MODULE #1: Introduction to Psychology

Psychology
1. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the
psyche- or the human soul, mind, or spirit and -logia, study of, or
research.
2. Scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
3. The symbol for psychology represents the penultimate letter of the Greek
alphabet, psi, which is also the first letter of the Greek word psuche,
meaning mind or soul,2 from which the term psyche arose; which in turn
gave us the name of the discipline psychology which is most commonly
defined as study of the mind.

A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future

1. The Roots of Psychology
 5,000 BCE – Trephining used to allow the escape of evil spirits.
To allow those spirits to escape from a person’s body, ancient
healers chipped a hole in a patient’s skull with crude instruments -
a procedure called trephining.
 430 BCE – Hippocrates argues for four temperaments of personality
which are melancholic, sanguine, phlegmatic, and choleric
 1637 – Rene Descartes describes animal spirits.
 1690 – John Locke introduces idea of tabula rasa.
 1807 – Franz Josef Gall proposes phrenology.
 1879 – Wilhelm Wundt inaugurates first psychology laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany
Structuralism – Wundt’s approach, which focuses on uncovering
the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking,
and other kinds of mental states and activities.
Introspection – A procedure used to study the structure of the
mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they
are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus.
 1890 – Principles of Psychology published by William James.
 1895 – Functionalist model formulated.
Functionalism – An early approach to psychology, led by William
James, that concentrated on what the mind does – the functions of
mental activity – and the role of behavior in allowing people to
adapt to their environments.
  1900 – Sigmund Freud develops the psychodynamic perspective.
 1904 – Ivan Pavlov wins Nobel prize for work on digestion that led to
fundamental principles of learning.
 1905 – Mary Calkins works on memory.
 1915 – Strong emphasis on intelligence testing.
 1920 – Gestalt psychology becomes influential.
Gestalt Psychology - An approach to psychology that focuses on
the organization of perception and thinking in a “whole” sense
rather on the individual elements of perception.
 1924 - John B. Watson, an early behaviorist, publishes Behaviorism.
 1928 - Leta Stetter Hollingworth publishes work on adolescence.
 1951 - Carl Rogers publishes Client-Centered Therapy, helping to
establish the humanistic perspective.
 1953 - B. F. Skinner publishes Science and Human Behavior,
advocating the behavioral perspective.
 1954 - Abraham Maslow publishes Motivation and Personality,
developing the concept of self-actualization.
 1969 - Arguments regarding the genetic basis of IQ fuel lingering
controversies.
 1980 - Jean Piaget, an influential developmental psychologist, dies.
 1981 - David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win Nobel Prize for work on
vision cells in the brain
 1985 - Increasing emphasis on cognitive perspective.
 2000 - Elizabeth Loftus does pioneering work on false memory and
eyewitness testimony
 2010 - New subfields develop such as clinical neuropsychology and
evolutionary psychology.

The Major Perspectives of Psychology

1. Neuroscience
Views behavior from the perspective of biological functioning.
2. Behavioral
Focuses on observable behavior.
3. Psychodynamic
Believes behavior is motivated by inner, unconscious forces over which a
person has little control.
4. Cognitive
Examines how people understand and think about the world.
5. Humanistic
 Contends that people can control their behavior and that they naturally
try to each their full potential.

Psychological Key Issues and Controversies

1. Nature (heredity) vs. nurture (environment)
2. Conscious vs. unconscious determinants of behavior
3. Observable behavior vs. internal mental processes
4. Free will vs. Determinism
5. Individual differences vs. universal principles

The Scientific Method

- is the approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge
and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.
4 Main Steps:
1. Identifying questions of interest
2. Formulating an explanation
3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation
4. Communicating the findings.

Research
- systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge—is a central
ingredient of the scientific method in psychology
I. Descriptive Research
1. Archival Research
Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college
records, online databases, and newspaper clippings, are examined to
test a hypothesis.
2. Naturalistic Observation
Research in which an investigator observes some naturally occurring
behavior and does not make a change in the situation.
3. Survey Research
Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are
asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or
attitudes.
4. Case Study
An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of
people.
5. Correlational Research
 Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is
examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated.”
II. Correlational Research
Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is
examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated.”
III. Experimental Research
Researcher investigates the relationship between two (or more) variables
by deliberately changing one variable in a controlled situation and
observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.
A. Treatment
The manipulation implemented by the experimenter.
B. Experimental Group
Any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment.
C. Control Group
A group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment.
D. Independent Variable
The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter.
E. Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured in an experiment. It is expected to
change as a result of the experimenter’s manipulation of the
independent variable

Random Assignment to Condition

- A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental
groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone.

Significant Outcomes
- Meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel confident
that they have confirmed their hypotheses.

Replicated Research
- Research that is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and
groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings.

Ethics Of Research
1. Protection of participants from physical and mental harm.
2. The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior.
3. The assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary.
4. The necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures
before their participation in the experiment.
5. All experiments must be reviewed by an independent panel before being
conducted.

Informed Consent
- A document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the
basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will
involve.

Experimental Bias
- Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent
variable in an experiment.

Placebo Effect
- A false treatment.

Double-Blind Procedure
- Keeping both the participant and the experimenter who interacts with the
participant “blind”
 MODULE # 2.1
NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR

Neuron
Nerve cells, the basic elements of the nervous
system.

Parts of Neuron

1. Dendrite
A cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that
receives messages from other neurons.

2. Axon
The part of the neuron that carries messages
destined for other neurons.

3. Terminal Buttons
Small bulges at the end of axons that send
messages to other neurons.

4. Myelin Sheath
A protective coating of fat and protein that wraps
around the axon.

Movement of an action potential along an axon.

Just before Time 1, positively charged ions enter
the cell membrane, changing the charge in the
nearby part of the axon from negative to positive
and triggering an action potential.

The action potential travels along the axon, as

illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to
Time 3 (from top to bottom in this drawing).
Immediately after the action potential has passed
through a section of the axon, positive ions are
pumped out, restoring the charge in that section
to negative.
All-or-None Law
The rule that neurons are either on or off.

Resting State
The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about -70 millivolts within a
neuron.

Action potential
An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron’s axon when it is set off by a
“trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive.

Changes in the voltage in a neuron

during the passage of an action
potential. In its normal resting state,
a neuron has a negative charge of
about -70 millivolts. When an action
potential is triggered, however, the
charge becomes positive, increasing
from about -70 millivolts to about
+40 millivolts. Immediately following
the passage of the action potential,
the charge becomes even more
negative than it is in its typical resting
state. After the charge returns to its
normal resting state, the neuron will
be fully ready to be triggered once
again.

Mirror Neurons
Specialized neurons that fi re not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also
when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior.

Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell
body) of a receiver neuron.

2 TYPES OF MESSAGES

1. Excitatory Message
A chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an
action potential will travel down its axon.

2. Inhibitory Message
A chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood that a receiving
neuron will fire.
Reuptake
The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button.

Nervous system
The network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the
body.
Spinal Cord
A bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the
main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body.

Reflex
- An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus.
- Several kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes:

1. Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the nervous
system and brain.

1. Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that communicate information from the brain and nervous system to
muscles and glands.

Evolutionary Psychology
The branch of psychology that seeks to identify behavior patterns that are a result of our
genetic inheritance from our ancestors.
Behavioral Genetics
The study of the effects of heredity on behavior.

Endocrine system
A chemical communication
network that sends messages
throughout the body via the
Bloodstream.

Hormones
Chemicals that circulate through
the blood and regulate the
functioning or growth of the body.

Pituitary Gland
The major component of the
endocrine system, or “master
gland,” which secretes hormones
that control growth and other parts
of the endocrine system.
 MODULE 2.2 THE BRAIN

Different techniques for Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions

1. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on
the outside of the skull.

1. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

- provide a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of
brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the
body.

2. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

- show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. PET
scans begin with the injection of a radioactive (but safe) liquid into the
bloodstream, which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation
within the brain, a computer can determine which are the more active
regions, providing a striking picture of the brain at work.

3. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

- By exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field, TMS
causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity.
- The procedure is sometimes called a “virtual lesion,” because it
produces effects analogous to what would occur if areas of the brain
were physically cut.

The Major Divisions of the Brain:

1. Central Core: Our “Old Brain”
- It controls basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common
to all vertebrates.

Hindbrain:
A) Medulla
- controls a number of critical body functions, the most
important of which are breathing and heartbeat.
 B) Pons
- is a bridge in the hindbrain. Containing large bundles of nerves,
the pons acts as a transmitter of motor information,
coordinating muscles and integrating movement between the
right and left halves of the body. It is also involved in regulating
sleep.

C) Cerebellum
- The part of the brain that controls bodily balance.

Reticular Formation
- The part of the brain extending from the medulla through the pons; it
is related to changes in the level of arousal of the body.

Thalamus
- The part of the brain located in the middle of the central core that
acts primarily to relay information about the senses.

Hypothalamus
- A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus, that maintains
homeostasis and produces and regulates vital behavior, such as eating,
drinking, and sexual behavior.

The Major Structures in the Brain.

The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core

Limbic System
- The part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, and
reproduction.
- Consisting of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that include the
amygdala and hippocampus, the limbic system borders the top of the
central core and has connections with the cerebral cortex
- The limbic system, then, is involved in several important functions,
including self-preservation, learning, memory, and the experience of
pleasure. These functions are hardly unique to humans; in fact, the
limbic system is sometimes referred to as the “animal brain, because
its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals.

The Limbic System

2. The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”

- Responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in
the brain; contains four lobes.
- The cerebral cortex consists of four major sections called lobes.
- Each lobe has specialized areas that relate to particular functions. If
we take a side view of the brain, the frontal lobes lie at the front
 center of the cortex and the parietal lobes lie behind them. The
temporal lobes are found in the lower-center portion of the cortex,
with the occipital lobes lying behind them. These four sets of lobes
are physically separated by deep grooves called sulci.

-
Specialized regions within the lobes related to specific functions and
areas of the body. 3 major areas are known:
1) Motor Area
- The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the
body’s voluntary movement.
2) Sensory Area
- The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each
of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the
amount of tissue.
3) Association Areas
- One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of
the higher mental processes, such as thought, language,
memory, and speech.

Neuroplasticity
- Changes in the brain that occur throughout the life span relating to the
addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the
reorganization of information-processing areas.

Neurogenesis
- New neurons are created in certain areas of the brain during adulthood.
Hemispheres
- Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the
body opposite to their direction.
- The left hemisphere of the brain, then, generally controls the right side of
the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

Lateralization
- The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as
language.

Biofeedback
- A procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought
internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and
respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction of
particular muscles.

MODULE 4
MODULE 5

Consciousness

Understanding consciousness is vital because it's intertwined with our identity and daily
experiences. It affects our health, including diabetes risk, memory, and even puberty. Drugs can
also influence consciousness, often detrimentally. Defining consciousness is intricate, with
diverse definitions in various scientific fields.

Definition of Consciousness

4.1 Define what it means to be conscious.

In "Consciousness Explained," philosopher Daniel Dennett argues against William James' view
of a single stream of consciousness. He suggests multiple parallel "channels" of consciousness,
shaped by social groups and culture. Regarding animal consciousness, researchers propose that
some animals may have a form of consciousness, though distinct from humans (Block, Browne,
Hurley, Koch). Chapter Seven explores animal language and related topics.

Do animals experience consciousness in the same way as people?

Consciousness, as defined for our purposes, is your awareness of everything happening around
you and within your mind, which you use to guide your actions, including thoughts, sensations,
and emotions. From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, it arises from specific neuron
interactions that produce perceptions, memories, or experiences in our awareness, such as seeing
a dog.

Consciousness is an individual's state of being aware of everything happening in their immediate

surroundings at a particular moment.

Waking consciousness is a condition characterized by clear, well-organized thoughts, emotions,

and sensations, with the individual feeling fully alert.

Altered States of Consciousness

4.2 Differentiate between the different levels of consciousness.

People spend most of their waking hours in a clear and alert state of consciousness. However, at
various points in daily life, people can enter altered states of consciousness, characterized by
differences from this organized waking state.

Altered consciousness involves changes in mental activity, leading to fuzzy thinking, reduced
alertness, or heightened alertness, as seen with stimulants. It can also include divided attention,
like driving while distracted, which is risky. Controlled tasks require full attention, while
automatic ones need less. Performing controlled activities while distracted, such as driving while

using a cell phone, is dangerous, similar to drunk driving. Texting while driving is even more
dangerous.
Altered states of consciousness come in various forms, like daydreaming, hypnosis, meditation,
and drug-induced states (e.g., caffeine or alcohol). There's a growing use of stimulants initially
prescribed for attention issues, even among college students and older adults seeking
performance enhancement. However, the most common altered state is sleep, consuming about a
third of our lives.

An altered state of consciousness refers to a condition where there is a change in the nature or
pattern of mental activity when compared to the state of wakefulness.

Sleep

Ever thought about why we need sleep? Without it, we'd have more time for work, play, and
creativity.

The Biology of Sleep

4.3 Describe the biological process of the sleep–wake cycle.

Sleep is often called "the gentle tyrant" because, despite efforts to stay awake, it's an essential
biological rhythm the body goes through. Human bodies have various biological rhythms, some
monthly (e.g., menstruation), others shorter (e.g., heart rate), but many operate daily, like the
sleep-wake cycle.

The sleep-wake cycle is a circadian rhythm, which takes "about a day" to complete. It involves
experiencing hours of sleep every 24 hours. This cycle is controlled by a brain area in the
hypothalamus, influencing the glandular system.

The hypothalamus, particularly the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), plays a crucial role in
regulating our sleep-wake cycles. It influences the secretion of melatonin, a hormone affecting
sleepiness, in response to light changes. Melatonin supplements are used for conditions like jet
lag and shift work sleep problems. Besides melatonin, neurotransmitters like serotonin also
impact sleep, but their effects are complex and context-dependent. Body temperature, controlled
by the SCN, affects alertness; lower temperatures make us sleepier. Our circadian rhythms are
typically synchronized with a 24-hour day, influenced by light input to the SCN. Additionally,
studies have linked body temperature drops to the onset of sleep, highlighting its importance in
sleep regulation.

Why We Sleep

4.4 Explain why we sleep.

The ideal amount of sleep varies by age and individual, with most young adults needing 7-9
hours for optimal function. Some people need as little as 4-5 hours (short sleepers), while others
require over 9 hours (long sleepers). As we age, our sleep tends to shorten to around 6 hours

per night. The quantity of sleep can influence our health, as discussed by sleep researcher Dr.
Jerry Siegel in "How Much Sleep Do We Need?" video.

Sleep is essential, and although people can go without it for a while, they can't go without it
entirely. In an experiment, rats on treadmills couldn't sleep normally but experienced brief
microsleeps lasting only seconds. People can also have microsleeps, which can be dangerous,
particularly when driving, leading to accidents due to sleep deprivation.

Theories of Sleep

Adaptive Theory of Sleep

- Proposes that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when
predators are most active

Microsleeps - Brief sidesteps of sleep lasting only a few seconds

Restorative Theory of Sleep

- Proposes that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish
chemicals and repair cellular damage

Which of these theories is correct? The answer is that both are probably needed

to understand why sleep occurs the way it does. Adaptive theory explains why people

sleep when they do, and restorative theory (including the important function of memory

formation) explains why people need to sleep.

SLEEP DEPRIVATION

For most people, a missed night of sleep will result in concentration problems

and the inability to do simple tasks that normally would take no thought at all, such as loading a
DVD into a player. Even so, sleep deprivation, or loss of sleep, is a serious problem, which
many

people have without realizing it.

Students, for example, may stay up all night to study

for an important test the next day. In doing so, they will lose more information than

they gain, as a good night’s sleep is important for memory and the ability to think well

(Gillen-O’Neel et al., 2012).

REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

Stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically
experiencing a dream.

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement)

Any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM

EEG - Electroencephalogram

EEG WAVES

Beta

Smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity.

Alpha

Brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep.

Theta

Brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep.

Delta

Long, slow brain waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep.

STAGES OF SLEEP

N1: Light Sleep

Sleep begins, people may experience hypnogogic images or hallucinations

“sleep.”)

Many researchers now believe that people’s experiences of ghostly visits, alien abductions, and
near-death experiences may be most easily explained by these hallucinations

N2: Sleep Spindles

The body temperature continues to drop. Heart rate slows, breathing becomes more shallow and
irregular, and the EEG will show the first signs of sleep spindles, brief bursts of activity lasting
only a second or two.

N3: Delta Waves

Delta Waves come in. These waves increase during this stage from about 20 percent to more
than 50 percent of total brain activity.

It is during this stage that growth hormones (often abbreviated as GH) are released from the
pituitary gland and reach their peak. The body is at its lowest level of functioning.

R: Rapid Eye Movement

After spending some time in N3, the sleeping person will go back up through N2 and then into a
stage in which body temperature increases to near-waking levels, the eyes move rapidly under
the eyelids, the heart beats much faster, and brain waves resemble beta waves—the kind of brain
activity that usually signals wakefulness.
SLEEP DISORDERS

Nightmares and RBD (REM Behavior Disorder)

A rare disorder in which the brain mechanisms that normally inhibit the voluntary muscles fail,
allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares

Predominantly found in men aged older than 60, researchers have found that RBD may be a
warning sign for future degeneration of neurons, leading to brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s
and Parkinson’s disorders

Night Terrors

A night terror is essentiially a state of panic experienced while sound asleep. People may sit up,
scream, run around the room, or flail at some unseen attacker.

Sleepwalking

A person who is sleepwalking may do nothing more than sit up in bed. But other episodes may
involve walking around the house, looking in the refrigerator or even eating, and getting into the
car.

There have been incidents in which people who claimed to be in a state of sleep- walking (or
more likely RBD) have committed acts of violence, even murder

Insomnia

Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep

There are many causes of insomnia, both psychological and physiological. Some of the
psychological causes are worrying, trying too hard to sleep, or having anxiety. Some of the
physiological causes are too much caffeine, indigestion, or aches and pain.

Sleep Apnea

A person stops breathing for 10 seconds or more. When breathing stops, there will be a sudden
silence, followed shortly by a gasping sound as the person struggles to get air into the lungs.
Many people do not wake up while this is happening, but they do not get a good, restful night’s
sleep because of the apnea

Narcolepsy

In narcolepsy, the person may slip suddenly into REM sleep during the day (especially when the
person experiences strong emotions). Another symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness that
results in the person falling asleep throughout the day at inappropriate times and in inappropriate
places

DREAMS

Dreams are a common human phenomenon characterized by sensory, cognitive, and emotional
experiences that occur during sleep. The dreamer typically has limited control over the content,
visual imagery, and memory activation within dreams. Dreaming is a cognitive state that has
been extensively researched but remains frequently misunderstood.

The real inquiry into the process of dreaming began with the publication of Freud’s The

Interpretation of Dreams (1900)

Freud’s Interpretation: Dreams as wish Fulfillment:

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) posited that his patients' issues originated from unresolved
conflicts and events stored in their unconscious minds since childhood. These early traumas
were viewed as the root causes of adult behavioral problems, manifesting as symptoms like
unexplained physical paralysis or repetitive, ritualistic behaviors like excessive hand washing.
Freud used dream analysis as a means to access these early memories, as he believed that past
conflicts, events, and desires would

be symbolically represented in dreams. He saw dreams as a way for his patients to fulfill unmet
wishes. He believed that the true meaning of a dream was hidden, or latent, and only expressed
in symbols. In Freud’s interpretation, the manifest content of a dream is the actual content of the
dream itself.

Nowadays, a lot of experts have lost their enthusiasm for Freud's dream analysis, but there are
still individuals who assert that dreams hold symbolic significance. For instance, the occurrence
of dreams involving public nudity is widespread, and many dream analysts interpret it as a
representation of feeling vulnerable and exposed, possibly linked to one's childhood innocence
or even a sexual desire. The precise interpretation of such dreams relies on various factors
within the dream itself and the individual's real-life circumstances. A more concrete explanation
of why people dream than Freud's was made possible by the advent of technology for examining
the structure and function of the brain.

The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

By employing brain imaging methods like PET scans, scientists have discovered proof
suggesting that dreams originate from activity in the pons. This lower brain region suppresses
the neurotransmitters responsible for voluntary muscle movement while transmitting haphazard
signals to the cortex regions responsible for processing vision, hearing, and similar sensory
experiences (Hobson, 1988; Hobson & McCarley, 1977; Hobson et al., 2000; Weber et al.,
2015).

During wakefulness, signals from the pons go to the cortex, which interprets them as our senses
like sight and hearing. These signals make us experience reality because they come from the
actual world. However, when we're asleep, specifically during the REM stage, the brain stem
sends random signals without a connection to an actual external stimuli. Still, the brain tries to
make sense of these signals by using memories and stored information to create an explanation
for the cortex's activity.

According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, a dream is essentially a form of thinking that

happens when people are asleep. It's less grounded in reality because it doesn't originate from
external reality but rather from people's memories and past experiences. During dreaming, the
frontal lobes, which are typically active during daytime thinking, are more or less inactive. This
might explain why dreams often seem unrealistic and strange (Macquet & Franck, 1996).

The Activation-Information-Mode (AIM) Model

Hobson and his team have revised the activation-synthesis hypothesis, addressing issues related
to the significance of dreams, and named it the activation-information-mode model, or AIM
(Hobson et al., 2000). In this updated version, information acquired while awake can impact
how dreams are formed. Essentially, when the brain is "constructing" a dream to make sense of
its own activity, it incorporates meaningful fragments from the individual's recent experiences,
not just random elements from memory.

Contents of Dreams (bulleted siguro ung common activities here sa ppt)

Calvin Hall's cognitive theory of dreaming suggests that dreams are a form of cognitive activity
that takes place during sleep. He collected over 10,000 dreams and concluded that most dreams
reflect everyday life events. Some variations in dream content exist, such as the presence of
color or black-and-white dreams and gender differences. Dr. William Domhoff's research
indicates that men across cultures tend to dream more about other males and have more physical
aggression in their dreams, while women dream about both males and females equally and are
more often the victims of aggression in their own dreams. Differences in dream content across
cultures align with the cultural "personality." For example, American dreams tend to be more
aggressive than those in the Netherlands. In dreams, people engage in various activities like
running, jumping, talking, and behaving as they do in daily life. While

nearly half of Hall's recorded dreams had sexual content, later research found lower percentages.
Common dreams include flying, falling, and attempting and failing at something, which are
widespread even in other cultures. The dream of being naked in public is also a frequently
reported dream theme.

Hypnosis

In contrast to depictions in movies and television, individuals under hypnosis are not in a trance
(Lynn et al., 2015). Hypnosis is essentially a state of heightened susceptibility to suggestion.
Despite various misconceptions surrounding hypnosis, it can be a valuable tool when
appropriately controlled.

How Hypnosis Works:

There are four key steps in inducing hypnosis (Druckman & Bjork, 1994):

1. The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is being said.

2. The person is told to relax and feel tired.

3. The hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept recommendations easily.

4. The person is told to use vivid imagination.

Hypnosis hinges on an elevated level of suggestibility, and people can enter a hypnotic state
when they are alert and open to it. Around 80 percent of individuals can be hypnotized, with
only 40 percent showing a strong responsiveness to hypnosis. Brain scans have shown that
highly hypnotizable individuals display increased brain activity and connections in regions
associated with decision-making and attention. Assessing hypnotic susceptibility often involves
a series of structured suggestions, and the more suggestions a person positively responds to, the
more susceptible they are to hypnosis.

Although the common perception is that a hypnotized person is acting without control, the
reality is that the hypnotist often serves as a facilitator into a more relaxed state, with the subject
essentially hypnotizing themselves (Kirsch & Lynn, 1995). Importantly, individuals cannot be
hypnotized if they are unwilling. The inclination to behave as if their actions are automatic and
beyond their control is referred to as the basic suggestion effect (Kihlstrom, 1985). This effect
allows individuals to rationalize doing things they might not otherwise do, as the responsibility
for their actions is attributed to the hypnotist.

Hypnosis is a valuable tool for relaxation and pain management, but these experiences are
largely influenced by a person's mindset, and achieving similar effects, like hallucinations, pain
reduction, or memory loss, can occur without hypnotic suggestions. However, it's more
challenging to use hypnosis to change actual physical behaviors, such as eating habits or
smoking cessation, as these behaviors are deeply ingrained. Hypnosis is occasionally employed
in psychological therapy to assist individuals in managing anxiety or addressing cravings for
substances like food or drugs. In summary, hypnosis has its limitations and strengths, and its
effectiveness varies depending on the desired outcome.

Theories of Hypnosis

Hypnosis as Dissociation: Neodissociation Theory of Hypnosis

Hilgard's Neodissociation theory of hypnosis is a prominent "state" theory that suggests

hypnotic experiences occur due to a split within high-level control systems. This theory posits
that during hypnosis,

the executive control system (ECS) becomes divided into separate streams. One part of the ECS
continues to function normally but remains inaccessible to conscious awareness due to an
"amnesic barrier." Hypnotic suggestions affect the dissociated part of the ECS, leading the
subject to be aware of the outcomes of the suggestions while remaining unaware of how those
results were achieved.

In simpler terms, Ernest Hilgard (1991; Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994) held the view that hypnosis
primarily influenced a person's immediate conscious awareness, leaving another part of their
mind, referred to as a "hidden observer," aware of everything transpiring. Hilgard's perspective
suggests that there exists a concealed aspect of the mind that remains highly aware of the actions
and sensations of the hypnotized subject, even though the conscious, hypnotized part of the
mind remains oblivious to these same experiences.

Hypnosis as Social Role-Playing: The Social-Cognitive Theory of Hypnosis

Social-cognitive theories offer a perspective on hypnosis that differs from the "state" theories,
which focus on processes like "repression" or "dissociation." These theories emphasize that
individuals actively engage in hypnosis, viewing suggested effects as behaviors rather than
passive occurrences. According to the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis, the sense of
effortlessness during hypnosis arises because participants interpret hypnotic suggestions as not
requiring active planning and effort, essentially making an attributional error. Whether volition
is attributed externally or internally depends on the response-set in place, and in the context of
hypnosis, effortlessness occurs when individuals expect things to be easy and consciously or
unconsciously choose to respond to suggestions accordingly. It's important to note that these
theories do not imply that subjects are always pretending or not genuinely experiencing hypnotic
responses; they acknowledge that hypnotized participants can have unique experiences.

The social-cognitive theory of hypnosis suggests that individuals under hypnosis are not in an
altered state but are essentially acting out the expected role in that situation. They may genuinely
believe they are hypnotized, but in reality, they are performing exceptionally well, to the extent
that even they themselves are unaware they are engaging in role-playing. This theory highlights
the influential role of social roles in shaping behavior, akin to how wearing a uniform can make
it easier for someone to embody a specific role (Zimbardo, 1970; Zimbardo et al., 2000).

Influence of Psychoactive Drugs

While some individuals aim to achieve altered states of consciousness through natural means
like sleep, daydreaming, meditation, or even hypnosis, others opt for a more direct route by
using psychoactive drugs – substances that can modify thinking, perception, memory, or a
combination of these mental functions. Many of the drugs discussed in the following sections
have practical medical applications, such as inducing sleep for otherwise impossible surgeries or
managing pain from injuries or illnesses. Additionally, some drugs are employed to address
conditions like sleep disorders or attention deficits in children but more often that not, these
drugs are abused.

While these drugs do have legitimate medical uses, it's essential not to underestimate the risks
connected to inappropriate or excessive use of these. When taken for recreational purposes, to
attain a euphoric state, or without proper medical guidance, these substances can pose severe
threats to one's health. They have the potential to lead to addiction, whether physical or
psychological, and can establish a dangerous pattern of increasing consumption, increasing the
likelihood of a drug overdose – a major peril associated with dependence. It's notable that drug
overdoses aren't confined to

illicit substances; certain ingredients in so-called natural supplements can also have fatal effects.
As an example, a survey disclosed that more than 23,000 visits to emergency rooms each year
could be attributed to the utilization and misuse of dietary supplements (Geller et al., 2015).

When a person consumes drugs, their brain releases dopamine, a pleasure-inducing chemical,
leading to a euphoric physical and mental state known as feeling good or getting high. With
repeated drug use, the brain becomes dependent on these pleasurable experiences and essentially
rewires itself to prioritize drug consumption above all else, even essential activities like eating,
sleeping, family commitments, or academic pursuits. Even when the drugs no longer produce
pleasure due to tolerance development over time, the brain continues to drive these cravings,
originating from the same part of the brain responsible for our survival instinct. Consequently,
acting on these cravings becomes an overwhelming and urgent need, as the brain perceives it as
necessary for functioning and survival. Simultaneously, the brain's areas responsible for
judgment, decision-making, learning, and self-control are also affected by these physical
changes, making it even more challenging for a person to quit, as their ability to make rational
decisions and control impulses diminishes.

Physical Dependence

Substances that can result in physical dependence trigger a drug-craving reaction within the
user's body (Abadinsky, 1989; Fleming & Barry, 1992; Pratt, 1991). A person is considered
dependent or addicted when their body can no longer function normally without the drug after
prolonged use.

Signs of Physical Dependence

● development of a drug tolerance

● symptoms of withdrawal > headaches > nausea > cramping > shaking > irritability to severe
pain > elevated blood pressure

Negative Reinforcement

is the inclination to persist in a behavior that results in the alleviation or avoidance of unpleasant
situations or sensations. This learned behavioral pattern has given rise to non-drug treatments
that utilize behavioral therapies like contingency-management therapy, an operant conditioning
technique where patients earn vouchers for negative drug tests. These vouchers can be
exchanged for more beneficial and desirable items such as food. These behavioral therapies
encompass both residential and outpatient approaches. Cognitive-behavioral interventions aim to
transform individuals' perspectives on life stressors and their responses to them, striving for
more effective coping strategies without resorting to drugs.

Psychological Dependence

Not all drugs lead to physical dependence, all drugs have the potential to be a source of
psychological dependence. This is where individuals believe they require the drug to maintain
their emotional or psychological well-being. This psychological aspect is a strong driver for
continued drug use. The development of dependency is primarily driven by the pleasurable
effects of using the drug. Even if the body doesn't require or desire the drug, and individuals
don't go through physical withdrawal or develop a tolerance, they persist in using the drug
because they believe they require it. This illustrates

positive reinforcement, where a behavior strengthens due to the thought of enjoyable outcomes.
Interestingly, because there are no withdrawal symptoms to endure or recover from,
psychological dependencies can persist indefinitely.

EFFECTS AND DANGERS OF STIMULANTS

How do stimulants and depressants affect consciousness and what are the dangers associated
with taking them, particularly alcohol?

- Stimulants are a class of drugs that cause either the sympathetic division or the central nervous
system (or both) to increase levels of functioning, at least temporarily. In simple terms,
stimulants “speed up” the nervous system—the heart may beat faster or the brain may work
faster, for example. Many of these drugs are called “uppers” for this reason.

- (Stimulants drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system.)

Amphetamines

- Amphetamines are stimulants that are synthesized (made) in laboratories rather than being
found in nature. Among the amphetamines are drugs like Benzedrine, Methedrine, and
Dexedrine. A related compound, methamphetamine, is sometimes used to treat attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder or narcolepsy.

- Like other stimulants, amphetamines cause the sympathetic nervous system to go into
overdrive.

- Some truck drivers use amphetamines to stay awake while driving long hours. Stimulants
won’t give people any extra energy, but they will cause people to burn up whatever energy
reserves they do have. They also depress the appetite, which is another function of the
sympathetic division.

- Many doctors used to prescribe these drugs as diet pills. Diet pills sold over the counter usually
contain another relatively mild stimulant, caffeine.

- Nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure, and strokes are possible, as is a state called
“amphetamine psychosis.” This condition causes addicts to become delusional (losing contact
with what is real) and paranoid.

Cocaine

- Unlike amphetamines, cocaine is a natural drug found in coca plant leaves. It produces feelings
of euphoria (a feeling of great happiness), energy, power, and pleasure. It also deadens pain and
suppresses the appetite.

- It was used rather liberally by both doctors and dentists (who used it in numbing the mouth
prior to extracting a tooth, for example) near the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning
of the twentieth century, until the deadly effects of its addictive qualities became known.

- Cocaine is a highly dangerous drug, not just for its addictive properties. Some people have
convulsions and may even die when using cocaine for the first time (Lacayo, 1995).

- Although cocaine users do not go through the same kind of physical withdrawal symptoms that
users of heroin, alcohol, and other physically addictive drugs go through,

users will experience a severe mood swing into depression (the “crash”), followed by extreme
tiredness, nervousness, an inability to feel pleasure, and paranoia.

Nicotine

- Nicotine is a relatively mild but nevertheless toxic stimulant, producing a slight “rush” or sense
of arousal as it raises blood pressure and accelerates the heart, as well as providing a rush of
sugar into the bloodstream by stimulating the release of adrenalin in addition to raising
dopamine levels in the brain’s reward pathway (Kovacs et al., 2010; Rezvani & Levin, 2001).

- . As is the case with many stimulants, it also has a relaxing effect on most people and seems to
reduce stress (Pormerleau & Pormerleau, 1994).

- In the 1920s and 1930s it was used as an insecticide and is considered to be highly toxic and
fast acting (Gosselin et al., 1984). Although the amount of nicotine in a cigarette is low, first-
time smokers often experience nausea as a result of the toxic effects after just a few puffs.

Caffeine

- Caffeine is another natural substance, like cocaine and nicotine, and is found in coffee beans,
tea leaves, cocoa nuts, and at least 60 other types of plants (Braun, 1996). It is a mild stimulant,
helps maintain alertness, and can increase the effectiveness of some pain relievers such as
aspirin.

- Caffeine is often added to pain relievers for that reason and is the key ingredient in
medications meant to keep people awake.

- Contrary to popular belief, coffee does not help induce sobriety. All one would get is a wide-
awake drunk.

- Coffee is fairly acidic, too, and acids are not what the stomach of a person with a hangover
needs. (And since the subject has come up, drinking more alcohol or “hair of the dog that bit
you” just increases the problem later on.)

EFFECTS AND DANGERS OF DEPRESSANTS

Barbiturates

- Commonly known as the major tranquilizers (drugs that have a strong depressant effect) or
sleeping pills, barbiturates are drugs that have a sedative (sleep-inducing) effect. Overdoses can
lead to death as breathing and heart action are stopped.

- The minor tranquilizers (drugs having a relatively mild depressant effect) include the
benzodiazepines. These drugs are used to lower anxiety and reduce stress. Some of the most
common are Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, and Librium.

- Both major and minor tranquilizers can be addictive, and large doses can be dangerous, as can
an interaction with alcohol or other drugs (Breslow et al., 2015; Olin, 1993).

- Rohypnol is a benzodiazepine tranquilizer that has become famous as the “date rape” drug.
Unsuspecting victims drink something that has been doctored with this drug, which causes them
to be unaware of their actions, although still able to respond to directions or commands. Rape or
some other form of sexual assault can then be carried out without

fear that the victim will remember it or be able to report it (Armstrong, 1997; Gable, 2004).

Alcohol
- The most commonly used and abused depressant is alcohol, the chemical resulting from
fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter. 2016). Aside from the obvious
health risks to the liver, brain, and heart, alcohol is associated with loss of work time, loss of a
job, and loss of economic stability.

- Many people are alcoholics but deny the fact. They believe that getting drunk, especially in
college, is a ritual of adulthood. Many college students and even older adults engage in binge
drinking (drinking four or five drinks within a limited amount of time, such as at “happy hour”).

- Some other danger signs are feeling guilty about drinking, drinking in the morning, drinking to
recover from drinking, drinking alone, being sensitive about how much one drinks when others
mention it, drinking so much that one does and says things one later regrets. Increased risk of
loss of bone density (known as osteoporosis) and heart disease has also been linked to
alcoholism (Abbott et al., 1994).

- Alcohol is often confused with stimulants. Many people think this is because alcohol makes a
person feel “up” and euphoric (happy). Actually, alcohol is a depressant that gives the illusion of
stimulation.

- because the very first thing alcohol depresses is a person’s natural inhibitions, or the “don’ts”
of behavior. down. The areas of the brain that are first affected by alcohol are unfortunately the
areas that control social inhibitions, so alcohol (due to its simulation of GABA) has the effect of
depressing the inhibitions.

- People who are not usually drinkers will feel the effects of alcohol much more quickly than
those who have built up a tolerance. Women also feel the effects sooner, as their bodies process
alcohol differently than men’s bodies do. (Women are typically smaller, too, so alcohol has a
quicker impact on women.)

Opiates

- Opiates are a type of depressant that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and
stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins (called opioid receptors),
the neurotransmitters that naturally deaden pain sensations (Levesque, 2014; Olin, 1993).

- Because they also slow down the action of the nervous system, drug interactions with alcohol
and other depressants are possible—and deadly.

Opium

- Opium, made from the opium poppy, has pain-relieving and euphoria-inducing properties that
have been known for at least 2,000 years. Highly addictive, it mimics the effects of endorphins,
the nervous system’s natural painkillers.

- When the drug wears off, there is no protection against any kind of pain, causing the severe
symptoms of withdrawal associated with these drugs. It was not until 1803 that opium was
developed for use as a medication by a German physician.

Morphine
- Morphine was created by dissolving opium in an acid and then neutralizing the acid with
ammonia.

- Morphine was thought to be a wonder drug, although its addictive qualities soon became a
major concern to physicians and their patients. Morphine is still used today to control severe
pain, but in carefully controlled doses and for very short periods of time.

Heroin

- Ironically, heroin was first hailed as the new wonder drug—a derivative of morphine that did
not have many of the disagreeable side effects of morphine. The theory was that heroin was a
purer form of the drug and that the impurities in morphine were the substances creating the
harmful side effects.

- People are not only using heroin but are combining it with other drugs, particularly cocaine
and prescription painkillers containing opiates, which has of course led to an increase in
overdose deaths.

EFFECTS AND DANGERS OF HALLUCINOGENS

hallucinogens

- drugs that cause false sensory messages, altering the perception of reality. Hallucinogens
actually cause the brain to alter its interpretation of sensations. There are two basic types of
hallucinogens—those that are created in a laboratory and those that are from natural sources.

Manufactured Highs

- There are several drugs that were developed in the laboratory instead of being found in nature.
Perhaps because these drugs are manufactured, they are often more potent than drugs found in
the natural world.

LSD ( Lysergic acid diethylamide)

- synthesized from a grain fungus called ergot. Ergot fungus commonly grows on rye grain but
can be found on other grains as well.

- It takes only a very tiny drop of LSD to achieve a “high.” People who take LSD usually do so
to get that high feeling.

- Some people feel that LSD helps them expand their consciousness or awareness of the world
around them.

- One of the greater dangers in using LSD is the effect it has on a person’s ability to perceive
reality. Real dangers and hazards in the world may go unnoticed by a person “lost” in an LSD
fantasy, and people under the influence of this drug may make poor decisions, such as trying to
drive while high.

- A person who has taken LSD can have flashbacks—spontaneous hallucinations—even years
after taking the drug, and chronic uses of the drug can develop hallucinogen persisting
perception disorder (HPPD), an irreversible condition in which hallucinations and altered
perceptions of reality can occur repeatedly, accompanied by depression and physical discomfort.

PCP (phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine)

- Another synthesized drug was found to be so dangerous that it remains useful only in
veterinary medicine as a tranquilizer. The drug is PCP, often contracted as phencyclidine, and
can have many different effects.

- Depending on the dosage, users of PCP can experience hallucinations, distorted sensations,
and very unpleasant effects.

- PCP can also lead to acts of violence against others or suicide. Users may even physically
injure themselves unintentionally because PCP causes them to feel no warning signal of pain.

MDMA (Ecstasy or X)

- designer drug that can have both stimulant and hallucinatory effects. MDMA causes the
release of large amounts of serotonin and also blocks the reuptake of this neurotransmitter.
stimulatory hallucinogenics are drugs that produce a mixture of psychomotor stimulant and
hallucinogenic effects.

- MDMA may damage the serotonin receptors, which could lead to depression. Other negative
effects include severe dehydration and raised body temperature, which can lead to excessive
intake of liquids—with possible fatal results.

Non Manufactured High: Marijuana

- One of the best known and most commonly abused of the hallucinogenic drugs, marijuana
(also called “pot” or “weed”) comes from the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant called
Cannabis sativa.

- The most psychoactive cannabinoid, and the active ingredient in marijuana, is

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Marijuana is best known for its ability to produce a feeling of
well-being, mild intoxication, and mild sensory distortions or hallucinations.

- The effects of marijuana are relatively mild compared to those of the other hallucinogens. Most
people do report a feeling of mild euphoria and relaxation, along with an altered time sense and
mild visual distortions. Higher doses can lead to hallucinations, delusions, and the all-too-
common paranoia.

- Even at mild doses, it is not safe to operate heavy machinery or drive a car while under the
influence of marijuana because it negatively affects reaction time and perception of
surroundings;

HOW CONSCIOUSNESS EXPLAINS SUPERNATURAL VISITATIONS

The supernatural is defined as anything that exists outside of the natural world but, generally
speaking, must interact with the natural world in some way for us to perceive it.

Down through the ages, people have been visited by ghosts, spirits, and other sorts of
mystical or mysterious visitors—or so they have believed. In more modern times, ghostly

visitations have often given way to aliens, who may perform some sort of medical exam-

ination or who may abduct the person, only to return them to their beds.

a type of hallucination can occur just as a person is entering stage N1 sleep, called a hypnogogic
hallucination, people in N1, when awakened, will deny having been asleep, a simple explanation
for so-called supernatural visitations does

present itself.

Hypnogogic hallucinations are not dreamlike in nature. Instead, they feel very

real to the person experiencing them (who does not think he or she is asleep, remember).

Most common are the auditory hallucinations, in which a person might hear a voice calling out
the person’s name, not all that unusual and probably not remembered most of the time.
Sometimes people have a similar experience in the middle of the night. They awaken to find that
they are paralyzed and that something—ghost, demon, alien—is standing over them and perhaps
doing strange things to their helpless bodies. Combine this experience with the natural tendency
many people have to want to believe that there is life after death or that there are other sentient
life forms visiting our planet, and voilà!—a ghost/spirit/alien has appeared.

When a hallucination happens just as a person is in the between-state of being in REM sleep (in
which the voluntary muscles are paralyzed) and not yet fully awake, it is called a hypnopompic
hallucination and is once again a much simpler explanation of visits by aliens or spirits during
the night than any supernatural explanation.