VECTOR CONTROL

AT LTA SITES
GUIDEBOOK FOR BEST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES
All rights reserved. This publication is not for commercial
purposes and is intended for the use of the Land Transport
Authority’s officers and its contractors. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, in part or whole, without the prior written
permission of the Land Transport Authority.

Copyright © August 2019

Land Transport Authority, Singapore
Published by the Land Transport Authority
Enquiries can be directed to LTA Construction Safety & Environmental
Protection Division
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) would like to thank the
National Environment Agency (NEA) for their invaluable
contribution and support in producing this guidebook.

Special thanks to all staff who have provided constructive

feedback and suggestions.

Lastly, a big thank you to all our contractors for

their continuous support and efforts in maintaining
environmentally friendly sites.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1
1.1 VECTORS......................................................................................2
1.2 VECTOR-RELATED DISEASES....................................................3

CHAPTER 2
LEGISLATION AND LTA SPECIFICATIONS............................... 5
2.1 CONTROL OF VECTORS AND PESTICIDES ACT.......................6
2.2 LTA SPECIFICATIONS...................................................................9

CHAPTER 3
COMMON BREEDING HABITATS............................................ 15
3.1 SITE BOUNDARY / PERIMETER AREA.....................................16
3.2 MATERIAL STORAGE AREA.......................................................20
3.3 CONSTRUCTION AREA..............................................................31
3.4 SITE OFFICE, CANTEEN AND REST AREA..............................51

CHAPTER 4
CONTROL MEASURES FOR MOSQUITOES.......................... 59
4.1 OVERVIEW..................................................................................60
4.2 SOURCE REDUCTION...............................................................61
4.3 LARVAE AND PUPAE CONTROL...............................................63
4.4 ADULT MOSQUITO CONTROL...................................................68
4.5 PERSONAL PROTECTION.........................................................72
CHAPTER 5
CONTROL MEASURES FOR OTHER VECTORS.................... 75
5.1 OVERVIEW..................................................................................76
5.2 SOURCE REDUCTION...............................................................78
5.3 TRAPS.........................................................................................83
5.4 PCO INTERVENTION..................................................................84

CHAPTER 6
MONITORING AND EDUCATION............................................. 85
6.1 DENGUE CLUSTER STATUS.....................................................86
6.2 GRAVITRAP.................................................................................88
6.3 INSPECTIONS.............................................................................91
6.4 TRAINING AND AWARENESS....................................................93

CHAPTER 7
MORPHOLOGY......................................................................... 97
7.1 MOSQUITO SPECIES.................................................................98
7.2 MOSQUITO LIFE CYCLE............................................................99
7.3 COMMON MOSQUITO-BORNE DISEASES IN SINGAPORE.....100
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 VECTORS
Vectors are organisms that transmit diseases from one
host to another but they do not cause diseases themselves.
Under the Control of Vector and Pesticide Act (CVPA), a
vector is defined as:
“Any insect, including its egg, larva and pupa, and any
rodent, including its young, carrying or causing, or capable
of carrying or causing any disease to human beings.”
In Singapore, the five main vectors are:

Mosquito1 Rodent2 Fly3

Cockroach4 Flea5
Source:
1
[Link]
know-about-the
2
[Link] [Link]
3
[Link] [Link]/2009/06/[Link]
4
[Link] [Link]/research/biosystematics/ invertebrates/invertid/images/ [Link]
5
[Link]

2
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.2 VECTOR-RELATED DISEASES

The following table shows the diseases transmitted by
each vector.

Vector Diseases
Mosquito Dengue Fever
Chikungunya
Zika
Malaria
Japanese Encephalitis
Filariasis
Rodent Rat-bite Fever
Leptospirosis
Murine Typhus
Fly Cholera
Typhoid and Para Typhoid
Salmonellosis
Dysentery
Cockroach Cholera
Food-borne Diseases
Rat Flea Plague
Source: National Environment Agency (NEA)

3
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 CHAPTER 2

LEGISLATION AND
LTA SPECIFICATIONS
Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

2.1 CONTROL OF VECTORS AND

PESTICIDES ACT
2.1.1 Prohibition on Breeding of Vectors
Under Section 15, the Act states that “No person shall
create or cause or permit to be created any condition
favourable to the propagation or harbouring of vectors.”

Sites with poor housekeeping create conditions favourable to

mosquito breeding and rodent infestation

6
 Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

2.1.2 Penalties for Breeding of Vectors

Fine
The maximum fine for vector breeding detected will be up
to $50,000 or imprisonment for up to 6 months or both.
Stop Work Order (SWO)
NEA may also issue SWOs to errant contractors with
poorly maintained sites. During the SWO period, only
corrective actions, e.g. housekeeping and vector control
measures, are permitted to be carried out.
The duration of a SWO varies, it will only be lifted if site
conditions have improved to NEA’s satisfaction.

Do You Know?
Construction sites issued with SWO will be published on
NEA’s website for six months from the issuance date.

7
Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

2.1.3 Control of Pesticides and Repellents

Section 5 of the Act stipulates that all public health
pesticide products and repellents intended for use against
vectors in Singapore are to be registered with NEA. It is
further highlighted in the “Guidebook to the Registration
of Public Health Pesticides and Repellents against
Vectors” that there are 2 categories of registered
pesticides and repellents - “For General Use” or “For
Restricted Use”.

The products classified as “For Restricted Use” shall

only be handled and applied by NEA-registered Pest
Control Operators (PCOs) because of their high toxicity.
The contractors’ in-house vector control team shall not
use such chemicals.

The latest list can be

downloaded from the NEA
website under “Registration
of Control of Public Health
Pesticides and Repellents
against Vectors”.

Bentacide 250EC is a larvicide

labelled “For Restricted Use”,
and can only be applied by PCOs

8
 Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

2.2 LTA SPECIFICATIONS

Contractors shall refer to the General Specifications
(GS) Appendix A in their contract for LTA’s requirements
in vector control.
The following sections will cover the salient points.

2.2.1 Vector Control Personnel

Contractor shall provide competent personnel for vector
control and surveillance on site, and these include:

1) Forming an in-house vector

control team to conduct *search
and destroy* activities; monitor
and maintain Gravitraps daily by
using the Zoning Method.

2) Engaging an external NEA-

licensed PCO to carry out vector
control and surveillance at least
once a week to supplement the
in-house vector control effort.
The list of registered PCOs can
be found on NEA’s website.

*Note: “search and destroy” refers to the search for and destruction of
potential mosquito breeding grounds. This includes clearing of stagnant
water, removal of unwanted water-bearing receptacles, and eliminating
conditions that are prone to water stagnation.

9
Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

2.2.2 Vector Control Plan

Upon contract award, Contractor shall submit a site-
specific Vector Control Plan, encompassing the following
sections:
• Pre-existing Conditions

Once Contractor has taken over the site, it is essential to

conduct a pre-construction survey to establish a vector
baseline in the vicinity. This is to identify high-risk areas
for breeding of vectors and eliminate any pre-existing
vector issues before the start of work. Please refer to
LTA’s Procedure for Pre-Construction Vector Baseline
Survey for more details.
• Zoning Method
Contractor shall divide the site into a maximum of 3 zones,
and conduct search and destroy activity at one zone per
day for a more concentrated effort to eliminate mosquito
breeding on site.

Divide site into three zones for daily vector control activities

10
 Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

Focusing on one zone per day, each zone will be combed

at least twice a week.

SAMPLE VECTOR CONTROL

  

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11
Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

LTADengue
LTA Dengue Contingency
Contingency Plan Plan
Site LTA Sites located within Dengue Clusters LTA Sites with ≥10
Condition based on NEA Dengue Community Alert Dengue Cases
Action Green Yellow Red within 2
Required (No Active Cluster) (Cluster of <10 cases) (Cluster of ≥10 cases) Consecutive weeks
Housekeeping Daily Daily Twice Daily Twice Daily

Search & Destroy by in-

house vector team One zone daily One zone daily Daily for all zones Daily for all zones
(3-zone method)

Mass carpet combing for Daily

Weekly Weekly Twice weekly
the entire site (till no new reported cases)

Pest Control Operator

Daily
(PCO) visit for the entire Weekly Twice weekly Twice weekly
(till no new reported cases)
site
Trimming of overgrown
Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly
grass
Monitoring of mosquito
Weekly Weekly Twice weekly Twice weekly
population using Gravitrap
Compulsory daily
Monitoring & reporting of Compulsory daily
- Suspected patient to report temperature check* and
Dengue symptoms temperature check*
daily reporting to LTA

Applying of insect
- Compulsory Compulsory Compulsory
repellent (3 times daily)

LTA Dengue Contingency Plan

* This applies to all personnel entering the site including LTA staff, QPS, Sub-contractors, suppliers and consultants etc.

Immediate
Onset of dengue isolation with Seek medical
symptoms application of attention
insect repellent

Report to LTA
within 24 hours
Test Result from onset of Test Result
Negative Symptoms Ambiguous
g Follow doctor’s advice with
Follow doctor’s advice with application of insect repellent
medical until confirmation of test result
results

Test Result
T
Positive

Control Report Monitor

• Implement yellow alert measures at site • Fill up and submit “Dengue Case • Monitor health status of dengue patient
for next 21 days Information Form” to LTA
• Sites located within red clusters to • LTA Project Team to report dengue case
maintain red alert measures on SIMS
• If the dengue patient worked at other LTA
sites within 14 days prior to symptoms
onset, the sites to implement yellow / red
alert measures
• Submit proof for clearance of dengue
virus (from doctor) to LTA before
resuming work

12
 Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

Contractor checking Staff’s body temperature

temperature for LTA staff readings are recorded

2.2.3 Vector Control Time-out

In the event that mosquito breeding is discovered on site
by NEA, the contractor shall conduct a time-out. During
the time-out, the contractor shall stop all works and gather
all workers to carry out a detailed search and destroy
i.e. carpet combing to eliminate any potential breeding
grounds.
Besides carpet combing, the contractor shall also review
the incident and identify reasons why breeding was not
detected during routine inspections. An environmental
incident report shall be submitted following the
requirements in GS Appendix A.

13
Chapter 2
Legislation and LTA Specifications

Contractors can refer to the guidelines below on conducting

an effective carpet combing exercise.
1. Have a plan
To provide overall guidance in conducting the exercise and ensure all logistics/manpower are catered for

Prepare equipments for each team.

Essential items include:

Divide site into zones to allow Trash bags, Torchlight, Gloves, Note
Allocate sufficient manpower to
concurrent combing to take place. pad and/or camera, Broom, Ladder
each zone.
Ensure the entire site is to covered.

2. Conduct briefing
To raise awareness in dengue and for effective communication of plan

Brief on Carpet Combing Plan

This includes:
Location the teams are covering

Duration of the exercise

Communicate on the dangers of Role of each team member Ensure application of insect
dengue and prevention methods repellent before combing site
Highlight hard-to-reach areas

3. Carpet Combing Exercise

To remove potential breeding grounds and record findings

Team members may wish to stand in a line and

sweep the site from one end to the other.
If breeding is found, Take a picture of it and
highlight it to the leader of the team.

Remove all breeding ground. Leader to document it.

Ensure all hard to reach areas are being covered. After which, larvae is to be killed using
larvicide before disposal.
For areas that are out of reach, record it down (by photographs or note taking)
for further actions

4. Debrief
To consolidate all findings and good practices
“No
breeding
found!”
Document findings and good practices
of carpet combing exercise to be
submitted to Project & Construction
ECO to conclude with findings and Safety Division for sharing purposes
Gather all findings during the exercise
lessons learnt

14
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

CHAPTER 3

COMMON BREEDING
HABITATS
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.1 SITE BOUNDARY / PERIMETER AREA

3.1.1 Water-filled Barricades
Water-filled barricades placed outside the site are often
neglected during vector control inspections. Openings in
these barricades can collect water and lead to mosquito
breeding.
If the barricades are damaged beyond repair, contractor
shall replace them.

Potential mosquito
breeding in uncapped
or damaged water-filled
barricades

Openings of barricades are capped or covered

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 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.1.2 Concrete Barriers

Concrete barriers come with openings for anchorage and /
or installation of railing. These openings are prone to be
littered with discarded water-bearing receptacles that
result in water collection.

Discarded receptacles left in concrete barrier can collect water

Openings in concrete barriers covered or filled up

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Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.1.3 Hoarding
Water may accumulate along hoarding / perimeter noise
barrier due to ineffective drainage or poor housekeeping.

Water stagnation beside

hoarding

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 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Contractors are also recommended to take care of the area next

to site boundary and eliminate potential breeding grounds.

Gaps sealed up to prevent

water stagnantion

Ground depression is filled Worker doing housekeeping

up to prevent water ponding at site boundary

19
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.2 MATERIAL STORAGE AREA

3.2.1 Water-bearing Receptacles
Loose Material
Loose material such as fittings, joints, and flanges etc. can
collect water if not properly stored.

Water stagnation due to improper storage of materials

20
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Loose items are placed properly to avoid water collection

Loose items and spare parts are stored under

shelter area, or in a manner that do not collect
water

21
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Bulky Items
Large and bulky materials can collect water in their voids.

Water stagnation in voids of bulky materials

Empty space filled up with gravel and sand to prevent collection

of water
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 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.2.2 Inadequate Access

Storage areas are often cluttered with no space between
materials. This hinders the vector control team from
performing regular checks and administering vector
control measures required due to safety concerns.

Lack of access at
storage area

23
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Lack of access at
storage area

Proper and
adequate access
provided to allow
for checks and
control measures

24
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.2.3 Canvas Sheets

Commonly used on construction sites, canvas sheets are
one of the top mosquito breeding habitats when not being
handled properly.

Stagnant water on canvas sheets

Canvas sheets should be pulled taut to prevent collection

of water. For canvas sheets used as cover for material
storage and are prone to collecting water, daily inspection
shall be carried out to ensure that stagnant water is
promptly removed.

25
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Canvas sheets are pulled taut and the bottom is cut/folded in to

avoid water collection

3.2.4 Plastic Sheets

Plastic sheets are generally used for material packaging,
and can easily trap water. Contractor shall remove plastic
sheets and store the materials under shelter or in a manner
that does not collect water.

Stagnant water on plastic wrapper

26
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.2.5 Tunnel Segment Rings

The bolt socket holes and lifting/grouting socket holes of
tunnel segment rings can collect rainwater.

Stagnant water in bolt opening of tunnel segment rings

The openings can be

temporarily covered by
sponge plugs and / or
tape.

Openings on tunnel
segment rings are covered

27
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Bolt socket with end caps are also commercially available

which can be pre-installed during fabrication to prevent
water collection.

Customised bolt cover installed at pre-cast fabrication yard

3.2.6 Chemical Drums

The top of chemical drums usually come with grooves
which can collect stagnant water if the containers are
stored in open areas.
Such containers should be stored under shelter to prevent
the collection of rainwater. Otherwise, frequent checks
shall be carried out to ensure stagnant water is cleared.

28
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Stagnant water on top Larvae found on top of

of PVC drums a chemical drum

Chemical and material containers are stored under shelter

29
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.2.7 Test Cube Tank

Concrete cubes are required to be cured in water tank for
28 days before being sent for compression strength test.
Stagnant water in test cube tank is a potential breeding
ground if left unattended.

Water should be
replaced frequently,
and in addition,
contractors can cover
tank with a netting to
prevent mosquitoes
from entering.

Stagnant water in a test cube tank

Netting on test cube tanks

30
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3 CONSTRUCTION AREA

3.3.1 Uneven Surface / Ground Depression
Uneven surfaces or ground depressions are often
observed on site.

Water ponding due to uneven surface / ground depression

Ground depressions should be levelled to prevent water

stagnation. It is also important to ensure that the levelled
ground has a proper gradient for water to be drained.

31
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Site entrance is paved to Milled waste is used to level

avoid ground depression the ground

Ground should be levelled before laying steel plates

32
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.2 Walers and Struts

Walers and struts are likely to contain stagnant water, and
are difficult to maintain due to the constraint of access.

Stagnant water on walers and struts

Contractors can drill holes to drain rainwater. Alternatively,

gaps can be filled with fine gravel and sand to prevent
water from collecting.

Holes in walers to drain Empty space in walers /

stagnant water struts filled up with sand

33
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.3 Machinery and Equipment

While it may not be possible to store all machinery and
equipment under shelter, contractors shall practise good
housekeeping and ensure proper storage of equipment.

Larvae found in the standpipe Stagnant water in lifting

of a pump that is not in use bucket that is not in use

Opening on pump is Lifting bucket turned upside

covered down when not in use

34
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.4 Trenches
Areas excavated for trial trenches, utility diversions and
other temporary works generally have water ponding
issues as water cannot be drained.

Water ponding in trenches

Water shall be frequently

pumped out, and larvicide
shall be applied to prevent
mosquito breeding.

Deploy pump to clear water

promptly

35
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.5 Site Drainage

Internal drains shall be properly constructed with the right
gradient to allow effective drainage. Silt and debris in
drains shall be regularly cleared to ensure the flow is not
obstructed.

Water stagnation in site drain Water stagnation due to

due to silt buildup poor gradient

Worker clearing silt in the

drain to ensure water flow

36
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Scupper drain with stagnant water due to flow obstruction

Properly maintained
scupper drain and free
from obstructions

37
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.6 Trackwork
Stagnant water in trackwork shall be promptly cleared, and
larvicide shall be applied to prevent mosquito breeding.

Stagnant water at train

tracks under construction

3.3.7 Recess on Concrete Surface

Small surfaces with recess should be filled up with sand to
prevent collection of water. While for larger surface areas,
small pumps shall be deployed to clear the water, followed
by application of larvicides.

38
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Stagnant water on recessed concrete surface

Lifting point is filled up to

prevent water stagnation

39
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.8 End of Pipes / Hoses

Stagnant water in the Stagnant water in GI pipe

standpipe of a water pump due to missing cap

Whenever possible, end(s) of pipe or water hoses shall be

covered if not in use.

End of water
hoses covered

40
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

End of GI pipe covered or sealed up

41
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.9 Sheet Piles

It is common to have water ponding between the gaps of
sheet piles, and sometimes trapped in backfill material.
The ground shall be properly levelled to drain the water
effectively.

Water stagnation in gaps of Gaps of sheet piles are

sheet piles filled with lean concrete

42
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.10 Toe Boards

Toe boards, when installed vertically, tend to collect water.
Such gaps can be filled up with fine gravel and sand to
prevent water stagnation.

Stagnant water on toe board

Toe board gap filled up with sand

43
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.11 Scaffold Clamp Covers

Scaffold clamp covers can collect stagnant water and lead
to mosquito breeding.

Stagnant water in GI pipe clamp cover

Clamp cover designed to

Hole drilled to drain the water
drain the water

44
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.12 Discarded Receptacles

Regular housekeeping
shall be carried out to
clear discarded water
receptacles

45
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.13 Waste Bins / Skips

Skips used for waste storage are potential breeding
grounds if they are not regularly emptied or properly
managed.

Waste skip with stagnant water identified at the corners

Waste skip was tilted with an angle to allow easier monitoring of

stagnant water

46
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Platform provided at waste

skip allows easy checking of
stagnant water

3.3.14 Hollow blocks

Hollow blocks, when bottom ends are closed, tend to
collect water. The openings of hollow blocks shall be filled
up or patched up to avoid water stagnation.

Openings on hollow blocks

Openings on hollow blocks are filled or patched up

47
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.15 Water Treatment and Storage Tanks

Water tanks that are not in use are usually kept outdoors.
They can collect rainwater and are often neglected during
inspections.

Stagnant water at the bottom of the tank that is no longer in use

Stagnant water in tank that is

no longer in use

48
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Netting provided for water tanks to deter

entry of mosquitoes

49
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.3.16 Recharge Well

IBC tanks used as recharge wells can be a potential
breeding ground, as rain water is collected on top of the
tank. Due to limited access to the tanks, they are often left
unchecked.

Top of recharge well may have stagnant water

These tanks are recommended

to be covered with a pitched roof
to prevent water stagnation,
and the caps of the IBC tank
shall be properly secured to
prevent mosquito from entering
the tank.
Pitched roof installed
for recharge well

50
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.4 SITE OFFICE, CANTEEN AND REST AREA

3.4.1 Site Container Office
Containers with missing or poorly maintained pitched roofs
are prone to collect rainwater.

Missing or damaged
roofing for containers

51
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

For newly arrived containers that are not installed with

pitched roofs, contractors must carry out inspections and
clear stagnant water at least once a week.

No material or machinery parts shall be stored above,

below or behind containers, as they may trap water and
become mosquito breeding grounds.

Random construction materials or discarded items shall be removed

52
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Workers perform inspections for containers

Condensate from air-conditioning is collected using PVC

tube and into a bucket placed below. However, this may
lead to mosquito breeding if the water is not cleared in time.
It is recommended to fit a pipe to channel the condensate
to a nearby drain directly.

AC condensate is
channelled to the
drain through a tube

53
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.4.2 Trees / Plants

Aedes mosquitoes are attracted to stagnant water in tree
holes.

Tree holes are susceptible to mosquito breeding

To avoid breeding in plants, contractors shall perform more

inspections and maintenance to reduce water stagnation.

Pipette is used to check Top of tree stump is

hard-to-reach parts of a tree sealed to prevent mosquito
for larvae breeding

For trees that need to be cleared due to construction

needs, tree stumps have to be thoroughly removed, else
the holes shall be patched up.

54
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

3.4.3 Workers’ Rest Areas

Daily housekeeping and regular carpet combing shall be
carried out at workers’ rest areas. Unwanted items are to
be disposed of and workers’ belongings are to be properly
stored.

Stagnant water in water Water dispenser bottles are

dispenser that is not in use left without cap

Stagnant water in flower pot

Larvae found in a pail without drainage hole

55
Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Waste bins with overflowing Washing area with spilled

food waste food waste

Empty water containers are Rack provided to store

covered empty water containers
properly

56
 Chapter 3
Common Breeding Habitats

Designated PPE storage Good houskeeping at

area under shelter workers’ rest area

57
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58
 CHAPTER 4

CONTROL MEASURES
FOR MOSQUITOES
Chapter 4
Control Measures For Mosquitoes

4.1 OVERVIEW
There are various control measures to prevent mosquito
breeding and transmission of mosquito-borne diseases.
The hierarchy of the measures that can be deployed is
as shown below, with source reduction being the most
effective.

Hierarchy of Mosquito Control Measures

60
 Chapter 4
Control Measures For Mosquitoes

4.2 SOURCE REDUCTION

Good housekeeping prevents mosquito breeding as

the occurrence of stagnant water is reduced. Below are
some examples of effective source reduction for mosquito
control.

Provide well-maintained pitched roof Clear discarded items through daily

housekeeping

Store materials in ways that prevent Level up ground depression

water collection

61
Chapter 4
Control Measures For Mosquitoes

Ensure effective drainage flow Trim excessive vegetation regularly

Do You Know?
• Mosquitoes can breed in a puddle of water the size of a 20
cent coin.
• On average, a mosquito can lay about 100 eggs or more
after a full blood meal.
• Eggs of Aedes mosquitoes can survive in dry conditions
for 6 months to a year. Once they are exposed to water,
they will hatch to become larvae and continue their life
cycle.

62
 Chapter 4
Control Measures For Mosquitoes

4.3 LARVAE AND PUPAE CONTROL

For areas with stagnant water that cannot be permanently

removed, larvae and pupae control shall be carried out to
prevent mosquito breeding.
4.3.1 Physical Control
Application of Anti-Mosquito (AM) oil is one of the most
commonly used control measures on site.

Worker sprays AM oil in tank

with stagnant water

Do You Know?
AM oil forms an oil film on the water surface, which blocks the
oxygen supply to the mosquito larvae / pupae. This suffocates
them as their siphons are unable to penetrate through the oil
film for air.

63
Chapter 4
Control Measures For Mosquitoes

For AM oil to be effective, it should be:

• Applied at least once a week
• Reapplied immediately after rain as the oil would have
been washed away
• Covering the entire surface of the stagnant water

MMF block for

physical control of
mosquito breeding

The Mono-Molecular Film (MMF) block follows a similar

mechanism by forming a thin layer of film upon contact
with water, suffocating the larvae and pupae. It reduces
the surface tension of water, which also makes it difficult
for female mosquitoes to stay on the water surface and lay
their eggs.

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4.3.2 Chemical Larvicides

Temephos Sand Granule
Temephos sand granule, also known as “Abate”, are
commonly used on site for vector control.
The active larviciding ingredient is
coated on the granule surfaces,
and disperses when it is applied
to water bodies. There will not
be any physical change to the
sand granule after all the active
ingredient is depleted.
Abate should be replaced Abate sand granule
regularly according to the
product’s instruction.

To ensure timely replacement of the abate,

contractors are recommended to put a tag
to indicate the date of application and the
date for replacement.

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Control Measures For Mosquitoes

Relief T
Relief T is a slow-releasing larvicide in
a tablet form with the active ingredient,
Temephos. It is usually submerged in
sump pits and sedimentation tanks to
prevent mosquito breeding. Relief T
tablets should be replenished after it
has been fully dissolved.
Relief T placed in a net
for easy deployment

4.3.3 Biological Larvicides

Bacillus Thuringiensis Israelensis
(BTI)
BTI is a group of bacteria used as
biological control agents against
mosquito larvae. It infects the larvae,
resulting in a chronic infection that kills
BTI Dunks are readily
them. available off the shelf

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BTI products are usually in the form of a solid dunk, which

will slowly release biological larvicide when applied to
water bodies.
Most BTI products are for general use and are considered
more environmentally friendly as compared to AM oil
and chemical larvicides. They are recommended for
use especially in ecological sensitive areas as they are
harmless to fish, birds and other animals.

Do You Know?
Contractors can engage PCOs to carry out BTI misting where
BTI mist droplets are dispersed to hard-to-reach areas like
tree holes, fallen leaves, ground depressions and roof gutters.

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4.4 ADULT MOSQUITO CONTROL

Adult mosquito control is carried out through fogging,

misting or applying residual spray. This shall only be
conducted by PCOs as it involves the use of restricted
pesticides and specialised equipment.

4.4.1 Thermal Fogging

In thermal fogging, heat is used to vaporise and disperse
pesticides. Adult mosquitoes present in the area are killed
through direct contact with the fog.
However, regular fogging is not encouraged as it
may build up the mosquitoes’ resistance against these
pesticides chemicals over time. It should only be carried
out when there is a Dengue outbreak in the vicinity of the
construction site, or when high mosquito population is
detected.

PCO is to conduct thermal

fogging on site only when
necessary

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For thermal fogging to be effective, it should be:

• Applied in the early morning or late afternoon when
Aedes mosquitoes are most active
• Conducted by PCOs with sufficient manpower and
fogging guns on site
• Started by circling the site boundary before moving
gradually into the site

Do You Know?
Thermal fogging is only effective if the chemical has direct
contact with mosquitoes. It does not have any residual effect
to kill mosquitoes after the fog has dispersed.

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4.4.2 Misting
Similar to thermal fogging, misting kills adult mosquitoes
upon contact. It requires dilution of pesticide with water
in a prescribed ratio, after which the mixed solution is
pressurized into small particles and sprayed through the
nozzle of the misting equipment. The particle size can be
adjusted for different applications.
Misting can be used for both outdoor and indoor
applications.

PCO conducting misting on site

4.4.3 Mosquito Traps

Mosquito traps are commercially available to lure and trap
adult mosquitoes. These traps attract female mosquitoes
through various mechanisms.

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Some use ultraviolet light to attract mosquitoes into an

electrocuting trap, while some emit carbon dioxide and
mild heat to attract mosquitoes before they are trapped to
die of dehydration.
They are usually placed at locations where workers
frequently gather, such as canteens and worker rest
areas, or near forested boundaries where there are more
mosquito breeding habitats.

Mosquito trap releasing CO2 is

deployed on site, especially where
high mosquito population is detected

Mosquito magnet attracts mosquitoes by light and CO2, and sucks

mosquitoes into the chamber where they dehydrate to die

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4.5 PERSONAL PROTECTION

4.5.1 Application of Insect Repellent
Besides wearing long sleeved clothing to prevent
mosquito bites, it is advisable to apply insect repellent on
all exposed parts of the body as well as on the clothing.
The repellent should be reapplied throughout the day for
effective protection.
DEET and Picaridin are the two active ingredients found in
insect repellents, and have been scientifically proven to be
effective against mosquitoes.

Workers applying insect

repellent before start
of work

Do You Know?
The effective duration of mosquito repellent is determined
by the percentage of DEET it contains. The higher the DEET
concentration, the longer it would last.

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4.5.2 Repellent-treated Safety Vest

Repellent-treated safety vests are manufactured using
active ingredients found in insecticides, along with special
release-control agents. These vests repel mosquitoes,
and prevent the user from being bitten.

Repellent-treated safety vest provided to general workers

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 CHAPTER 5

CONTROL
MEASURES FOR
OTHER VECTORS
Chapter 5
Control Measures For Other Vectors

5.1 OVERVIEW
Rodents, cockroaches and flies are pests commonly found
in urban environment, especially when there are nearby
food establishments or waste handling facilities. They are
most likely to thrive at places where food, harbourage and
water are easily available. This includes canteens, worker
rest areas, and storage areas.
Rodent infestation can be recognised by the following
signs:

Rodent Burrows / Smear marks Gnawing marks

Droppings runways

Source: NEA

Do You Know?
Construction sites found with a significant amount of rodent
droppings can be fined for rodent infestation.

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Control Measures For Other Vectors

Cockroach infestation is indicated by:

• Cockroach droppings
• Cockroach egg cases
• Odour
Droppings
Egg case (ootheca)

• Live cockroaches

Signs of Cockroach infestatio7

Breeding of flies is indicated by the presence of adult flies

and maggots.

Fly life circle8 Fly Infestation due to improper

handling of food (waste)8

Source:
7
[Link]
8
[Link]

77
Chapter 5
Control Measures For Other Vectors

5.2 SOURCE REDUCTION

Source reduction, through elimination of favourable
conditions, is still the main form of vector control.
5.2.1 Elimination of Food Sources
As rodents, flies and cockroaches are mainly attracted
to food and decaying organic waste, it is important to
eliminate their food sources by properly storing food and
managing food waste on site.
Proper Food Storage
Contractor shall properly store food in containers with
close-fitting lids at designated food storage area at least
60cm above ground.

Food containers are

provided for workers
and cleaned daily

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Proper Food Waste Management

Contractor shall provide adequate lidded refuse bins
at designated dining or resting areas to contain all food
waste.
Such bins shall be covered tightly at all times and be
cleared and cleaned daily. Spilled food waste shall be
cleaned immediately.

Spilled food waste should Poorly maintained

be cleared immediately food waste bin

Food waste bins are

properly covered and
well maintained

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5.2.2 Elimination of Shelter and Harbourage

As rodents, flies and cockroaches are likely to thrive in
areas with harbourage, it is important to make such places
less conducive for their survival.
In construction sites, common breeding grounds for these
vectors include stacks of plywood, beams, concrete
barriers, container site offices, piles of rubbish, unwanted
cardboard boxes, cable reels, fallen trees and overgrown
vegetation etc. Contractors shall practice the following
control measures to eliminate harborage and prevent
infestation:
• Dispose unwanted boxes, crates, piles of newspapers
and other articles
• Store material properly and inspect the storage area
regularly
• Seal any holes or crevices in the ceilings, walls, floors
and hoardings
• Ensure that floor traps and downpipe are properly
covered with grating
• Cover entrance points by installing air curtains or
plastic screens, or installing self-closing doors

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 Chapter 5
Control Measures For Other Vectors

Sealing up bottom of
Regular grass cutting
container office

Worker inspecting the space below container office and

ensure it is free of rubbish to prevent vector harbourage

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Chapter 5
Control Measures For Other Vectors

5.3 TRAPS
Fly trap stickers and electrical fly traps can be used to
capture flies at canteens or rest areas..

Electrical fly traps are used at site canteen as

fly control measures.

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Control Measures For Other Vectors

5.4 PCO INTERVENTION

If infestation is found within the site, contractors should
quickly engage PCOs to set up traps and apply pesticides
to kill these vectors.
Rodent traps and feed baits can be introduced by PCO
to trap and poison rodents on site. These traps should
be strategically placed at areas where rodents are likely
to appear, such as worker’s rest areas, material storage
areas and near vegetated grounds. Physical vector control
measures are preferred as there are risks of possible food
contamination and health effects when pesticides are
used.
The PCOs can also apply rodenticides during their
inspections to aid in rodent control.

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Chapter 5
Control Measures For Other Vectors

Rodent trap placed near Rodenticide deployed by

site boundary PCO

Glue board deployed by PCO for rodent trapping

84
 Chapter 6
Monitoring And Education

CHAPTER 6

MONITORING AND
EDUCATION
Chapter 6
Monitoring And Education

6.1 DENGUE CLUSTER STATUS

NEA launched the Dengue Communtiy Alert System to
highlight areas with active transmission of the Dengue
virus. Different colour-coded (red, yellow or green)
banners are also displayed in the neighbourhood to alert
the residents.

NEA’s colour-coded
Dengue Community
Alert System and the
respective banners

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Monitoring And Education

Contractors should monitor daily if there are any active

Dengue clusters near the site. The information can be
found on NEA’s website or the myENV app, which are
updated daily.

Users can also subscribe

for the Dengue alerts on
the myENV app by setting
their preferred locations.

Screenshot of Dengue status on

myENV app

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6.2 GRAVITRAP
The Gravitrap is designed to capture both gravid female
mosquitoes and their eggs. Contractor shall regularly
monitor the mosquito population on site by using well-
maintained Gravitraps.
Cylindrical
Sticky strip Container

Stopper & mesh

Components of Gravitrap

Setting up Gravitrap (Source: NEA)

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For the Gravitrap to be effective, it should be:

• Filled with water until the over-flow hole level
• Placed in an area with good housekeeping, under
shade and on a levelled ground
• Maintained weekly to ensure the water is sufficient and
the sticky tape is functional
• Covered or kept away during thermal fogging or
misting to prevent introduction of chemical particles
into the trap

Gravitrap not placed under

Poorly maintained gravitrap
shelter

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Monitoring And Education

Well maintained gravitrap Provision of tag to record

with pictorial instructions checks and maintenance

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Monitoring And Education

6.3 INSPECTIONS
Regular inspections shall be carried out to reduce potential
sources of breeding and infestation.

Environmental inspection carried out by ECO, in-house vector

control team and construction team

Contractor shall also develop a site-specific inspection

checklist to suit their own needs.

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Checklist for
Mosquito Breeding Sites
in Construction Sites

Location:
Date:
Inspected by:

Findings Actions Taken

Clear
Items Description Checked Stagnant Mosquito Apply Remarks
stagnant
water breeding chemical
water
1 Construction Area
Puddles on ground and concrete floor at all
a
levels

Building materials - zinc sheets, form work,

b
steel bars, metal beams, pipings, uninstalled
toilets, etc including canvas sheets
c Demolition debris
Equipment and machineries, including
d
excavators, etc
Water storage/ filtration/ sedimentation
e
tanks, drums, containers
f Barriers
g Trenches
h Bulk waste containers, skips & refuse bins
i Sump pits/ silt traps
Drains/ temporary channels constructed for
j
drainage
Vehicle wash bays
E
k
l Lift wells
m Planter boxes
PL

n Discarded items & receptacles

2 Storage Yard
a Puddles on ground and concrete floors
Freight containers
i) Container and canvas roof, including
M

b
secondary roof
ii) Ground below containers
SA

Building materials - zinc sheets, form work,

c
steel bars, metal beams, pipings, uninstalled
toilets, etc including canvas sheets
d Equipment and machineries
e Concrete test cube tanks
f Tool boxes
g Paint tins/ cans
h Discarded items & receptacles
3 Container Office
Freight containers
i) Container and canvas roof, including
a
secondary roof
ii) Ground below containers
b Air-conditioner drip trays
c Any other water bearing receptacles

4 Living Quarters
Freight containers
i) Container and canvas roof, including
a
secondary roof
ii) Ground below containers
Plastic containers/ cooking pots & pans/
b
domestic containers
c Discarded items & receptacles
5 Toilet & Bathroom
a Concrete floor
Pails (including rim of overturned pails)/
b
plastic containers
c Toilet cisterns & unused toilet bowls
d Bathing point concrete tanks
e Drainholes of unused sinks
f Gully/ floor traps
6 Cooking & Washing Area
a Cooking pots & pans/ domestic containers
b Discarded items & receptacles

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6.4 TRAINING AND AWARENESS

6.4.1 Training
Personnel involved in vector surveillance and control shall
attend relevant trainings, such as:
• Joint ITE-NEA Certificate in Pest Management/ Control
for ECO or in-house pest control team
• Training conducted by PCO on the proper usage of
vector control chemicals and equipment
• In-house trainings on understanding vector-borne
diseases, identifying potential vector breeding grounds
and measures to prevent the propagation of vectors for
general workers

ECO carrying out in-house training Vector control training by PCO

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Monitoring And Education

6.4.2 Awareness
Display of Dengue Prevention and Vector Control
Information
Contractor should also put up
promotional material, such
as posters and banners, that
deliver Dengue prevention
and vector control messages
on site and at workers’ rest
area to raise awareness.

LTA-NEA Dengue Prevention

Poster

Promotional banner
is displayed on site to
remind workers to remove
potential mosquito
breeding grounds.

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 Chapter 6
Monitoring And Education

Posters on Dengue prevention & vector control displayed on site

Promotional Activities
Contractor should organise promotional activities, such as
awareness talks during toolbox meetings, campaigns and
NEA Dengue prevention roadshows, to raise awareness
among workers.

X-Dengue Campaign organised by contractor to raise vector control and

dengue prevention awareness

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 CHAPTER 7

MORPHOLOGY
Chapter 7
Morphology

7.1 MOSQUITO SPECIES

In Singapore, more than 140 species of mosquitoes have
been identified. The three genera that are of concern are
Aedes, Culex and Anopheles.

Aedes1 Culex8 Anopheles8

Colour Black and Greyish brown Brown with

white stripes speckled wings
Breeding Clean stagnant Organically- Seepage or
Habitats water indoors polluted brackish water
or outdoors stagnant water
or clear water
Feeding Day time, Night time Night time
Time especially
dawn and dusk
Diseases Dengue Japanese Malaria
fever, Zika, Encephalitis,
Chikungunya, Lymphatic
Yellow fever Filariasis, West
Nile Fever
Source:
8
[Link]/corporate-functions/resources/research/wolbachia-aedes-mosquito-suppression-strategy/not-all-
mosquitoes-transmit-dengue

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 Chapter 7
Morphology

7.2 MOSQUITO LIFE CYCLE

All mosquito species go through four distinct stages during
their life cycle:
• Egg
• Larva
• Pupa
• Adult
The complete life cycle of mosquitoes from egg to
adult usually takes 7 to 10 days. Aedes mosquitoes in
Singapore could survive for about 2 to 3 weeks in the
natural environment.

Mosquito Life Cycle9

Source:
9
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Morphology

7.3 COMMON MOSQUITO-BORNE

DISEASES IN SINGAPORE
7.3.1 Dengue Fever / Dengue Haemorrhagic
Fever
Dengue fever is an infectious tropical disease caused by
the Dengue virus, transmitted by female Aedes mosquitoes.
Dengue has 4 serotypes, and the recovery from infection
by one serotype provides lifelong immunity against that
particular virus. However, there is no cross-immunity to
the other serotypes after recovery.
Dengue should be suspected when a high fever is
accompanied by the following symptoms:
• Severe headache
• Pain behind the eyes
• Muscle and joint pains
• Nausea and vomiting
• Swollen glands or
• Rash Symptoms of Dengue Fever10

Symptoms usually last for 2 to 7 days, after an incubation

period of 4 to 10 days after the bite from an infected
mosquito.
Source:
10
[Link]

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Morphology

Dengue haemorrhagic fever is a more severe form of

Dengue fever, and an infected person may have the
following symptoms:
• Bleeding from nose, mouth and gum
• Blood clotting
• Patches of blood on skin and bruises may appear
• Dengue Shock Syndrome – a critical state of shock
due to circulatory failure

7.3.2 Zika
The Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes
mosquitoes. People with Zika virus disease has similar
symptoms as Dengue, but milder, such as fever, skin
rashes, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise and
headache. Only about one in five people infected with Zika
will show symptoms. An infection during pregnancy can
sometimes cause serious complications in a small number
of unborn children.

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7.3.3 Chikungunya
Chikungunya is a viral disease transmitted to humans by
infected Aedes mosquitoes. It causes fever and severe
joint pain, and other symptoms include muscle pain,
headache, nausea, fatigue and rash.

7.3.4 Malaria
Malaria is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes.
Symptoms include fever, chills, nausea, headache, and
sweating / perspiring. More severe symptoms of malaria
will lead to renal and liver failure, shock and coma.

102
 REFERENCES
Legislation
1. Control of Vectors and Pesticides Act

LTA Specifications
2. LTA General Specifications Appendix A

Guidelines
1. Guidebook to the Registration of Public Health Pesticides and
Repellents against Vectors
2. Guidebook on Prevention of Mosquito Breeding - Common Mosquito
Breeding Places: Construction Sites, NEA
3. Information shared by NEA and Inter-Agency Dengue Task Force

Online Resources
1. [Link]
infected-with-chikungunya-fever-what-you-need-to-know-about-the
2. [Link] QFHHCCQ41Rodent-
[Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
invertebrates/invertid/images/ [Link]
5. [Link] net/images/[Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link]/corporate-functions/resources/research/wolbachia-
aedes-mosquito-suppression-strategy/not-all-mosquitoes-transmit-
dengue
9. Mosquito Life Cycle, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
10. [Link]
haemorrhagic-fever

103