n
junction diodes: LED, photodiode, solar cell and Zener diode and their characteristics, zener diode as a voltage
regulator.

Trend Analysis
List of Concepts 2018 2019 2020
OD D OD D OD D
Energy Bands – – 1 Q (1 M)
Semiconductor Diodes 1 Q (2 M) 2 Q (3 M) 3 Q (1 M) 3 Q (1 M)
and Applications 2 Q (2 M) 4 Q (3 M)

TOPIC-1
Energy Bands
Revision Notes:
Energy bands:
¾¾ In crystal, each electron has a different energy level with continuous energy variation.
¾¾ Energy bands consist of large number of closely spaced energy levels that
exist in crystalline materials. TOPIC - 1
¾¾ In solids, there are three important energy bands such as Valence band, Energy Bands .... P. 349
Conduction band, forbidden band or forbidden gap.
TOPIC - 2
Semiconductor Diodes and
Conduction band
Applications .... P. 356
Band energy

Forbidden gap

Valence band

¾¾ The collection of energy levels of free electrons which move freely around the material are called as conduction
band.
¾¾ There is an extra energy required for valence electrons to move to conduction band which is known as forbidden
energy.
¾¾ The energy associated with forbidden band is known as energy gap which is measured in electron volt (eV)
where, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J.
¾¾ The collection of energy levels which are partially or wholly filled are known as valence band.
¾¾ Materials may be classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors on the basis of energy band theory.
Energy bands in Conductors:
¾¾ In conductors, the overlapping of conduction and valence bands without energy gap forms a conduction band.

In this, an electron that receives any acceptable low energy is able to move freely among the bands.
Energy bands in Insulators:
¾¾ In insulators, conduction band and valence band have large forbidden energy gap.

¾¾ The gap between conduction band and valence band exceeds by 3 eV as electrons that transfer from valence band
to conduction band need more energy.
¾¾ Due to requirement of more energy, insulators do not conduct any electric current.
¾¾ Example of an insulator is diamond with energy gap of around 5.4 eV.
Energy bands in Semiconductors:
¾¾ In semiconductors, are materials in which, conduction band and valence band are neither overlapped nor have
wide gap.
¾¾ In such materials, the energy provided by the heat at room temperature is sufficient to lift the electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band.

¾¾ Semiconductors behave as insulators at 0 K as no electron exist in conduction band.
¾¾ Examples of semiconductors are Silicon (14) and Germanium (32) having energy gaps as 1.12 eV
and 0.75 eV respectively.
¾¾ Intrinsic semiconductors: Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. They can
not be used in electronic circuits as their conductivity is low.
� For intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
ne = nh = ni

� An intrinsic semiconductor (a) at T = 0 K behaves like insulators. (b) At T > 0 K forms thermally generated
electron hole pairs. The filled circles () represent electrons and empty circles (o) represent holes.
� Extrinsic semiconductors: When a small fixed amount of charged impurity is mixed with intrinsic semiconductors,
they become extrinsic.
� In extrinsic semiconductors:
(i) Conductivity increases
(ii) Conductivity is controlled by doping carriers
� In extrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons is not equal to number of holes.
ne ¹ nh
 ¾¾ Doping is adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors crystal lattice so as to increase the number of carriers.
¾¾ For raising electrical conductivity, semiconductors are mixed with either pentavalent impurity such as Antimony
(Sb), Arsenic (As) and Phosphorus (P) or trivalent impurity such as Indium (In), Gallium (Ga) or Boron (B).
n-type Semiconductors:
¾¾ If Phosphorous with 5 valence-band electrons is added, it will give an extra e- which will freely move around and
leave of a positively charged nucleus.
Donor core

Si Si Si

Unbonded 'free' Electron

Si +5 Si electron donated +
by pentavalent
(+5 valency) atom
Si Si Si

¾¾ The crystal is electrically neutral, known as “n-type” material with negative carriers where concentration of donor
atoms is 1015 cm–3 ~ 1020 cm–3 having mobility μn ≈ 1350 cm2/V
Energy Diagram of n-Type Semiconductor:
¾¾ On doping a semiconductor with pentavalent impurity like Antimony (Sb) or Arsenic (As), extrinsic semiconductor
so obtained is known as n-type.
¾¾ n-type semiconductor has large number of free electrons known as majority (charge) carriers and small number
of holes known as minority (charge) carriers.
ne >> nh
¾¾ Impurity atom in n-type semiconductor is called donor as it generates new energy level below the conduction
band, known as ED.

p-type Semiconductors:
¾¾ If Boron atom with 3 valence band electrons is added, it accepts e– and give extra holes (h+) to move freely which
leaves behind negatively charged nucleus.

¾¾ The crystal is electrically neutral known as “p-type” silicon in which concentration of acceptor atoms ~1028 cm–3
where hole movement needs breaking of bond thereby giving low mobility, where, μp ≈ 500 cm2/V
Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor
¾¾ On doping a semiconductor with trivalent impurity like Indium (In) or Gallium (Ga), extrinsic semiconductor so
obtained is known as p-type.
¾¾ p-type semiconductor has large number of holes known as majority (charge) carriers where number of free
electrons is less known as minority (charge) carriers.
nh >> ne
¾¾ Impurity atom in p-type semiconductor is known as acceptor atom.
¾¾ In p-type, extra holes in band gap allow excitation of valence band electrons which leaves mobile holes in valence
band.
 ¾¾ Large number of holes in covalent bond is created in crystal with trivalent impurity.
¾¾ In extrinsic semiconductors ne ¹ nh but ne.nh = ni2

¾¾ Energy band: Range of energies which an electron may possess in an atom.

¾¾ Valence Band: Range of energy levels possessed by valence electrons.
¾¾ Conduction Band: Range of energy levels possessed by conductive (free) electrons.
¾¾ Forbidden Band: Energy band in between the conduction band and valence band.

Objective Type Questions (1 mark each)

Q. 7. Is ohm’s law obeyed for semiconductors? R

[A] Very Short Answer Type Questions
Ans. In case of semiconductors, Ohm’s law is obeyed
Q. 1. Why a pure semiconductor behaves like an for low electric fields i.e., E less than 106 V/m. If
insulator at 0° K ? U
the field is increased above this value, the current
Ans. The main cause for the conduction of any becomes independent of the voltage applied. 1
semiconductor is the number of free electrons in
it. The free electrons has the kinetic energy which [B] ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS
depends upon the temperature. As the temperature In the following questions, two statements are
is 0°K, the kinetic energy will be zero and the free given-one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
electrons are not available for conduction. 1
labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer to
Q. 2. Why is the energy gap much more in silicon than
these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as
in germanium ? U
given below.
Ans. The behaviour of semiconductor depends upon the
extent of the energy gap between the valence band (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
and conduction band. Thus, the valence electrons explanation of A
are quite tightly bound to the parent nuclei in case (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct
of Silicon as compared to Germanium. 1 explanation of A
Q. 3. Which charge carriers an intrinsic semiconductor (c) A is true but R is false
will have conduction ? R (d) A is false and R is also false
Ans. Electrons and holes. 1 1. Assertion (A): The number of electrons in a P-type
Q. 4. How does the resistance of a semiconductor silicon semiconductor is less than the number of
change when heated ? R electrons in intrinsic silicon semiconductor at room
Ans. Resistance decreases. 1 temperature.
Q. 5. How does semiconductor behave in the presence
Reason (R): It is due to law of mass action.
of impurities? U
Ans. (a) 1
Ans. When the temperature is raised or when an
Explanation: In p-type semiconductor, electron
impurity is added, the conductivity increases. As we
is the minority charge carrier. So, number of
know that conductivity is inversely proportional to
temperature, so the semiconductor does not behave electrons is less than the number of electrons in
like insulators when an impurity atom is added to it. intrinsic semiconductor. So the assertion is true.
1 According to the law of mass action = n2i = ne × nh.
Q. 6. Will the presence of an intermediate band In intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh . So in p- type
actually increase the fermi level or conventional semiconductor, ne < nh. So reason is also true.
semiconductor gap of that material? U 2. Assertion (A): The resistivity of a semiconductor
Ans. The important requisites of an intermediate band increases with temperature.
is that it is not electronically coupled to the other Reason (R): The atoms of a semiconductor vibrate
bands, which means that one cannot have a single with larger amplitude at higher temperature there
Fermi level. Instead, there should be the formation by increasing it's resistivity.
of three separated quasi-Fermi levels within the Ans. (d)  1
three bands i.e., conduction band, valence band Explanation: Resistivity of semiconductors
and intermediate band. decreases with temperature. So assertion is false.
 Electrons from valence band jumps to conduction 4. Assertion (A): Silicon is preferred over Germanium
band with rise of temperature and hence the for making semiconductor devices.
resistivity decreases. Hence the reason is also false. Reason (R): The energy gap of Germanium is more
3. Assertion (A): As the temperature of a than the energy gap of Silicon.
semiconductor increases, its resistance decreases. Ans. (b) 1
Reason (R): The energy gap between conduction Explanation: Silicon is preferred over Germanium
band and valence band is small. for making semiconductor devices. The assertion is
true.
Ans. (a) 1
The energy gap of Germanium is about 0.7 eV,
Explanation: As temperature rises, the electrons
where as the energy gap of Silicon is 1.1 eV. Hence
of valence band sufficient energy and jump to the reason is false.
conduction band. Thus, the resistivity decreases. 5. Assertion (A): Semiconductors do not obey Ohm's
So assertion is true. law.
In semiconductors the energy gap between Reason (R): V-I characteristic of semiconductors is
conduction band and valence band is small. Due linear.
to this, the electrons in conduction band can gain Ans. (c) 1
sufficient thermal energy with temperature rise Explanation: Semiconductors do not obey Ohm's
and can easily jump across the small energy gap law. So the assertion is true. V- I characteristic of
to reach conduction band. Thus, conductivity semiconductor is non-linear. Hence the reason is
increases and resistance decreases. false.

Short Answer Type Questions-I (2 marks each)

Q. 1. Draw the energy band diagram when intrinsic (b)

semiconductor (Ge) is doped with impurity
atoms of Antimony (Sb). Name the extrinsic
semiconductor so obtained and majority charge Conduction band Conduction band
carriers in it.  U [SQP 2020-21]
Ans. Well labelled energy band diagram of n-type
semiconductor 1
n-type semiconductor ½
Forbidden band
electrons-majority charge carriers ½
Eg= 1.1 eV
Detailed Answer:

Valence band Valence band

1 (i) Metal (ii) Semiconductor

½+ ½
This is an n-type extrinsic semiconductor. ½
Q. 3. Write two points of difference between intrinsic
Majority carriers are electrons. ½
and extrinsic semiconductors. [Foreign, 2017]
Q. 2. (a) Explain the formation of energy bands in
OR
crystalline solids.
(b) Draw the energy band diagrams of (i) a metal and Distinguish between ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’
(ii) a semiconductor. semiconductors.  [Delhi Set-I, II, III, 2015]
U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-1, 2020] Ans. Any two differences
Ans. (a) Formation of energy bands in solid:
An isolated atom possesses discrete energies of Intrinsic Extrinsic
different electrons. When two isolated atoms are (i) Pure semiconduc- (i) Doped or impure.
brought very close to each other, the electrons in tor.
the orbits of two atoms interact with each other
and the energies of electrons do not remain in same (ii) ne = nh. (ii) ne ¹ nh.
level but changes from its original value. So, at the
place of each energy level, a closely spaced two (iii) Low conductivity (iii) Higher conductiv-
energy levels are created. ½ at room temperature. ity at room temperature.
When large number of atoms are brought together (iv) Conductivity de- (iv) Conductivity does
to form a solid by interaction of electrons, a large pends on temperature. not depend significantly
number of closely spaced energy levels is created. on temperature.
These are known as bands of allowed energies. 1+1
Between the bands of allowed energies, there are
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]
empty energy regions also, known as forbidden
band of energies. ½
 Q. 4. Draw energy band diagrams of n-type and p-type semiconductors at temperature T > 0 K. Mark the donor and
acceptor energy levels with their energies.  [Foreign Set-I, 2014]

Ans. Energy bands of Energy bands of

[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2014] 1 + 1

Commonly Made Error

 Many students couldn't draw these diagrams correctly.

Answering Tip
 Understand the difference between the band diagrams of n-type and p-type semiconductors for better results.

Q. 5. Draw energy band diagram of p and n type semiconductors. Also, write two differences between p-type and
n-type semiconductors.
Ans.
p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

1. Density of holes >> density of electron 1. Density of electron >> density of holes

2. Formed by doping trivalent impurity 2. Formed by doping pentavalent impurity

3. 3.

1+1

(Any two)

Short Answer Type Questions-II (3 marks each)

Q. 1. (i) Distinguish between n-type and p-type (ii) In the case of n-type semiconductor, the donor
semiconductor on the basis of energy band energy level is slightly below the bottom of
diagram. conduction band whereas in p-type semiconductor,
(ii) Compare their conductivities at absolute zero tha acceptor energy level is slightly above the
temperature and at room temperature. top of the valance band. Explain what role these
R [Delhi I, II, III, 2015] energy levels play in conduction and valence
Ans. (i) Try it yourself. See Q. No. 5 of short answer type bands? U [Delhi Outside Set-I, II, III, 2015]
questions - I. 2 Ans. (i) Try it yourself.. See Q. no. 4 of short answer type
(ii) At absolute zero temperature, conductivities of questions - 1. 1+1
both type of conductors are zero. ½ (ii) In case of n-type semiconductor, electrons from
For equal doping, conductivity of n-type donor impurity atoms move into conduction
semiconductor is more than that of p-type band with very small supply of energy. Hence,
semiconductor. ½ the conduction band have electrons as majority
Q. 2. (i) Draw the energy band diagrams of (a) n-type carrier. ½
and (b) p-type semiconductor at temperature, T > In case of p-type semiconductor, very small supply
0 K. of energy cause an electron to jump from its
 valance band to the acceptor energy level. Hence holes which shows that holes are the majority
the valance band will have dominant density of charge carriers in p-type semiconductor. ½
Q. 3. Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of
energy band diagrams.

Ans. Conduction Band Empty

conduction
Overlap of bands Ec

Electron energies
band
Valence Band
(a) Eg 3eV
Electron energies

Ec Ev
Valence
Eg 3eV
band
Ev (b)

(c)
(a) metals, (b) insulators and (c) semiconductors ½+ ½
Two distinguishing features:
(i) In conductors, the valence band and conduction band tend to overlap (or nearly overlap), while in insulators
they are separated by a large energy gap and in semiconductors, they are separated by a small energy gap. 1
(ii) The conduction band of a conductor has a large number of electrons available for electrical conduction.
However, the conduction band of insulators is almost empty while that of the semi-conductor has only a (very)
small number of such electrons available for electrical conduction. 1
OR

Insulators Conductors Semiconductors

Materials in which there is large Materials in which there is no Materials in which there is a very
energy difference between valence and difference of energy among valence small energy difference between
conduction band. and conduction band, as these bands valence and conduction bands.
get overlapped.

Forbidden gap is very large between There is no forbidden gap between Forbidden gap between valence
valence and conduction band, due to valence and conduction band. band and conduction band is very
which it does not conduct electricity. small.

Conduction band is empty and electrons Electrons jump from valence band to Electrons can easily jump by
in valence band acquires large amount of conduction band. getting small amount of energy.
energy to jump in conduction band and
become free.

(b) (a)
(c)
1+1+1
 Mnemonics

TOPIC-2
Semiconductor Diodes and Applications

Revision Notes
Diode
¾¾ Diode is an electronic device consisting of a junction of semiconductors p-type and n-type. It is represented as:

Semiconductor diode
¾¾ Semiconductor diodes were first semiconductor electronic devices which is common type of diode that is made
of crystalline piece of semiconductor material with p–n junction across its terminals.
P N

Anode Cathode

Depletion region
¾¾ When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact surface is called a
p-n junction.
¾¾ It is an electrical device that allows current only in one direction The direction of arrow is the direction of current
when it is forward biased.
¾¾ At junction, electrons and holes diffuse to form the diffusion current.
¾¾ A p-n junction layer is also called the depletion layer. Potential barrier is created at junction due to diffusion
current. It acts as a barrier for majority charge carriers.
¾¾ The potential barrier helps the minority charge carriers to flow. A drift current is formed which is opposite in
direction of the diffusion current.
¾¾ Under equilibrium condition, diffusion current is equal to the drift current and net current is zero as both are in
opposite direction.
There are many types of semiconductor diodes such as:
Avalanche diodes, Gunn diodes, Light Emitting Diodes (LED), Photodiodes, etc.
¾¾ Semiconductor diode can be made either from Silicon or Germanium and each differs in size and properties.
Forward Bias
¾¾ When an external voltage is applied, where negative terminal of battery is connected to n-side while positive
terminal of battery is connected to p-side, the barrier potential will get reduced and more current can flow across
the junction that decreases the p-n junction width.
 ¾¾ The positive terminal of battery repels majority carriers, holes in p-region while negative terminal repels electrons
in n-region which pushes them towards the junction.
¾¾ Here, an increase in concentration of charge carriers near the junction is observed, where recombination takes
place thereby reducing width of depletion region.

¾¾ Due to rise in forward bias voltage, depletion region continue to reduce its width, which results in more and more
recombination process.
Reverse Bias
¾¾ If an external voltage is applied in reverse direction where positive terminal of battery is connected to n-side
while negative terminal of battery is connected to p-side, then barrier potential will increase and minority charge
carriers will flow across junction.

¾¾ In this, the current will be quite small and is independent of external voltage.
¾¾ Beyond certain voltage, diode will break down with Avalanche breakdown mechanism or Zener breakdown
mechanism.
¾¾ Here, negative terminal of battery will attract majority charge carriers, holes in p-region and positive terminal
attracts electrons in n-region which pulls them away from the junction.
¾¾ As a result of this, there will be decrease in concentration of charge carriers near junction which increases the
width of depletion region.

¾¾ A small amount of current flows due to minority carriers known as reverse bias current or leakage current and
with rise in reverse bias voltage, depletion region continues to increase in width without any increase in flow of
current.
V-I Characteristics of Diode
¾¾ In V-I characteristics of diode, on voltage axis, “reverse bias” is an external voltage potential that increases the
potential barrier while external voltage that decreases the potential barrier is in “forward bias” direction.
 ¾¾ Biasing of diode can be forward biasing or reverse biasing.
Diode as rectifier
¾¾ Rectifier is a circuit which converts AC supply into unidirectional DC supply.

¾¾ With rectification, alternating current (AC) gets converted to direct current (DC).
¾¾ The bridge rectifier circuits uses semiconductor diode for converting AC as it allows the current to flow in one
direction only.
Half-wave rectifier

¾¾ The half-wave rectifier with single diode, allows current to flow in one direction.
¾¾ Here, AC power source Vac is connected to primary side of transformer, while secondary terminals of transformer
are connected to diode and resistor in series.
¾¾ If Vac is in positive cycle, a positive voltage is produced on secondary side of transformer.
¾¾ The positive voltage forward bias the diode and diode start passing the current. As a result of which the voltage
drop across the load.
¾¾ If Vac is in negative cycle, then secondary side have negative voltage where diode is reverse biased and does not
pass any current.
¾¾ Voltage waveform across load resistor is shown below, where positive side of sinusoidal cycle is present while
negative side of sinusoidal cycle has been clamped off.

¾¾ The output voltage Vdc is similar to the output of battery which is always positive.
¾¾ The positive waveform is bumpy as single diode is applied to produce half-wave rectification where one half of
AC wave is removed that does not pass through the diode.
Full-wave rectifier
¾¾ For rectifying AC power for using both half cycles of sine wave, full wave rectification is used.
 D1

AC
voltage Centretap
source Load Output
D2

¾¾ A simple kind of full-wave rectifier uses centre tap transformers with two diodes.
¾¾ In full wave rectification, in first half-cycle, when source voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on
bottom, then only top diode conduct, while bottom diode blocks the current. In second half cycle, when source
voltage polarity is negative (–) on top and positive (+) on bottom, only bottom diode will conduct while the top
diode blocks the current.
Special purpose p-n junction diodes
Apart from simple p-n junction diodes, there are many more types of diodes which are used in various specific
applications that take advantage of the behaviour and features.

Anode Cathode Anode Cathode Anode Cathode

Light–emitting diode Photo diode

Anode Cathode Anode Cathode

Schottky diode Zener diode

LED
¾¾ Light Emitting Diode or LED is most widely used semiconductor diodes among all available types of semiconductor
diodes.
¾¾ It emits visible light or invisible infrared light when forward biased.
¾¾ The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are used for remote controls.
¾¾ In this, diode in forward biased make electrons and holes to move fast across the junction and helps in combining
constantly by removing one another.
¾¾ Electrons which move from n-type to p-type silicon combine with holes and give energy in the form of light.

¾¾ Recombination of electrons and holes in depletion region decreases the width of the region which allows more
charge carriers to cross the p-n junction.
¾¾ Here, some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross the p-n junction before they recombine in
depletion region.

V-I characteristics
Photodiode
¾¾ Photodiode is a transducer which takes light energy and converts it to electrical energy.
¾¾ It is a p-n junction which consumes light energy to generate electric current.

¾¾ It is referred to as photo-detector, photo-sensor or light detector.

¾¾ It is specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition where p-side is connected to negative terminal of
battery and n-side is connected to positive terminal of battery.
¾¾ It is sensitive to light as when light or photons fall on it, it easily converts light into electric current.
¾¾ In photodiode circuit, current flows from the cathode to anode when exposed to light.
¾¾ Photodiode is capable of converting light energy to electrical energy and can be expressed as a percentage known
as Quantum Efficiency (Q.E.).

V-I characteristics
Solar cell
¾¾ Solar cell is an electronic device which absorbs sunlight and generates emf.
¾¾ In this, there are n-type silicon and p-type silicon layers that generates electricity using sunlight so that the
electrons can jump across the junction between different types of silicon material.

¾¾ When sunlight falls on solar cell, photons bombard the upper surface and generates electron-hole pairs.
¾¾ They get separated due to voltage barrier at junction, electrons are swept to n side and holes are swept to p-side.
¾¾ Metal contacts hold these electron-hole pairs. Thus, p side becomes positive and n side becomes negative and
hence it acts as photo-voltage cell.

V-I characteristics
Zener diode and its characteristics
¾¾ Zener diode is an electronic component which can be used to make very simple voltage regulator
circuit.

Symbol of Zener diode

¾¾ They are special type of semiconductor diodes which allow the current to flow in one direction
when exposed to high voltage.
 ¾¾ It is a p-n junction semiconductor device which is designed to operate in reverse breakdown region.
¾¾ The breakdown voltage of zener diode is set by controlling the doping level.
¾¾ It is always connected in reverse direction since it is specifically designed to work in reverse direction.
¾¾ Zener Diode circuit enables a fixed stable voltage to be taken from an unregulated voltage source like battery that
fluctuates the charge of battery.

¾¾ The circuit of Zener diode has a resistor in series with diode which limits the output current.
¾¾ In Zener diode, there are two breakdown mechanisms: Zener breakdown or Avalanche breakdown mechanism.
¾¾ I-V characteristics curve of zener diode shows current-voltage relationship.

V-I characteristics
¾¾ In I-V curve, in right half side, zener diode receives forward voltage which is positive voltage across its anode to
cathode terminals.
¾¾ In right half side of zener diode characteristics curve, diode is forward biased and current is more.
¾¾ In left half side of I-V curve, zener diode receives positive voltage across its cathode to anode terminals, where
diode is reverse biased.
¾¾ At reverse voltage, current is very small which is known as leakage current that flows through the diode.
¾¾ After hitting breakdown voltage, avalanche current sharply increases.
¾¾ At breakdown voltage point, when voltage of zener diode reaches, it remains constant inspite increase in current
making zener diode suitable for voltage regulation.
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
¾¾ Voltage regulation is a measure of ability of circuit to maintain constant voltage output under variation either in
input voltage or load current.
¾¾ In zener diode, voltage regulator circuit:
• resistor Rs is used to limit reverse current through diode to safer value.
• Vs and Rs are selected such that diode operates in breakdown region.
• series resistor Rs absorbs output voltage fluctuations to maintain voltage across load to constant value.

¾¾ Zener diode maintains constant voltage across load as long as supply voltage is more than zener voltage.
¾¾ When input voltage increases, current through Zener diode also increases keeping the voltage drop constant.
¾¾ Current in the circuit increases the voltage drop across the resistor which increases by an amount equal to
difference between the input voltage and zener voltage of the diode.
 Q. 1. Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave Step V: D1
A
rectifier. Explain its working showing its +
inputs and output waveforms.
 R & U [CBSE Delhi Set-I, 2020]
Solution: AC
Step I: A centre-tapped full wave rectifier system
consists of: –
B
1. Centre-tapped Transformer D2
2. Two Diodes
Step VI: During the negative half-cycle of the input
3. Resistive Load
AC voltage, terminal B is at positive potential, centre-
D1
tap is at zero potential and terminal A is at negative
Step II: A potential. During this cycle, diode D2 is reverse biased
DC and causes current to flow through it. During this
output
AC input
CT time, diode D1 is in reverse bias and does not conduct.
RL The current flow path is shown below.

B Step VII:
Center
tapped D2
transformer

Step III: Centre-tapped Transformer: It is a normal

transformer with an additional tap in the secondary
winding known as centre tap. Centre tap is always at Step IX.
zero potential. For one half cycle of AC voltage applied
to the primary coil, one end on the secondary coil
positive potential is developed and at the other end Step VIII. As a result, the current flow through the
a negative potential is developed. For the other half load resistance is unidirectional for the complete
cycle, the polarity get reversed. cycle. Hence, the output is a DC voltage.
Step IV: When AC voltage is applied to the primary The output waveforms are as follows:
coil, during the positive half-cycle, the terminal A is at
positive potential, centre-tap is at zero potential and
terminal B is at negative potential. During this cycle,
the diode D1 is forward biased and causes current to
flow through it. During this time, diode D2 is in reverse
bias and does not conduct. The current flow path is
shown below.
 Very Short Answer Type Questions (1 mark each)

Q. 1. Does the width of a depletion region of a p-n

junction vary if doping concentration is increased?
U [SQP 2020-21]
Ans. Width decreases. 1
Q. 2. In half wave rectification, what is the output
frequency if input frequency is 50 Hz.
U [SQP 2020-21]
Ans. Output frequency is 25 Hz. 1
Q. 3. What is the purpose of using photodiodes? R [Delhi I,II,III 2017; NCERT Exemplar]
R [CBSE Delhi Set-I, 2020] Ans. Solar cell 1
Ans. To detect optical signals. 1 [CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]
Q. 4. On which parameters do the wavelength and
intensity of light emitted by an LED depend upon ? Q. 9. What is the reason for the sudden increase of the
 R [CBSE Delhi Set-I, 2020 / MODIFIED]
current in the Zener diode? U
Ans. Intensity depends on forward bias voltage and Ans. When the reverse voltage reaches the break-down
wavelength depends on energy gap of the voltage, number of covalent bonds rupture and
semiconductor. 1 large number of charge carriers become available.
Q. 5. What is the name of the ability of a junction So, the current increases. 1
diode to convert an AC to DC based on the fact Q. 10. In the given circuit, what is the potential difference
between the A and B ?
that it allows current to pass only when it is
10kΩ
forward biased? A
R [CBSE Delhi Set-I, 2020 / MODIFIED]
Ans. Rectification. 1
10kΩ 10kΩ
Q. 6. Can a slab of p-type semiconductor be physically 30V
joined to another n-type semi-conductor slab to
form p-n junction ? Justify your answer.
U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-I, 2020] B
Ans. No, a p-type semi-conductor slab cannot be  A&E
physically joined with a n-type semi-conductor Ans. Here p-n junction is forward biased. If p-n junction
slab to produce a p-n junction. ½ is ideal, its resistance is zero. The effective resistance
If we physically join the two semi-conductor across A and B
blocks, there will always be little microscopic gap or 10 × 10
=
between the slabs due to roughness of the surfaces. 10 + 10
½ = 5 kΩ
Q. 7. In a p-n junction diode, the forward bias Current in the circuit
resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias 30
I=
resistance. Give reason.
(10 + 5 ) × 103
U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-I, 2020] 2
I= 3 ½
Ans. In a forward biased p-n junction, potential barrier 10
is lowered and hence the electrons and holes can 1
easily cross the junction. In reversed biased p-n ∴ Current in each arm =

2
junction, the potential barrier is raised and hence
1
the electrons and holes cannot easily cross the = A
103
junction. For this reason, forward bias resistance
is low compared to reverse biased resistance of p-n Potential difference across A and B
1
junction. 1 = 3 × 10 × 103
10
Q. 8. Name the junction diode whose I-V characteristics
= 10 V ½
is drawn below: U [CBSE Delhi Set-I, 2017] Q. 11. Write the two processes involved in the formation
of p-n junction.  R [Foreign ,2016]
 Ans. (i) Diffusion ½ observed that region BC experiences negative
resistance.  1
(ii) Drift ½
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2016] Q. 13. Find the value of current through the resistor R of
the circuits (i) and (ii) when similar diodes D1 and
Q. 12. The graph shown in the figure represents a plot of D2 are connected as shown in figure.
current versus voltage for a given semiconductor.
Identify the region, if any, over which the
semiconductor has a negative resistance.   U

(i) (ii)
 A
Ans. In figure (i), the diode D1 and D2 are forward biased
V 2
I= = = 0.1 A ½
R 20
In figure (ii), D1 is forward biased but D2 is reverse
Ans. It is known that negative resistance is a property biased due to which D1 and D2 offers infinite
of an electrical circuits/devices where an increase resistance
in voltage across the device terminals results in
∴ I=0 ½
decrease in electric current. From the graph, it is

Short Answer Type Questions-I (2 marks each)

Q. 1. Explain with help of circuit diagram, the action Ans. (a) Photodiodes conduct in reverse biased condition
of a forward biased p-n junction diode which only when a light of suitable frequency is incident
emits spontaneous radiation. State the least band on it. During reverse bias, the current is mainly due
gap energy of this diode to have emission in to the drift of minority charge carriers crossing the
visible region.  R [SQP 2020-21] junction. The variation in intensity of light affects
Ans. Circuit diagram showing biasing of LED in forward the minority charge carriers concentration and
bias½ hence the reverse current is predominant. ½
Action of LED1 In forward bias condition, the change in majority
For emission in visible range least band energy charge carriers is not much affected by light
required is 1.8 eV½ intensity and hence the forward current variation
Detailed Answer: is not so predominant.
Hence, photodiodes are operated in reverse bias
condition. ½
(b) I

½ V
When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward I2
biased, free electrons in the conduction band I1
recombines with the holes in the valence band and
releases energy in the form of light.
The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation for it I1>I2
1
to lie in the visible region should lie in the range of
Q. 3. (a) State the level of doping and biasing
4000Å−7000Å. 1 condition used in light emitting diode (LED).
Band gap energy = hc/λ
(b) Write any two advantages of LED over the
6.6 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8 conventional low power lamps.
=
7000 × 10 −10 × 1.6 × 10 −19 R [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-I, 2020]
= 1.8 eV ½ Ans. (a) LED is normally a heavily doped p-n junction
Q. 2. (a) Why is a photodiode operated under reverse diode. The doping level in LED determines the
bias condition ? colour of light emitted.
(b) Draw V-I characteristic curves of photodiode for LED is always operated in forward bias condition.  1
incident light of intensities I1 and I2 (I1 > I2). (b) Advantages of LED:
(i) 
LED has longer life span as compared to
U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-II, 2020]
conventional lamps. ½
 (ii) LED is extremely energy efficient device and may
consume up to 90% less power than incandescent
bulbs. ½
Q. 4. A student wants to use two p-n junction diodes ½
to convert alternating current into direct current.
Draw the labelled circuit diagram she would use
and explain how it works. R & U [CBSE, 2018]
Ans. Try yourself. See Q. no. 2 of long answer type D2 is reverse biased
questions - I. 2 \ D1 conducts
Q. 5. Assuming that the two diodes D1 and D2 used in
the electric circuit shown in the figure are ideal,
find out the value of the current flowing through
2.5 Ω resistor.
½

10 10
\ I= = = 1.8 A 1
3 + 2.5 5.5
Q. 6. Energy gap in a p – n photodiode is 2.8 eV. It can
detect a wavelength of 6000 nm? Justify your
answer.
−34 8
Ans. Energy hc
hc 66.62
.62××10
10−34××33××10
108
Energy of
of photon, = λ == 6000 × 10−9−9× 1.6 × 10−19−19eV
photon, EE= eV
Ans. In the circuit, if D1 is open and D2 is short, then λ 6000 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
equivalent circuit will result as: =2.06
=2.06eV eV
As E < Eg (2.8eV), so photodiode cannot detect this
photon. 2

Short Answer Type Questions-II (3 marks each)

Q. 1. What is a solar cell ? Draw V-I characteristics. together (a short circuit condition). ½
Explain the three processes involved in the Working of solar cell: A solar cell is a junction of
working. R & U [CBSE Delhi Set-I, 2020] n-type silicon and p-type silicon.
Ans. Solar cell: A solar cell is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect. Solar cell is a p-n junction
fabricated from silicon. The energy conversion
consists of absorption of light (photon) energy
producing electron–hole pairs in the p-n junction
and charge carrier separation. ½
I-V Characteristics:
ISC
½
It generates electricity by using sunlight to make
Current

electrons move across the junction between the

different types of silicon:
1. When sunlight shines on the cell, photons bombard
the upper surface.
2. The photons carry their energy from n-type layer
Voltage VOC ½ to p-type layer through p-n junction of the cell.
VOC: This is the maximum voltage that the PV array 3. The photons transfer their energy to electrons in
provides when the terminals are not connected to the p-type layer.
any load (an open circuit). 4. The electrons use this energy to move across the
ISC: The maximum current provided by the PV barrier into the n-type layer and flow out into the
array when the output connectors are shorted circuit.
 5. This flow of electrons through the circuit gives rise The band gap energy of diode D2 ( = 2 eV) is less
to flow of current in the external circuit. 1 than the energy of the photon.
Q. 2. Explain the information of potential barrier and
Hence, diode D2 will not be able to detect light of
depletion region in a p-n junction diode. What is
wavelength 600 nm.½
effect of applying forward bias on the width of
depletion region ? U [CBSE Delhi Set-II, 2020] [Note: Some student may take the energy of the
Ans. Formation of depletion region: In the p-type photon as 2 eV and say that all the three diodes
semiconductor, holes are the majority carrier and in will be able in detect this right, Award them the ½
the n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority mark for the last part of identification].
carrier. ½ (b) Try yourself See Q. No. 2(a) of 2 marks
When a p-n junction is formed, some of the questions. 1
electrons from the n-region which have reached
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2019]
the conduction band are free to diffuse across the
junction and combine with holes. ½ Q. 5. Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier
Filling a hole, makes a negative ion in p-side and and explain its working. As so, give the input and
a positive ion in the n-side. Thus, free charges get output waveform. R & U [CBSE DEL SET 1, 2019]
depleted and a depletion region is formed, which Ans. Try yourself See Q. No. 2 of Short Answer Type
inhibits any further electron transfer. ½
Questions - II. 1+1+1
Q. 6. Give reason to explain why n and p regions of a
Zener diode are heavily doped. Find the current
through the Zener diode in the circuit given
below: (Zener breakdown voltage is 15 V).
 [Delhi Outside Set-I, II, 2019]
+
<

250 

<
6V

<
1

Applying forward bias, the depletion region reduces 20 V 15 V 1 k
and again electrons can diffuse. ½
4
Q. 3. What is photodiode ? Briefly explain its working
<

–
and draw its V-I characteristics.
R & U [CBSE Delhi Set-II, 2020] Ans. Reason to explain why n-p region of zener diode
Ans. Try it yourself See Q. No. 2 of Short Answer Type is heavily doped. 1½
Questions - I. Calculation of current through zener diode 1½
Q. 4 (a) Three photodiodes D1, D2 and D3 are made of n and p regions of zener diode are heavily doped
semiconductors having band gaps of 2.5 eV, 2 eV so that depletion region formed is very thin and
and 3 eV respectively. Which of them will not be electric field at the junction is extremely high
able to detect light of wavelength 600 nm? even for a small reverse bias voltage. 1½
(b) 
Why photodiodes are required to operate in Current in the circuit is:
reverse bias? Explain.
V 5 1
A & U [CBSE Delhi Set-I, 2019] =
I = = = 0.02 A  ½
R 250 50
Ans. (a) Calculation of energy of a photon of light 1½ Current through resistor of 1 kΩ is:
Identification of photodiode ½ 15
(b) Why photodiode are operated in reverse bias  1 =I = 0.015 A  ½
1000
(a) We have
As zener diode and 1 kΩ resistor are in parallel,
hc
E = hν = ½ current through the zener diode is:
λ
hc I = 0.02−0.015 = 0.005 A ½
E6.=63hν× =
10 −34 × 3 × 10 8
= λ J  [CBSE Marking Scheme, 2019]
600 × 10 −9
6.63 × 10 −34 ×−326× 10 8 ½
= 19.89 × 10 −9 J Detailed Answer:
= 600 × 10 eV Reason: In zener diode, both n and p region is
−7
6 × 1019 × 1×.610×−1260 −19
.89
=19.89 −7 eV heavily doped, just to reduce the depletion region
−19
= 6 × 10eV× 1.6 × 10 so that the applied external electric field becomes
.6.89
919 high for small reverse bias voltage.
= eV
= 2.08 9.6eV Since, Zener diode and Load Resistance are parallel.
= 2.08 eV Hence, their potential drop will be same 1½
 ½

VRL = VZ

VRL = 15 V

Let VR be the potential drop across R

Then VR = Vin – VRL
= 20 V – 15 V

VR = 5 V

Let i be the source current,
VR 5V
i = = = 20 mA ½
R 250

Let i1 be the current through RL
VR 15 V
i1 = L = = 15 mA ½
RL 1000

Let IZ be the current through zener diode.

Apply, current junction rule 1
i = IZ + i1 [CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]

So, IZ = i – i1

= 20 mA – 15 mA Q. 8. (a) In the following diagram, Is the junction diode

= 5 mA. ½ forward biased or reverse biased ?
Q. 7. Explain briefly with the help of necessary
diagrams, the forward and the reverse biasing of a
p-n junction diode. Also draw their characteristic
(b) Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier
curves in the two cases.  and state how it works.
R & A [CBSE Delhi Set-III, 2017] R & U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-I, 2017]
Ans. Circuit diagrams of p-n Junction under forward
Ans. (a) The nature of biasing 1
bias and reverse bias ½+½
(b) Diagram of full wave rectifier 1
Explanation of p-n junction working for forward (a) The diode is reversed biased. 1
and reverse bias ½+½
(b) Try it yourself. See Q. No. 2 of short answer type
Characteristic curves for the two cases ½+½ questions - II. 1+1
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]
Q. 9. (a) In the following diagram, which bulb out of B1
and B2 will glow and why ?

½+½
In forward bias, applied voltage does not support
potential barrier. As a result, the depletion layer
width decreases and barrier height is reduced.
Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n (b) Draw a diagram of an illuminated p-n junction
solar cell.
side cross the depletion region and reach p side.
(c) Explain briefly the three processes due to which
Similarly holes from p side cross the junction and
generation of emf takes place in a solar cell.
reach the n side. The motion of charge carriers, on
U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-II, 2017]
either side, give rise to current. ½
Ans. (a) Identification of the bulb and reason ½ + ½
In reverse bias, applied voltage support potential (b) Diagram of solar cell ½
barrier. As a result, barrier height is increased, (c) Names of the processes ½+½+½
depletion layer widens. This suppresses the (a) Bulb B1 glows ½
flow of electrons from n ® p and holes from p Diode D1 is forward biased ½
® n, thereby decrease the diffusion current. The (b) Diagram of solar cell: ½
electric field direction of the junction is such that (c) Three processes:
if electrons on p side or holes on n side in their Generation ½
random motion comes close to the junction, they Separation ½
swept to its majority zone. This drift of carriers Collection ½
give rise to the current called reverse current. ½
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]
Detailed Answer: Q. 11. A zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both
(a) B1 will glow as the diode D1 is forward based. p and n sides of the junction. Explain, why? Briefly
(b) Try yourself. See Q. No. 1 of short answer type explain the use of zener diode as a dc voltage
questions - II. regulator with the help of a circuit diagram.
 U [Delhi Set-II, 2017]
Q. 10. (a) In the following diagram ‘S’ is a semiconductor.
Would you increase or decrease the value of R to Ans. Explanation of heavily doping of both p and n
keep the reading of the ammeter A constant when sides of Zener diode. 1
S is heated ? Give reason for your answer. Circuit diagram of Zener diode as a dc voltage
regulator. 1
Explanation of the use of Zener diode as a dc
voltage regulator. 1
By heavily doping, both p and n sides of the
junction, depletion region formed is very thin, i.e.,
< 10–6 m. Hence, electric field across the junction
is very high (5 × 106 V/m) even for a small reverse
(b) Draw the circuit diagram of a photodiode and bias voltage. This can lead to a 'breakdown' during
explain its working. Draw its I/V characteristics. reverse biasing. 1
U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-III, 2017]
Ans. (a) Correct Choice of R ½
Reason ½
(b) Circuit Diagram 1
Working ½
I-V characteristics ½
(a) R would be increased. ½
Resistance of S (a semiconductor) decreases on 1
heating. If the input voltage increases/decreases, current
(b) Photodiode diagram through resistor Rs, and Zener diode also
increases/decreases. This increases/decreases the
voltage drop across Rs without any change in
voltage across the Zener diode.
This is because, in the breakbown region, Zener
voltage remains constant even though the current
through the Zener diode changes. 1
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]
Q. 12. Explain the two processes involved in the
formation of a p-n junction diode. Hence define
1 the term ‘barrier potential’.
When the photodiode is illuminated with light U [Delhi I, II, III Comptt., 2017]
(photons) (with energy (hn) greater than the
Ans. Explanation of two processes 1+1
energy gap (Eg) of the semiconductor), the electron-
Definition of barrier potential 1
hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of
photons. Due to junction field, electrons and holes Diffusion: It is the process of movement of
are separated before they recombine. Electrons are majority charge carriers from their majority zone
collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side (i.e., electrons from n ® p and holes from p ® n)
due to the electric field developed at the junction.
giving rise to an emf. ½
1
When an external load is connected, current flows.
Drift: Process of movement of minority charge
I-V Characteristics of the diode: ½
carriers (i.e., holes from n ® p and electrons from
p ® n) due to the electric field developed at the
junction. 1
Barrier potential: The loss of electrons from the
n-region and gain of electrons by p-region causes a
difference of potential across the junction, whose
polarity is such as to oppose and then stop the
further flow of charge carriers. This (stopping)
½ potential is called Barrier potential. 1
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017] [CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]
Q. 13. State the reason, why the photodiode is always OR
operated under reverse bias. Write the working
principle of operation of a photodiode. The
semiconducting material used to fabricate a
photodiode, has an energy gap of 1.2 eV. Using
calculations, show whether it can detect light of
wavelength of 400 nm incident on it.
 U [Delhi Outside Set-II Comptt., 2017]
Ans. Reason for using in reverse bias 1 1
Working Principle 1 Advantages (any two)
Whether it can detect 1
(i) Low operational voltage.
The fractional change, due to photo effects, on the (ii) Less power consumption. ½
minority charge carrier dominates reverse bias
(iii) Long life ½
current, which is much more than the fractional
(iv) Ruggedness [or any other]
change in the forward bias current and can be
easily detected. Hence, photodiode is used in (a) Energy band gap controls the wavelength of light
emitted. ½
reverse bias. 1
(b) Forward current controls the intensity of emitted
Working principle of photodiode:
light. ½
(i) Generation of e-h pairs due to light close to
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017]
junction. ½
Detailed Answer:
(ii) Separation of electrons and holes due to electric
(i) Characteristics of LED
field of the depletion region. ½
Detection is possible if Ep > Eg ½
hc
Ep = J
λ
hc
= eV
eλ
6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8
=
1.6 × 10 −19 × 400 × 10 −9
= 3.1 eV(>Eg)
\ It can detect this light. ½
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2017] ½

Q. 14. Draw the I-V characteristic of an LED. State two

advantages of LED lamps over conventional
incandescent lamps. Write the factor which Typical LED Characteristics
controls (a) wavelength of light emitted, Semiconduc- Vf @ 20
Wavelength Colour
(b) intensity of light emitted by an LED. tor Material mA
U [Delhi Outside Set-III Comptt., 2017] GaAs 850-940 nm Infra-red 1.2 V
Ans. I-V characteristics 1 GaAsP 630-660 nm Red 1.8 V
Two advantages 1 GaAsP 605-620 nm Amber 2.0 V
Factors 1
GaAsP 585-595 nm Yellow 2.2 V
AlGaP 550-570 nm Green 3.5 V
SiC 430-505 nm Blue 3.6 V
GalnN 450 nm White 4.0 V
½
(ii) Advantages:
(a) LEDs provide instantaneous turn ON and have no
issues with frequent switching.
(b) LEDs consume less power and can operate
effectively on low-voltage electrical systems.
 (c) LEDs are able to operate at virtually any percentage Therefore, in the positive half – cycle of ac input
of their rated power (0 to 100%). there is a current through the load RL and we get
(d) LEDs have good Colour Rendering Index (CRI). 1 an output voltage whereas half – cycle. There is no
(iii) Factors: output during the negative half cycle. Thus, the
(a) Wavelength of light emitted by LED depends on output voltage is restricted to only one direction
forbidden energy gap of semiconductor material and is said to be rectified.1
which is used for making LED. The wavelength of
[Note-If the student draws only the input and
light emitted by LED is inversely proportional to
forbidden energy gap. ½ output wave form, then award ½ marks only]
(b) Forward current increases as intensity of light [CBSE Marking Scheme, 2016]
increases that reaches to maximum value which on Detailed Answer:
further increase in forward current, it will lead to
(i) Try yourself. See Q. No. 8 of short answer type
decrease in light intensity. ½
questions - II. 1
Q. 15. (i) Explain with the help of a diagram the formation
(ii) Circuit Diagram of Half–wave Rectifier:
of depletion region and barrier potential in a
P-N Junction Diode
p-n junction. – + +
P1 S1
(ii) Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier A
and explain its working.
RL
 R & U [CBSE Delhi Outside Set-I, 2016]

Output
Ans.(i)Diagram of Formation  ½
Explanation of formation of
Depletion region  ½ P2 S2
B
Barrier potential  ½ + – – 1
(ii) Circuit diagram of half wave rectifier ½ Working: Diode conducts corresponding to
Explanation1 positive half-cycle and does not conduct during
(i) negative half-cycle, hence AC converted by diode
W into unidirection pulsating DC. This action is half–
– – – –
wave rectification.
– – – – –
– – – – –

– – – –
P – – – – D
– – – –
Input

Voltage o
– – – –

E Time
(a) Input

Output
Va Voltage o Time

½ 1
Output
Due to diffusion and drift, the electrons and holes Q. 16. With what considerations in view, a photodiode is
move across the junctions, creating a final stage fabricated ? State its working with the help of a
in which a region is created across the junction suitable diagram.
wall, which gets devoid of the mobile charge
Even though the current in the forward bias is
carriers. This region is called depletion region;
known to be more than in the reverse bias, yet the
the potential difference across the region is called
photodiode works in reverse bias. What is reason ?
Barriers potential½+½
(ii) Transformer A X  U [Delhi Set-I, II, III, 2015]

Primary Secondary
Ans. It is fabricated with a transparent window to
RL
allow light to fall on diode. ½
When the photodiode is illuminated with
B Y
photons of energy (hn > Eg) greater than the
(a) ½
energy gap of the semiconductor, electron hole
Working- If an alternating voltage is applied
pairs are generated. These get separated due to
across a diode in series with a load, a pulsating
the junction electric field (before they recombine)
voltage will appear across the load only during
which produces an emf. 1
that half cycle of the ac input during which the
diode is forward biased.
 Reason: It is easier to observe the change in the
current, with change in light intensity, if a reverse
bias is applied. ½
Alternatively,
The fractional change in the minority carrier
current, obtained under reverse bias, is much
more than the corresponding fraction change in
majority carrier current obtained under forward
1 bias. [CBSE Marking Scheme, 2015]

Long Answer Type Questions (5 marks each)

Q. 1. (a) Explain with the help of suitable diagram, the

Photodiode Solar cell
two processes which occur during the formations
of a p-n junction diode. Hence define the terms (i) (i) Biasing Used in reverse No external biasing
depletion region and (ii) potential barrier. biasing is given 1
(b) Draw a circuit diagram of a p-n junction diode (ii) Junction Small Large for solar
under forward bias and explain its working. Area radiation to be
 U [CBSE Comptt., 2018] incident on it. 1

Ans. (a) Explaining the two processes 1+1 (iii) I-V characteristics
Defining the two terms ½+½ mA
(b) Circuit diagram 1
Working 1
(a) Try yourself. For explaination of two processes, see
Q. no. 14 of short answer type questions - II. 1+1
Try yourself. For definition of terms depletion Reverse bias
region and potential barrier, see Q. no. 8 of short
answer type questions - II 1/2 + 1/2
I1
(b) Try yourself. For circuit diagram and working, see
I2
Q. no. 9 of short answer type questions - II. 1 + 1 I3
Q. 2. (a) Why are photodiodes preferably operated I4
under reverse bias when the current in the forward A 1
bias is known to be more than that in reverse bias? I1>I2>I3>I4
(b) The two optoelectronic devices: Photodiode
and solar cell, have the same working principle
but differ in terms of their process of operation.
Explain the difference between the two devices in
terms of (i) biasing, (ii) junction area and (iii) I-V
characteristics. U

Ans. (a) The fractional change in majority charge carri-

ers is very less compared to the fractional change
1
in minority charge carriers on illumination. 1
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2018]
(b) The difference in the working of two devices:

Q. 3. (i) The graph of potential barrier versus width of depletion region for an unbiased diode is shown in (A). In
comparison to (A), graphs (B) and (C) are obtained after biasing in diode in different ways. Identify the type of
biasing in (B) and (C) and justify your answer.
 (ii) Name the device which is used as a voltage regulator. Draw the necessary circuit diagram and explain its
working.  R&U
Ans. (i) In (B), the diode is reverse biased. ½ When a diode is forward biased, the barrier height
When a diode is reverse biased, the barrier height decrease as the applied voltage increases since
the free charge carriers (electrons and holes) are
increase as the applied voltage increases since the
enabled to approach the junction by the applied
free charge carriers (electrons and holes) are pulled
voltage. 2
apart from the junction by the applied voltage. 1
(ii) Try yourself. Q. 13 of short answer type questions -
In (C), the diode is forward biased. ½ II. ½+½+1

Visual Case-based Questions (1×4=4 marks)

Attempt any 4 sub-parts from each question. Each other by a large distance.
question carries 1 mark. (ii) In a crystal, the distance between two atoms is:
Q. 1. Band theory of solid: Consider that the Si or Ge (a) 200 Å to 300 Å (b) 2 Å to 3 micron
crystal contains N atoms. Electrons of each atom (c) 2 Å to 3 Å (d) 2 mm to 3 mm
will have discrete energies in different orbits.
Ans. (c) 1
The electron energy will be same if all the atoms
Explanation: In a crystal, the atoms are close to
are isolated, i.e., separated from each other by a
large distance. However, in a crystal, the atoms each other (2 Å to 3 Å).
are close to each other (2 Å to 3 Å) and therefore (iii) The overlap (or interaction) will be more felt by the
the electrons interact with each other and also electrons when they are:
with the neighbouring atomic cores. The overlap (a) in the outermost orbit.
(or interaction) will be more felt by the electrons (b) in the innermost orbit.
in the outermost orbit while the inner orbit or (c) free.
core electron energies may remain unaffected. (d) in any orbit.
Therefore, for understanding electron energies in
Ans. (a) 1
Si or Ge crystal, we need to consider the changes in
Explanation: The overlap (or interaction) will be
the energies of the electrons in the outermost orbit
more felt by the electrons in the outermost orbit,
only. For Si, the outermost orbit is the third orbit
(n = 3), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit (n = 4). while the inner orbit or core electron energies may
The number of electrons in the outermost orbit is remain unaffected.
4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence, the total number of (iv) For Silicon and Germanium the outermost orbits
outer electrons in the crystal is 4N. The maximum are respectively:
possible number of outer electrons in the orbit is (a) n = 3 and n = 5 (b) n = 4 and n = 3
8 (2s + 6p electrons). So, out of the 4N electrons, (c) n = 5 and n = 4 (d) n = 3 and n = 4
2N electrons are in the 2N s-states (orbital quantum Ans. (d) 1
number l = 0) and 2N electrons are in the available Explanation: For Si, the outermost orbit is the third
6N p-states. Obviously, some p-electron states are orbit (n = 3), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit (n = 4).
empty. This is the case of well separated or isolated (v) The maximum possible electrons in an orbit is:
atoms.
(a) 8 (2s + 6p electrons)
(i) The energy of electrons of atoms of a substance will
(b) 8 (6s + 2p electrons)
be same if:
(c) 8 (4s + 4p electrons)
(a) atoms are isolated.
(d) 8 (1s + 7p electrons)
(b) atoms are closely spaced.
Ans. (a) 1
(c) atoms are excited.
Explanation: The maximum possible number of
(d) atoms are charged.
outer electrons in the orbit is 8 (2s + 6p electrons).
Ans. (a) 1
Q. 2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE: It is a heavily doped
Explanation: The electron energy will be same if
pn junction which under forward bias emits
all the atoms are isolated, i.e., separated from each
 spontaneous radiation. The diode is encapsulated (c) when forward or reverse biased.
with a transparent cover so that emitted light (d) when heated.
can come out. When the diode is forward biased, Ans. (b) 1
electrons are sent from n → p (where they are Explanation: LED under forward bias emits
minority carriers) and holes are sent from p spontaneous radiation.
→ n (where they are minority carriers). At the (iii) During recombination at the junction, emitted
junction boundary, the concentration of minority photons have:
carriers increases as compared to the equilibrium (a) energy greater than the band gap.
concentration (i.e., when there is no bias).
(b) energy equal to or slightly less than the band
Thus at the junction boundary on either side of gap.
the junction, excess minority carriers are there (c) energy which has no relation with the band
which recombine with majority carriers near the gap.
junction. On recombination, the energy is released
(d) very low energy compared to band gap.
in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal
Ans. (b) 1
to or slightly less than the band gap are emitted.
Explanation: On recombination, the energy is
When the forward current of the diode is small, the
released in the form of photons. Photons with
intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap
current increases, intensity of light increases and are emitted.
reaches a maximum. Further increase in the forward
(iv) Threshold voltage of LED is:
current results in decrease of light intensity. LED's
(a) lower compared to other p-n junction diodes
are biased such that the light emitting efficiency is
and slightly different for each colour.
maximum.
(b) higher compared to other p-n junction diodes
The V-I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of
and slightly different for each colour.
a Si junction diode. But, the threshold voltages are
(c) higher compared to other p-n junction diodes
much higher and slightly different for each colour.
and same for all colours.
The reverse breakdown voltages of LED's are very
low, typically around 5 V. So care should be taken (d) lower compared to other p-n junction diodes
that high reverse voltages do not appear across and same for all colours.
them. LED's that can emit red, yellow, orange, Ans: (b)1
green and blue light are commercially available. Explanation: The V-I characteristics of a LED
(i) LED is a: is similar to that of a Si junction diode. But the
(a) lightly doped p-n junction diode. threshold voltages are much higher and slightly
different for each colour.
(b) heavily doped p-n junction diode.
(v) The reverse breakdown voltages of LED's are:
(c) moderately doped p-n junction diode.
(a) very low and typically around 0.5 V.
(d) two back to back p-n junction diode.
(b) very low and typically around 5 V.
Ans. (b) 1
(c) very high and typically around 50 V.
Explanation: LED is a heavily doped p-n junction
diode. (d) very low and typically around 0.05 V.
(ii) LED emits light: Ans. (b) 1
(a) when reversed biased. Explanation: The reverse breakdown voltages of
LED's are very low, typically around 5 V.
(b) when forward biased.

qq
 SELF ASSESSMENT PAPER-9
Time : 1 Hours Maximum Marks : 25

SECTION - A
1. (i) Name the minority charge carriers in an n-type silicon. 1
(ii) Write the two processes involved in the formation of p-n junction. 1
(iii) Will the presence of an intermediate band actually increase the fermi level or conventional semiconductor gap of
that material ? 1
(iv) Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. These are characterised by valence and
conduction bands separated by energy band gap respectively equal to (Eg)C, (Eg)Si and (Eg)Ge. Compare the energy
band gaps. 1
2. For question number 2 two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false
(i) Assertion (A) : Resistivity of semiconductor increases with increase of temperature.
Reason (R) : Energy band gap for semiconductor is normally less than 1 eV. 1
(ii) Assertion (A) : Einstein demonstrated the wave nature of light by photoelectric effect.
Reason (R) : Number of photo electrons emitted is proportional to the frequency of incident light. 1
3. Read the Passage given below and answer any 4 Questions.
It is a heavily doped pn junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation. The diode is encapsulated
with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p (where they are minority carriers) and holes
are sent from p → n (where they are minority carriers). At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority
carriers increases as compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e., when there is no bias). Thus at the junction
boundary on either side of the junction, excess minority carriers are there which recombine with majority carriers
near the junction. On recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal
to or slightly less than the band gap are emitted. When the forward current of the diode is small, the intensity
of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum.
Further increase in the forward current results in decrease of light intensity. LED's are biased such that the light
emitting efficiency is maximum.
The V-I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si junction diode. But, the threshold voltages are much
higher and slightly different for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltages of LED's are very low, typically
around 5V. So care should be taken that high reverse voltages do not appear across them. LED's that can emit red,
yellow, orange, green and blue light are commercially available : 4
(i) LED is a :
(a) Lightly doped p-n junction diode (b) Heavily doped p-n junction diode
(c) Moderately doped p-n junction diode (d) Two back to back p-n junction diode
(ii) LED emits light :
(a) When reversed biased (b) When forward biased
(c) When forward or reverse biased (d) When heated
(iii) During recombination at the junction, emitted photons have :
(a) energy greater than the band gap (b) energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap
(c) energy which has no relation with the band gap (d) very low energy compared to band gap
(iv) Threshold voltage of LED is :
(a) Lower compared to other p-n junction diodes and slightly different for each colour
(b) Higher compared to other p-n junction diodes and slightly different for each colour
(c) Higher compared to other p-n junction diodes and same for all colours
(d) Lower compared to other p-n junction diodes and same for all colours
(v) The reverse breakdown voltages of LED's are :
(a) Very low and typically around 0.5V (b) Very low and typically around 5V
(c) Very high and typically around 50V (d) Very low and typically around 0.05V
 SECTION - B
4. Distinguish between ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ semiconductors. 2
5. Energy gap in a p-n photodiode is 2.8 eV. Can it detect a wavelength of 6000 nm ? Justify your answer. 2

SECTION - C
6. With what considerations in view, a photodiode is fabricated ? State its working with the help of a suitable
diagram. Even though the current in the forward bias is known to be more than in the reverse bias, yet the
photodiode works in reverse bias. What is the reason ? 3
7. Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy
band diagrams. 3

SECTION - D
8. (a) Why are photodiodes preferably operated under reverse bias when the current in the forward bias is known
to be more than that in reverse bias ?
(b) The two optoelectronic devices : Photodiode and solar cell, have the same working principle but differ in terms
of their process of operation. Explain the difference between the two devices in terms of :
(i) biasing, (ii) junction area and
(iii) I-V characteristics. 5