CONTENTS ie ha omeanens sa TIVITY NOS a wire fora steady caren ] draw the dagram of aveh apa comprising at festa bates rvmeter and voltmeter Mat ans that are nok conned ‘der ord correct the ciel an seram. SECTION 2B ow + SxPERIMENTNO.A To find the value 6Fy fo incase ofa concave mitts Focal Henge. sons EXPERIMENTNO,2 “ofnd the focal enh _ sing 9 conver eon EXPERIMENTNNO, 3 — Toi the fea into a voltmeter ter (of known ert into arr ammeter ge and to verify the same off eerenaene10 he frequency of the a. mains with & covert measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with oF without iron CO ACTIVITYNO. 2Ae) EXPERIMENT NO. £ tion di e@ EXPERIMENT ACTIVITY yy (a) Iden, (b)EXPERIMENT NO. 1 Aim ‘To determine resistance per em of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current Apparatus Required A resistance wire, a voltmeter (0 — 3) V, an ammeter ’ (0-3) A, a battery, a rheostat, a meter scale, one way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. Simple Theory ‘Ohm's Law : If be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's law the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential differ- ‘ence across its ends, provided the physical conditions which are temperature, dimensions and pressure of the conduc tor remains the same. If be the current flowing through ‘a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then it can be written as Val = V=RI Where, Ris the constant of proportionality. It is also known as resistance of the conductor. Resistance : Resistance of a given wire is the opposi- tion to the flow of current offered by the wire when con- nected across a source of potential difference. It is a scalar quantity. ve 7 aR ‘The SI unit of potential difference V is volt and of the current | is ampere. The resistance Ris measured in ohm. ‘Since, the resistance R depends upon the material and dimensions of the conductor, so, for a wire of uniform cross- section, the resistance depends on the length ‘’ and the ‘area of cross-section ‘A’ ofthe wire. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. ‘Ata given temperature the resistance of a wire is, 1 R=0q ‘Where, ‘p'is the specific resistance or resistivity of .e material of wire, SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter ). On combining both the equations, we have From the equation, we can say that there is a linear relationship between V andl. Therefore, a graph between. straight line. the potential difference (V) and the current (I) must be a Potential Gradient : Potential grag magnitude of the electric field (E) develope ductor through which charges flow. It is ax and is measured in Qm* : lent gi ‘fv ed in the calor qua, tl ‘The constant, resistance per unit le tor, gives the valle ofthe potential gradien, Pepa T fa eo of the gle Wire Diagram Battery se Rheostat S Unknown resistance R wie Procedure 1. Connect the components like-resistance, rh battery, key, voltmeter and ammeter ay give the arrangement diagram, sven 2, Clean the ends of the connecting wires w fig of sand paper ia oder ina ag coating on them. ating. 3. Make neat, clean and tight connections acey to the circuit diagram Ensure that positive marked terminals of v tar ead amucter ae joined iowa a terminal of the battery. % Determine the least count of the voltmeter and ammeter by reading the maximum value marked on the scale of the meter (x) and counting the total ‘number of divisions on the scale (iN). Then dividex by N. 6, Note the zero error, if any. If theve is any zero error, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mar by adjusting the screw provided near the base of the needle using a screw driver. 7, Insertthe plugin the key and ensure that the point orsin meters deflect in clockwise directions, Ifitis not so then reverse the connections at the termi- nal of the meter. . Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends like 20cm so that the cur: ding rent passing through the resistance wire is mini mum, Note down the readings of the potential dif ference “V” from voltmeter and current “I” from ammeter in the table.©. The key K is removed and the wire is allowed to cool for fow minutes, if it is heated 10. Again, insort the key and shift. the rheostat con- tact like at 40 cm to further increase the applied voltage. Note down the readings of the poter difference “V" from voltmeter and current “I from. ammeter in the table Observations 1. Range Range of the given ammeter = Range of the given voltmeter Least count of ammete Least count of voltmeter = Zero error of ammeter, e; Zero error of voltmeter, e; Zero connection of ammeter, ¢1 Zero connection of voltmeter, ¢ Length of the given wire, 2, Least count 3. Zero error 4, Zero connection Tabulation of Given Wire SECTION As EXPERIMENTS | 13 11. Repeat the above steps for three different settings of the rheostat contact at 60cm, Oem and 100em ‘and then record the observations in the table. 12. Plot a graph between potential gradient and am- meter readings by taking potential gradient on the X-axis and ammeter reading on the Y-axis mA to ...mA mV to ...mV mA mV mV Patel ‘Ammeter Reading, I (A) Voltmeter Reading, V (V) f S.No. | Observed Corrected Observed Corrected 7 =R (Ohm) | Reading Ty | ReadingT=Zorer | Reading Vo | Reading V=Vo+ es af a i ines | 3. | 4 | 5 a The potential versus current graph for the given wire is shown in the figure below. It is a straight line passing through the origin. y 2 A 2 t 8 0 + vivoit) is Calculations Mean value of the resistance, R ohm Length of the wire, Us em Potential gradient RL Qcem Percentage Error Standard value of potential gradient as noted from the SWG data table = Q em? Measured value of potential gradient as calculated above = Qem? Errors in measurement= Measured value ~ Standard valu emt Result Precautions Errors in measurement 5 y99, Standard value % Percentage error = 1, The potential gradient versus current graph for the given wire is a straight line. 2. The resistance per unit length of the given wire is Qemt 1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series with the circuit, 2. It should be ensured that current enters at the | positive terminal and leaves at the negative termi- nal, 8, Insert the key in the plug only when the observa- tions are taken to prevent unnecessary heating of the wire due to excessive flow of current. 4, Zoro errors in measuring instruments like-volt- meter and ammeter must be taken in consider- ation and should be eliminated by adjusting the pointer with the help of the screw. 5. Check that the connections are not loose. 6, Ensure that short circuiting does not take place and excessive current is not drawn from the bat- tery.14 | LAB MANUALPHYSICS CLASS XI Sources of Error 1, The wire used may not be of uniform cross-sec- tion 2 Connections may not be tight or contact resistance may vary 3, There can be fault in the calibrations of rey 4, There may be some personal errors, eter, 6, Zero adjustments might not be proper 6. Rheostat may have high resistance, VIVA VOCE BASED ON EXPERIMENT 1, On what factors do the resistance per unit length of a wire depends? Resistance per unit length of a wire depends upon a) Resistivity of the material of the wire. (b) Area of cross section of the wire. 2, If the radius of the wire is tripled, how will the resistance per unit length change? ‘Ans, Resistance per unit length will be 1/9" the value of resistance of thinner wire. 3, Is the resistance per unit length of a wire con- stant? Yes, it is constant. The condition is that the wire should be of uniform cross-section and made of ho- mogenous material. 4, Name the law that you applied to determine the resistance of the given wire. ‘Ans. The law that is applied to determine the resistance of the given wire is Ohm's law. 5. State the Ohm's law. Ans. Ans. Ohm's law states that the current flowing thr conductors directly proportional tothe potenti ference across its end provided the physical oy © tions, which are-temperature, dimensions and sure of the conductor, remains the same 6, Is Ohm’s law a universal law ? ‘ans, No, the Ohm's law is applicable for conductors that too for moderate values of potential dif 7. What is the name given to circuit elem which do not obey Ohm's law? ‘The name given to circuit elements which do ng obey Ohm’s law are Non-obmic resistance. 8. Give a few examples of non-ohmie resistors, ‘Ans. Few examples of non-ohmie resistors are pn june tion diode, thyristors and sugar solutions. 9, Which has a higher resistance : thick wire o thin wire of the same material having the same length? ‘Ans. Thin wire has a higher resistance. Ans. only tents Ans. EXPERIMENT NO. 2 Aim To find the resistance of a given wire using Meter bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of its material Apparatus Required ‘A meter bridge, a Daniel cell, a galvanometer, a resis- tance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece ofsand paper. 4 Theory The figure shows a Wheatstone bridge in which four resistances A, B, C, D are arranged as shown. The Daniel cell is connected between A and C with thehelp of akey. A galvanometer and a key are also placed between the con- nections B and D. When both the keys are switched ‘ON’ the current starts flowing through the circuit and galvanometer shows deflection. Adjust the resistance R such that there is no deflection in the galvanometer. At this point, when there is no deflection in the galvanometer it means that resis- tance B and D are at the same potential and the bridge is balanced. Due to this, the current through the arms AB and BC is same and in the arms AD and DC is also the same. Let the current through AB is the current through ‘BC that is I; and the current through AD is current through DC thatis I ‘The potentials at point A, B, C and D are Va, Va, Ve and Vp respectively. ‘Then on applying Ohm's law in Wheatstone bridge, we get, Va-Ve =Va-Vp = LP. > i) D {t ae Key On dividing both the equations, we get. pee 1,Q = 18 oh eeRi R = a°s This relation holds good when the bridge is balanced. A meter bridge is practical form of Wheatstone bridge in which an unknown resistance of given material of wire is placed in place of resistance S. (A) So to find the resistance of a given wire, with un- known resistance S, above derived relation is used. oe a DR where,R = Known-resistance placed in left gap X= unknown resistance placed in right gap. J= length of the meter bridge from zero end on left upto balance point. (B) Now let L be the length of the wire whose resis- tance needs to be found and D its diameter, then Resistance ~ ResistivityLength Area pxL _ 4pL x == ey =D” 2 xD*X aT On putting the value of X, specific resistance or resis- tivity can be calculated. Diagram Known resistance — Unknown resistance q (100-1) — K E 1 Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator) Observations (A) For unknown resistance Procedure SECTION A: EXPERIMENTS | 15 A. To find the resistance of the wire 1, Clean the connecting wires using sand paper. 2, Arrange the apparatus as shown in the circuit dia~ gram. 3, Connect the unknown resistance wire in right gap between B and C. 4, Connect the resistance box in left gap between A and B and take out resistance (say 2 Ohm) 5, Touch the jockey gently first at left end that is point A and then at right end thatiis at point C. At point C, deflection should be on the other side. If not, then direct your connections and rectify the fault, 6. Move the jockey slightly from end A towards the end C and note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is the null point A or the balance point. 7. Note the length AD and call it as ‘’, remaining, Iength DC will be 1002. Using the formula : (100-2) 7 xR and putting the value of/ and R, find the value of x 8. Repeat the steps 4 to 7, three more times to find the value of X. Fill in the table. B. To find the specific resistance of the wire: 1, Remove the wire from the meter bridge. 2, Note the length of the given wire, L using ordi- nary scale, 3, Note the diameter of the wire, D using screw gauge to at least four places of decimal. 4, Record your observations as given in the table. Balancing length AD =1 Resistance of wire (Ohm) Value of known| (100-2) S.No.| resistance [Increasing | Decreasing | Mean/ (cm) 00-2) -R (Ohm), - | + (em) (em) (em) = ai 1. 2 3. Mean X = Ohm (B) For diameter of wire Number of rotations given Distance moved on the vertical scale, d16 | LAB MANUAL PHYSIC Pitch = Number of divisions of circular scale = Number of a frotations given mm Pitch DC ee mm Least count = ober of divisions of circular scale Zoro orror of serew gauge = : Main scale reading Circular scale ysnx least Diameter x (mm) reading, n ‘count (mm) D= (+9) (mm) lL 2. 3. Mean diameter, D Calculations Precautions Length of the em 1. ‘The connections should be-clean, neat and tigh, az 2, Putall the plugs in the resistance box tightly, ee 3, Rub the jockey gently on the wire. 4. Key should not be plugged in for a long, Be 5. Wires should not make a loop. a oe 6. Hold the jockey prependicularto the wire ofmetey Standard value from table: Ohm-cm Error = Actual value— Calculated value Error 00) ‘Actual value Error % Result 1.The resistance of given wire is........Ohm. 2.The specific resistance of given wire is.......Ohm-cm VIVA VOCE BASED 1. How do you define resistivity or specific resis- tance ofa wire ? Ans. Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a meter long wire and having an area of cross section 1 m*. 2. On what factors does resistivity of material depends? Ans. It depends on the © material of the wire. © length of the material © cross sectional area, 3. What is the relation between resistivity, p and conductivity o? Ans. The relation between resistivity, p and conductivity ois, peeled conductivity (o) Resistivity, p = bridge Sources of Errors Instrument screw may be loose. Plugs may not be clean. Wire may not have uniform thickness, Screw gauge might have instrumental error, Keys of the resistance box may not be clean and tight. ON EXPERIMENT sees 100-1 4, Draw a graph between and X, 100 100 - Ans. The graph between —— aa taken on the Y-axis and X is taken on the Xx looks like this. and X, where x 5. Why it is called meter bridge ? Ans. Meter bridge is called so, as it uses the one m long wire.SECTION A: EXPERIMENTS | 17 EXPERIMENT NO. 3 Aim To verify the law of combination (series) of resistances using a Meter bridge. Apparatus Required A meter bridge, a Leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wire or two re- sistance coils of known resistance, a set square, sand pa- per and connecting wires, Theory (A) In series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end, In this, the current goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the same current. There is only one way of current flow. The potential difference across different resistors is different. Let, I be the current through each resistor of resistances R and Ry and Vj; and V2 be the potential differences across each resistor. Then, and | aes where, Rs is the effective resistance of the com- bination. Substituting these values, we get IRs = IR, +1Rp = Rg = Ry +Ry For three resistors, we get > Rs =R, + Ry + Ry (B) Ina Wheatstone bridge, we get iD eens) This relation holds good when the bridge is bal- anced. eee : : So, to find the resistance of a given wire with unknown resistance S, above derived relation is used. (100-2) K 1 R where R= known resistance placed in left gap. X= unknown resistance placed in right gap. 1= length of the meter bridge from zero end on left upto balance point. 8 re Q A Cc Ls R Ss D i; #1 Key Diagram E sif= kK | yf fh Ns. tuto 3020.30. 40. 50 Go 70, 0. 90 109 a jeliselda Pe! ‘ Procedure 1, Mark the two resistance coils as ry and rp. 2. Connect ry resistance coil. 3, Connect the resistance box in left gap between A and B and take opt resistance (say 2 Ohm). 4, Touch the jockey gently first at left end that is point A and then at right end that is at point C. At point G, deflection should be on other side. If not, then direct your connections and rectify the fault. 5. Move the jockey slightly from end A towards the end C and note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is the null point or the balance point and is represented by symbol ‘D’. 6. Note the length AD and call it as‘?’remaining length DC will be 100 —/. Using the formula: Xs ae dD ar) and putting the value of / and R, find the value of X 7. Repeat the steps two more times and record your observations in the table. 8. Replace r; resistance with r2 resistance and re- peat steps 2 and 3. Now connect r; and rp in series as shown in the circuit diagram. 10, Record your observations as given in the table. Age.)40 | UND RAL PHYFICS CLASS Ht Observation + - 1 [100-1] Resin Tosistance| Value of known Bale oH tem sistance of &No. co | eststance | increasing Decreasing | Mens xo(libe ROhm) | (om) ae ® | | | ' ney | | | : sil a i T | | ryonly | | basal ad ra aoa | 2 ry and ry 8 | : {in series Verification 9, Putall the plugs in the resistance box tightly py P92 nem, OM + sonene ORM 4. Rub the jockey gently over the wire, 9 strneemte a 4k. Key should not be plugged for along. Monn r= Ohm 5. Wires should not make a loop. Result 6. Hold the jockey perpendicular tothe wire bridge. Sinco r, © ry +r within limits of experimental error, jaw ofsorios combination of resistances is ver Sources of Error therefore, 1, Instrument screw may be loose, fied. Precautions 2, Plugs may not be clean. form thi 1. The connections should be clean, neat and tight. 3, Wire may not have uniform thickness. 4, Serew gauge might have instrumental error. VIVA VOCE BASED ON EXPERIMENT 4. What is the principle of working of Meter 4, Why is Meter bridge called so? ‘Ans. Meter bridge is called so as it has one meter bridge. wire, fans, Motor Bridge is based on the principle of Wheatstone 5, What js the balanced condition of Wheats! _ bridge? 2%. Do we make a coil of wire when finding resis- Ans, The necessary condition for balanced condition tance of wire through Meter bridge. Wheatstone bridge is : ‘Ans. No, the wire is stretched and fixed on the terminals Be dB whon finding the resistance of wire through Meter Qrs ic 6, Where is the standard null point of Met . bridge? 4, What is effective resistance of resistances of 3 ra oer a le " ofresistances 0f39, ang. 50 cm is the standard null point of Meter bridge: vio e oe 7. Whatis the effect of temperature on resistan' Ans. Ry = 30, Ry = 20, Ry = 10 of a conductor ? Ny © Ry + Ry + Ry= 32+20+1N=6 Ans, With the increaso in temperature, the resistance ‘a conductor also increases,‘1. What purpose is served by varying the poten: tial gradient? A lower potential gradiont gives more length of wire ‘upto null point, Tt also increases the accuracy 2. On what factors does the potential gradient depends? Ans. Ans. Since, a So, potential gradient directly depends on the Strength of the current (I) and resistance per cm of the wire (P)and indirectly depends on the wire area of the cross section, Why don't we use a copper wire as a potenti- ometer wire? ‘We don’t use copper wire as it has a high tempera- ture coefficient of resistance and low resistivity. Ans. EXPERIMENT NO. 7 Aim ‘To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit. Apparatus Required A galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, two resistance boxes (200 @ and 10,000 2), two one way keys, a screw gauge, a rheostat, a meter scale, an ammeter, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. Theory A galvanometer has moderate resistance of approxi- mately 100 Q and very small current carrying capacity approximately 1 mA. Thus, it is used to detect small cur- rent in a circuit, The coil pivoted in a radial magnetic field gets deflected when electric current passes through it which is noted by the pointer attached to the coil. The deflection is proportional to the current passing through it, The re- sistance can be found by using the half deflection method. {urrent in the circuit, then a VIVA VOCE BASED ON EXPERIMENT 4, Which materials can be u: tontiomoter wire? ad Making Ans. Materials such as alloys of manganin, be used for making potentiometer wing tan 5. Determine specific resistance of poten wire material. Ans. Since the resistance of wire is given by So, ‘This is the formula to determine the specig, tance of potentiometer wire. e 1=Ko Now, Total circuit resistance = R+G So, Vv=IR 21S On comparing both the equations; | *@ E ReG Now, insert the key Ky and adjust the shunt tance S. When this is done the deflection is reduced @ thus becomes > Such that, total resistance of the circuit eics ars The current I will be Vee ria en Cs! Ges > I AE v If Ig = current through the galvanometer, then s =I. aol Ges Putting the value of I, we get s & *Gs8 R+ Ges___ES R(G+S)+6S5 Since this current produces a deflection 3 1, = Ko 8 s Ko eS Such that ES R(G+S)+GS~— 2 From equation (i), we have iy nw pS olR+G) = RG+9)+68 On solving, we get G RS R-S Where, R =resistance connected in series with the galvanom- eter $ = shunt resistance G = resistance of given galvanometer as found by half deflection method (B) Figure of merit, K is defined as the current re- quired for producing deflection of 1 division. It is mea- sured in amp/division when a high resistance R is taken out of a resistance box, there is a deflection 6 as current I flows in the circuit. This current I can be calculated using the formula E Torna Guanes SRE = Rae here, figure of merit. tential difference or EMF of the cell. R = resistance connected in series with the galvanom- eter. G = resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method. @ = deflection in the galvanometer. (© The maximum current I,, that can pass through the galvanometer is i, =nK where, N =total number of division on the galvanometer scale on either side of the zero. K = figure of merit. Diagram To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half- deflection method and to find its figure of merit. SECTION A EXPERIMENTS | 25 € % Resistance of galvanometer E si) re R ‘ 1G) Figure of merit Procedure (A)Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method. 1, Clean the terminals ofthe connecting wires using sand paper and make the connections as shown in the cir cuit diagram. 2. Ensure that all the plugs of the resistant box are tight. 3, Take out the highest resistance (say 10,000.) from the resistance box R and insert the key Ky, 4, Adjust the value of R such that deflection in the galvanometer is maximum, even in number and within the scale, 5. Note the deflection as 8. 6. Insert the key Ky and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S such that deflection in galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 4. 7. Note the value of S, resistance. 8, Repeat steps 8 to 6 three times more by taking out different value of R and adjusting S every time, 9. Fill in the observations in the table, (B) Figure of merit : 1, Take out one cell and with the help of voltmeter, find its EMF, E. 2. Clean the connecting wires and make the connec: tions as shown in the circuit diagram, 8, Connect the positive of the voltmeter with positive ofthe cell and negative of the voltmeter with noga- tive of the cell. 4, Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection when the circuit is closed.26 | LAB MANUAL PHYSICS CLASS XI! 5. Note the value of deflection, 0 and resistance 6 Change the value of R and note the deflectior the galvanometer again, R 7. Repeat the steps 1 10 6 with bath eat tory such as 2V, AV, BV and BY, B. Find the figure of merit K using the ¢, 9. Fill in the observations in the table ; ofa op nals f deflection method ; (A) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection ts ‘S.No. Resistance | Deflection in the | Shunt resistance Half defection Galvanome; R (Ohm) | galvanomoter (0) 8 (Ohm) 1 2 3. 4 Mean value of galvanometer resistance =, (B) Figure of Merit S.No.|Numberof | EMFs ofthe | Resistance from Ce ha oe of merit Is stance box, Ke cell: cells, E(V) ret anowe aor Waiyy 1 2. 3. 4. Canin Mean value of figure of merit alculations ‘Number of divisions in galvanometer scale, n = Figure of merit of given galvanometer = ...... Aldiv. Maximum current I, = nK A Result 1. Resistance of a galvanometer is found to be Ohm. 2. Figure of merit of galvanometer i 1, What is a galvanometer? Ans. Device used to detect small current in circuit is called a galvanometer. 2. Which type of galvanometer is available in labo- ratories? ‘Ans. Laboratory galvanometer is available in laboratries. 3, Under what condition G = 8? ‘Ans. When R is very high the condition G equals to S is, ‘satisfied. 4, What is an ammeter? evice used for measuring large electric current in ‘ite is called an ammeter, VIVA VOCE BASED ON EXPERIMENT Precautions ‘All connections should be neat, clean and tight 2, Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are ti 8. Introduce high resistance from resistance box, the starting or else for a small resistance sive current will flow through the gah which can damage galvanometer or ammeter. 4, EMF of the cell should be constant. Source of Error 1, Screws of instruments may be loose. 2, Plugs of galvanometer may not be tight. 3. Galvanometer divisions may not be of same 4, EMF of the cell may not be constant. 5, Why should an ammeter have low resistan Ans. Ammeter should have low resistance so that in: ries, it does not reduce the orginal current is measured. 6. What is a voltmeter? ‘Ans. Device used to measure electrie potential di between two points in a circuit is calfed a voltm« 7. Which has more resistance ~ an ammeter voltmeter? Ans. Voltmeter has more resistance. 8. Which has more resistance - a milliamm or ammeter? Ans, Milliammeter has more resistance.