Faculty of

Architecture, Planning and Surveying

Sustainable and Large-Scale Construction

CMA 534
Presented by
Sr Ts. Muhamad Zaihafiz bin Zainal Abidin,
MRISM, [Link]
Diploma Building Services
[Link] Civil (UTHM)
MSc. Integrated Cons Project Management (UITM)
Advance Diploma RISM in Building Surveying

Contribution by
Ts. Dr Reza Isa
Centre of Construction studies
LECTURE 1 and 2 – Long Span Structure Faculty of Architecture and Surveying and
Planning

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LECTURE OUTLINE
• Introduction to Long Span Structure
Definition
History of Long Span Structure

• Structural Development of Long Span Structure

• Common Structural Systems

Long Span Beams
Long Span Trusses
Long Span Roof Structures

• Construction Consideration

• Problems with Long Span Structure

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LECTURE OUTLINE
• Long Span Beams
Parallel Beam Approach
Composite Beams with Web Openings
Cellular Composite Beams
Tapered Girders
Haunched Composite Beams

• Long Span Trusses

Pratt Truss
Warren Truss
North Light Truss
Saw Tooth Truss
Fink Truss

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LECTURE OUTLINE

• Long Span Roof Structures

Portal Frame
Domes Structure
Shell Structure
Folded Plate
Tensile Structure

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Definitions

• Long-span buildings create unobstructed, column-free spaces greater than 30m (100 feet) for a variety
of functions.

• These include activities where:-

- visibility is important for large audiences (auditoriums and covered stadiums)
- flexibility is important (exhibition halls and certain types of manufacturing facility)
- large movable objects are housed (aircraft hangars).

• Common structural systems for long span structures:-

- Long span beam
- Long span trusses
- Long span roof structures

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History of Long Span Structures

• Constructed almost entirely of cast iron, timber and glass

enclosed the largest volume of space ever up to that time,
with the lightest construction and highest technology
available.

• The overall size of the building was vast, measuring 563 x 139
m and covering a ground area of 7.3 ha (18 acres)

• The galleries made it more than four times the size of St

Peter's in Rome, which for centuries had been the world's
largest building.

• The whole building was completed in six months which was

only made possible by the standardization and mass
production of the components.
The Crystal Palace for the Great
Exhibition of 1851

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 In the early 19th century, most of the bridges and viaduct were constructed using timber.

The timber were expected to last 30 years but as labour costs for maintenance increased, the
bridges were replaced and most had gone by 1940.
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Purpose of Long Span Structure

Communal Enables a large group of people to assemble without obstruction by

Activities the presence of supporting column

Economic For manufacturing and commerce; e.g., atrium at shopping

Activities complex – events and promotional activities

Prestige & Dominate the landscape and easily become landmark – free
Status advertisement for the owners and even for the city

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Why we need a large span structure?

Functionality Aesthetic Economic

Influenced the adopted structure The architect often imposes his It should be kept in mind that the
on the purposes for which the aesthetic concerns on the engineer. two largest component of a
structure was erected. This is in turn can place a severe structures are labours and
limitations on the structural materials. Design cost is
systems. comparatively negligible.

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Applications

Community Building Sports Complex Swimming Pool’s Roof

Manufacturing Facilities Railway Station Convention Centre

Exhibition Hall Aircraft Hangers Museum

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Structural Development
The use of material in long span structure
• Between the 13th and 15th century, rural architecture took on different regional forms due to
materials used were timber, stone and clay.

• From the 14th century, stone and brick were used as structural materials for the house
construction.

• The material changes due to main reason for their spread was fire resistance in timber.

• Early timer bridges constructed by the romans were simple beam structure of hewn tree trunk
spanning between piled piers.

Timber, clay and stone

Stone and brick

13th Century 14th Century 15th Century

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 Revolution of Long Span Structure

Paddington The Crystal

Station, Palace, Galerie des
London London York Station Machine
1838 1849 1851 1868 1874 1879 1889 1898
Lime Street St. Pancras Hangar-Y, The Gare
Station, Station, Paris d’Orleans,
Liverpool London Paris

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By the late 20th century, durable upper limits of span were established for these types:-
• The largest covered stadium had a span of 204 meters (670 feet).
• The largest exhibition hall had a span of 216 meters (710 feet).
• The largest commercial fixed-wing aircraft had a 75 – 80 meters (250 – 266 foot) span hangar.

The major evolution in long span section structures has occurred in the aspect of shift from in-
situ to precast construction.

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Timber Steel

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Rogers Centre (The Sky Dome, Toronto
Canada

• Construction period – October 1986 to May 1989.

• Cost - $570 million

• Sky Dome is the first and only stadium to have a

fully retractable roof.

• When the weather is good, usually from April 1 to

October 1, the roof can be rolled back, uncovering
the complete field area and over 91% of the seats.

• Span at widest point – 209 meters and height – 85

meters.

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Features of the Roof System:-

1. The roof is made up of steel trusses covered by corrugated

steel cladding. Covering the cladding is a PVC single ply
membrane.

2. A series of 3 moveable panels and 1 stationery panel.

3. Panel 1 rotates around 180° while Panel 2 and 3 telescope

straight forward.

4. The roof runs on a system of steel tracks and bogies. There are
76 bogies altogether, with 10 horsepower motors inside.

5. It takes 20 minutes for the roof to open or close as it moves at

a rate of 21 meters per minute.

6. Roof area is 31,525 m².

7. The roof weighs 11,000 tons and is held together by 250,000

bolts.

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The best preparation for tomorrow is doing your best today.
Common Structural Systems

Long Span Beams

Long Span Trusses

Long Span Roof

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Long Span Beams

Types of long span beams include parallel beam approach, composite beams with web
openings, cellular composite beams, tapered girders and haunched composite beams.

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Long Span Trusses

A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements. The

most common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors and internal
loading such as services and suspended ceilings, are readily provided.

Types of long span trusses include pratt truss, warren truss, north light truss, saw tooth truss
and fink truss.

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Long Span Roof Structures

Long span roofs are generally defined as those that exceed 12 m in span.

Long span roofs can create flexible, column-free internal spaces and can
reduce substructure costs and construction times.

They are commonly found in a wide range of building types such as factories, warehouses,
agricultural buildings, hangars, large shops, public halls, gymnasiums and arenas.

Types of long span roof structures include tensile structures, folded plates, dome structures,
shell structures and portal frames.

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Portal Frames

• Portal frames were first developed during the Second World War and became popular in the
1960s. They are now commonly used to create wide-span enclosures such as; warehouses,
agricultural buildings, hangars, entertainment and sport venues, factories, large retail units, and
so on, where a clear space is required uninterrupted by intermediary columns.

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Domes Structure
• Dome, in architecture, hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, usually forming
a ceiling or roof.

• Domes first appeared as solid mounds and in techniques adaptable only to the smallest buildings,
such as round huts and tombs in the ancient Middle East, India, and the Mediterranean. The
Romans introduced the large-scale masonry hemisphere.

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Shell Structure
• Shell structure, in building construction, a thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit applied
forces by compressive, tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane of the surface.

• Shell construction began in the 1920s; the shell emerged as a major long-span concrete structure
after World War II. Thin parabolic shell vaults stiffened with ribs have been built with spans up to
about 300 ft (90 m).

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Folded Plate
• Folded plate structures are assemblies of flat plates, or slabs, inclined in different directions and
joined along their longitudinal edges.

• In this way the structural system can carry loads without the need for additional
supporting beams along mutual edges.

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Tensile Structures
• Tensioned membrane structures (aka tensile fabric structures) are dynamic types of modern
architecture that are celebrated for their incredible versatility.

• The types of applications for tensioned membrane structures are only limited by the architect or
designer’s imagination. Advanced fabric options such as PTFE-coated fiberglass or PVC
membrane, unique styles and shapes, and a variety of frame finishes make the possibilities seem
endless.

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Construction Consideration
The most appropriate form of structures will depend upon:-

• Functional requirement / type of building

• Spans to be covered
• Internal height of the building
• Material used
• Lighting requirement
• Speed of construction
• Nature and magnitude of loads
• Accommodation of services
• Aesthetic consideration
• Foundation conditions

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Problems

Some of the key questions a designer should find answers to as outlined by Ruby (2007) are:

• What is the loading trajectory for the structural system to be developed?

• How can the productive use of the structural members in terms of span, size, quantity of shop pieces and
constructability be optimized?
• How can the bracing system determined from a structural perspective be efficiently incorporated into the initial
architectural layout?
• How can shop fabrication be efficiently utilized to reduce haulage cost, if it will be shipped and not field-built?
• What will be most effective construction flow order?
• At what strategic locations would ephemeral bracings be placed while construction and erection is still in progress?
• How will the determined construction flow order be applied to minimize the use of temporary props for truss
during erection?

All these questions, carefully evaluated will guide the designer in preparing functional designs which
can easily be integrated in the construction and erection process to achieve the best results at
reduced overall costs with prompt project delivery.

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Long Span Roof Structures

• A roof, which is the one of the most essential parts of a building, is the covering on the
uppermost part of the building that protects the building and its contents from the effects of
weather i.e. rainfall, heat, sunlight, cold and wind depending on the nature and intended
design of the building.

• The span of a roof is a major consideration amongst other factors including functional
requirements and considerations of speed and economy of erection.

• This can be classified in relative terms as short (up to 7.5m), medium (7.5 m - 25m) and long-
span (over 25m).

• Types of long span roof structures are:-

- Portal Frame
- Domes Structure
- Shell Structure
- Folded Plate
- Tensile Structure

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Portal Frame
• Portal frames were first developed during the Second World War and became popular in the
1960’s.

• They are now commonly used to create wide-span enclosures, where a clear space is required
uninterrupted by intermediary column.

• They are originally used because of their structural efficiency – meaning that large spaces could
be enclosed with little use of materials for a low cost.

• They tend to be lightweight and can be fabricated off site, then bolted to a substructure.

• The portal frames themselves may be left exposed to the internal space and if carefully
designed, can be very beautiful.

• Materials used for portal frame is steel or steel reinforced precast concrete, although can also
be constructed using GLULAM.

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• Types of Portal Frame

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• Components of Portal Frame

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Domes Structure

• A dome is created from multiple arches or vaults, which are connected in a symmetrical
manner to form a sound structural entity. Dome bases are usually circular but may exhibit
other shapes.

• Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have been
constructed from mud, snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic over the
centuries.

• A dome can be considered a three-dimension arch form.

• A dome is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere.

• Many old buildings such as the Blue Mosque, the Sistine Chapel and the Pantheon use the
dome as the roof.

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 • Types of Domes Structure

RIBBED

This dome type can be said to be an innovation of the rigid frame. We can see it as a three-dimensional form of
the rigid arch frame.

The ribbed dome structure consists of arrangement of rib members on a ring beam support that converges on
either a crown connector or crown compression ring.

The ring beam support is needed to prevent splaying of the rib members.

Columns or load bearing walls support the ring beam.

The rib members are constructed of hot rolled steel sections or cold rolled
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 • This dome type is innovated from the flat grid roof types.

• The grid framework is curved to provide the dome shape.

• A ring beam is provided at the base of the dome for transfer

the loads of the beam to supporting columns, walls or the
foundations.

• The dome can either be a single layer or double layer grid

structure. The type of grid can be either a lattice grid or a
space grid.
GRID

• A roof cover membrane (steel sheet, geotextiles, fiberglass

polyesther, ceramic panels) is attached to either purlins fixed
on the grid members or tied to the grid members.

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 LAMELLA

The lamella dome is a type of grid roof. At first sight, the lamella dome structure looks like a grid dome.

However, grid dome systems will use connector components for assembling the longitudinal grid components
together.

The lamella longitudinal members are joined together without using connector components.

Its connections are generally pin jointed.

The grid network has a diamond or rhombus or triangular grid pattern.

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 • This is a grid roof. It looks like lamella and grid domes but the difference lies
in the configuration of the grid lines.

• The grid lines follow the pattern of points of the intersecting geodesic lines
on the dome.

• A geodesic line is defined as a line that circumvents the surface of a

sphere.

• The points where geodesic lines crisscross each other are called geodesic
points.

• The members of geodesic frame are not geodesic, but the positions of
GEODESIC their connections are geodesic.

• The grid members are either double or single layered.

• The members in a geodesic dome are joined together without using

connector components.

• The connections are generally pin jointed.

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Shell Structure

• A shell structure is a thin curved membrane or slab usually made up of reinforced concrete,
which can function both as a roof covering and structure.

• Shell roofs typically composed of concrete panels curved, cylindrically or spherically to achieve
greater strength.

• Shell roof is basically the modification of a pitched roof and covers large areas of the building.

• Moreover, shell roof is three-dimensional structures consisting of thin membrane slabs, curved
in one or more directions which transfer the loads on points of support, i.e. columns, beams,
walls etc.

• Shell roofs are built with several materials such as in situ reinforced concrete, timber, steel
sheets, ceramics, glass, plastics, hard board, lattice and composite structure etc.

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• Shells belong to the family of arches .

• They can be defined as curved or angled structures capable of transmitting loads in more than
two directions to supports.

• A shell with one curved surface is known as a vault (single curvature).

• A shell with doubly curved surface is known as a dome (double curvature).

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• Single Curvature
Long Span Barrel vault • Act primarily as a ‘beam’, the span of which is the length of the vault.

• The shell constitutes the compression member, and the edge beams the
tension members or flanges.

• The maximum economic span is about 30 to 45m and the width usually not
more than 15m.

• The radius of curvature of the shell increases as the span and , therefore the
width increases.

• For spans from 15 to 30m a radius of 9m, and for more than 30m a radius of
12m.

Short Span Barrel Vault

• Used when the clear span is beyond the practicable and economic limits of a
long span barrel.

• End frames in the form of arch ribs, rigid frames or bow string, are usually
spaced 9 to 12m apart, sometimes up to 18m

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• Double Curvature

• Is either part of the sphere or a hyperboloid of revolution. The

term single or double does not represent a precise geometric.

• Three dimensional geometrical surfaces.

• The term single or double represent to distinguish rigidity of the

two forms and complexity of centering necessary to construct
the shell form.

• May be considered as a series of arches and suspension cables

intersecting each other at right angles.

• Type of form usually used:

➢ Hyperbolic paraboloid
➢ Saddle shaped form

• This type of surface has greater resistance to buckling than

dome forms because of its shape.

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Folded Plate
• Folded plate structures are assemblies of flat
plates, or slabs, inclined in different directions
and joined along their longitudinal edges.

• In this way the structural system can carry

loads without the need for additional supporting
beams along mutual edges.

• This technique originated in Germany in the

1920s and became popular in Russia and the
United States during the 1930s to construct
roofs for industrial warehouses and public
buildings.

• Modern folded plate structures are typically

made of cast in situ or precast reinforced
concrete, or steel plate.
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• Shapes and forms of Folded Plate

Prismatic: Rectangular Plates Pyramidal: Non-Rectangular Plates Prismoidal: Triangular Plates

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Tensile Structures

• A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying only tension and no compression or bending. The
term tensile should not be confused with tensegrity, which is a structural form with both tension and
compression elements. Tensile structures are the most common type of thin-shell structures.

• Tensile structure is the term usually used to refer to the construction of roofs using a membrane held in
place on steel cables. Their main characteristics are the way in which they work under stress tensile, their
ease of pre-fabrication, their ability to cover large spans, and their malleability.

• These structures are also known as cable net structures.

• Such a structure consists of a set of catenary cables suspended from supporting members and secured by (i)
guys, (ii) anchor elements, (iii) compression rings, or (iv) compression arches.

• These cables support a light-weight roof covering material (such as fabric, polycarbonate plastic, lightweight
ceramic tiles etc.).

• The span can be up to 260 metres as in the case of the Georgia Dome.

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• Types of Tensile Structures
To prevent wind flutter due to light-weight
covering material, the principal cable system is
prestressed by one of these methods:-
• Doubly curved system of cables in which the main
cables are prestressed by another set of cables at
right angles. (See the Calgary Saddle Dome,
Canada, span of 135 m)
• Bracing ties which tension the two cables in
concave form (See Sokoto Sport Arena, Nigeria,
span of 71 m)
• Spreaders that tension the two cables in convex
form.
• Compression struts that are connected by the
cables to form a flat or dome structure. Structures
using this method are known as the tensegrity
Suspension Structure structures. The Georgia Dome in Atlanta, U.S.A. has
a tensegrity roof with a span of 840 feet (approx
260 m).
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• Another name for these structures is air
stabilised structures.

• The roof consists of a thin flexible

membrane stabilised by pressured air.

• Air pressure induces tensile stresses in

the membrane thus enabling it to
support loads.

• The air pressure must be enough to

prevent compressive stresses
developing in the membrane such that
the membrane will tear.

• There are two types:-

Pneumatic Structure
✓ Air supported structure
✓ Air inflated structure
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Air Supported Structures

• This consists of a membrane which encloses a space by using air pressure.

• The membrane is supported by air pressure which is slightly above atmospheric pressure.

• Adequate anchorages for membrane must be provided to counteract uplift forces.

• Air pressure loss through access openings is further minimised by using either air locks or air curtains.

• The stresses experienced by the membrane are reduced by subdividing the area of membrane into smaller elements
which has smaller radius of curvatures.

• These smaller membrane ‘elements’ have smaller radius of curvature and thus experience less membrane stress.

• The subdivision of the membrane into smaller elements can be obtained by using cables or a cable network which form
grooves in the inflated membrane.

• Another way is to create indents in the membrane by using either internal membrane walls that are anchored to the
ground or vertical cable ties that are anchored to the ground and the membrane.

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Air Inflated Structures
• Other names for this second type of pneumatic structures are the pneumatic frame and the air prestressed tube.

• This structure consists of tubes or double membrane elements which are inflated with high pressure.

• These inflated tubes or double membrane elements form stiff structural members such as arches, beams, columns and
walls which are capable of transferring load to their points of support.

• A fan blower must be used to supplement air because there is air loss through membrane material.

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Silver Dome, U.S.A uses a cable reinforced air inflated
membrane roof
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• Cable-stayed roof structures used inclined cables
for support flat or slightly domed roofs.

• These cables are attached to one or more

towers.

• In some roofs, the cables run over one or more

towers to anchorages in the ground.

• The ground anchorages may be either heavy

ballasts or anchored piles.

• A tower can support roof deck spans of 25

metres.

• The cables (stays) of a cable-stayed structure are

in tension and carry the dead load and any live Cable-Stayed Roof Structure
load of the roof

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• The dome is 320 m in diameter and 50 m high at its
centre.

• The fabric structure is suspended from twelve 100 m

high steel masts, held on a net of more than 70 km of
high strength steel cable.

• The roof fabric is self-cleaning PTFE-coated glass fiber

with a minimum life of 25 years, which can be renewed
in sections if necessary.

• A two-layer fabric provides insulation to prevent

condensation.

• Tensioned steel cables are arranged radially on the

surface and held in place at the nodes by hanger and
tie-down cables at 25 m intervals.

• The 24 concrete anchor blocks positioned round the

perimeter of the dome resist the upwards pull of the
radial cables.

• The foundations of each anchor extend over 24 m into

the ground.

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 • These structures are also called Tensile Membrane
Structures.

• The roof structure consist of a fabric (membrane)

that is prestressed from a central column support
(mast) to either supplementary mast supports and
then to its anchored edges or directly to its
anchorage points.

• The effect makes the fabric behave as a membrane

in tension.

• The main construction problem of tent structures is

to obtain the desired pre-stress level into all areas
of the fabric surface.

• The span can be as much as 12 metres from mast to

Tent Structure anchorage.

• There are several types of tent structures:-

✓ Fabric tent
✓ Cable reinforced
Thefabric
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Long Span Beams

• The use of long span beams results in a range of benefits; including flexible, column-free internal spaces,
reduced foundation costs and reduced steel erection times.

• Many long span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate the integration of services without increasing
the overall floor depth.

• Types of long span beams are:-

- Parallel Beam Approach
- Composite Beams with Web Openings
- Cellular Composite Beams
- Tapered Girders
- Haunched Composite Beams

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Parallel Beam Approach

• The parallel beam approach is effective for spans around 20 meters.

• Floor grids comprise two layers of fully continuous beams running in orthogonal directions.

• Services running in either direction can be integrated within these two layers; so that services passing in
any direction can be accommodated within the structural floor depth.

• A further benefit is that, being fully continuous, the depth of the beams themselves is reduced without
incurring the expense and complexity of rigid, full strength connections.

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Composite Beam with Web Openings

• Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow services to pass through the beam.

• This enables the structural and service zones to occupy the same space, thereby reducing the effective
overall depth of floor construction for a given spanning capability.

• Openings may also be formed for aesthetic reasons, for instance with cambered beams used to support
a roof.

• Composite beams with web openings have been shown to be a cost-effective solution for spans in the
range of 15 – 30 meters.

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Cellular Composite Beam

• Cellular beams are a form of beam with multiple regular web openings, formed by splitting two rolled
sections longitudinally, to form two Tee sections.

• The Two tees, which may not come from the same donor section are then welded together to form an I-
section with web openings which have a characteristic shape (normally, but not necessarily, circular).

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Tapered Girders

• Tapered girders can be a cost-effective solution in the range of 15 to 25 meters.

• They are another solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural floor zone.

• The depth of the girder increases towards mid-span, where applied moments are greatest, and thereby
facilitating hanging services under the shallower regions near the beam supports.

• It is also possible to form web openings in tapered girders in regions of low shear, towards mid-span.

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Haunched Composite Beams

• Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to provide moment continuity.

• The stiffness and strength of the connections mean that the rest of the span can be shallower
(the bending moment diagram is ‘lifted’ and the effective stiffness of the beam substantially
increased), and services passed under it.

• In buildings where the services are likely to need frequent replacement (e.g in hospitals),
hanging the services under the beams rather than passing them through holes in the webs, or
through a truss, can be advantageous.

• Spans in excess of 20 to 30 meters can readily be achieved.

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Long Span Trusses

• A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements.

• The most common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors and internal loadings
such as services and suspended ceilings, are readily provided.

• The main reasons for using trusses are long span, lightweight, reduced deflection and opportunity to
support considerable loads.

• Types of long span beams are:-

- Pratt Truss
- Warren Truss
- North Light Truss
- Saw Tooth Truss
- Fink Truss

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Pratt Truss

• Prat trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 75 meters in span.

• In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads. This type of
truss is used where gravity loads are predominant.

• An alternative Pratt truss is shown where the diagonal members are in tension for uplift
loads. This type of truss is used where uplift loads are predominant, which may be the case in
open buildings such as aircraft hangers.

• It is also possible to add secondary members to:-

- Create immediate support points for applied loads
- Limit the buckling length of members in compression

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Pratt truss – gravity loads

Pratt truss – uplift loads

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Warren Truss

• In this type of truss, diagonal members are alternatively in tension and in compression.

• The Warren truss has equal length compression and tension web members, and fewer members than a
Pratt truss.

• A modified Warren truss may be adopted where additional members are introduced to provide a node
at, for example, purlin locations.

• Warren trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 meters in span.

• This type of truss is also used for the horizontal truss of gantry or crane girders.

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North Light Truss

• North light trusses are traditionally used for short span in industrial workshop-type buildings.

• They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use of glazing on the steeper pitch
which generally faces north or north-east to reduce solar gain.

• On the steeper sloping portion of the truss, it is typical to have a truss running perpendicular to the
plane of the North Light truss, to provide large column-free spaces.

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Fink Truss

• The Fink truss offers economy in terms of steel weight for short-span high-pitched roofs as the members
are subdivided into shorter elements.

• There are many ways of arranging and subdividing the chords and internal members.

• This type of truss is commonly used to construct roofs in houses.

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General Geometry
• For efficient structural performance, the ratio of span to truss depth should be chosen in the range of 10
to 15 meters.

• The architectural design of the building determines its external geometry and governs the slope given to
the chord of the truss.

• The intended use of the internal space can lead either to the choice of a horizontal bottom chord.

• For an efficient layout of the truss members between the chords, the following is advisable:-
- The inclination of the diagonal members in relation to the chords should be between 35° to
55°
- Point loads should only be applied at nodes
- The orientation of the diagonal members should be such that the longest members are
subject to tension (the shorter ones being subject to compression)

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Types of Truss Member Sections

• Choice of members depends on the magnitude of the internal forces, ease of connections between
members, aesthetics and any necessity to connect prefabricated truss sections on site.

• When selecting members, the out-of-plane buckling resistance will be important, together with
resistance under reversed loading, for example, uplift.

• For large trusses and heavy loads, typically found in transfer trusses in buildings, members may be rolled
sections.

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Types of Connections

• For all types of member sections, it is possible to design either bolted or welded connections.

• Generally, in steelwork construction, bolted site splices are preferred to welded splices for
economy and speed of erection.

• Where bolted connections are used, it is necessary to evaluate the consequences of ‘slack’ in
connections.

• In order to reduce these consequences (typically, the increase of the deflections), solutions are
available such as use of preloaded bolts.

• Hollow sections are typically connected by welding whilst open sections are connected by
bolting or welding, which will usually involve the use of gusset plates.

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