A

Industrial Training Report

On
Electric Vehicle charger
Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Rajasthan Technical University, Kota)
In
Electrical Engineering

SESSION (2023-2024)

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Mr. Ravi Kumar Hada Navdeep singh
Head of Department 21EGJEE201

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
ITS-1, IT PARK RIICO SITAPURA, JAIPUR-302033
ii
 Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby submit the seminar report, which is entitled “Electric Vehicle charger” in partial full-fillment for the
award of Degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in Department of Electrical Engineering, Global Institute of
Technology, Jaipur, under the supervision of Mr. Ravi Kumar hada , Assistant Professor in Department of
Electrical Engineering, Global Institute of Technology Jaipur.

Navdeep singh
21egjee201

The seminar report is hereby approved for submission.

(Mr. Ravi Kumar hada )

Head of department

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide and supervisor Mr. Ravi Kumar Hada
Head of Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Global Institute of Technology, Jaipur for the continuous support
for my B. Tech. study, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped
me in all the time of research and writing of this dissertation. I sincerely acknowledge him for extending his
valuable guidance, support for literature, critical review of the report and above all for hope and assurance for
achieving goals. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my work.
I sincerely acknowledge to Mr. Ravi Hada, Head Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Global Institute of
Technology, Jaipur for always “ready to support attitude”. In addition, she was always accessible and willing
to help his students. As a result, the research life became smooth and rewarding for me.
Again, it is an honour for me to pay my gratitude to My Parent’s for sharp and strict vigilance to provide zero
error study environment. As a result, the research life became smooth and rewarding for me. I express my
sincere thanks to the whole Electrical Engineering Department, faculties and management for immense support
whenever and wherever required. By long and deep discussions with my friends, I was able to detect errors and
rectify them. From the deep of my heart, I thank my God, Parents, family.

Navdeep singh

iv
 ABSTRACT

Electric vehicles require fast, economical, and reliable charging systems for efficient
performance. Wireless charging systems remove the hassle to plug in the device to be
charged when compared with conventional wired charging systems. Moreover, wireless
charging is considered to be environmentally and user-friendly as the wires and mechanical
connectors, and related infrastructure is not required. This paper reviews the methods and
techniques used for wireless charging in electric vehicles. First, the general techniques for
wireless power transfer are described and explained. Capacitive power transfer and inductive
power transfer which are the two main types of wireless charging are compared and
contrasted. Next wireless charging systems for electric vehicles are classified and discussed
in depth. Both the stationary and the dynamic wireless charging systems are discussed and
reviewed. In addition, a typical model and design parameters of a dynamic charging system,
which is a wireless charging system for moving vehicles, are examined. Control system
functions of a wireless charging system of an electric vehicle are important for effective and
efficient performance. These are also discussed in the context of better efficiency of power
transfer and improved communication between the transmitter and the receiver side of a
vehicle charging system. The battery is an important part of an EV as different parameters of
a charging system depend upon the battery characteristics. Therefore, different battery types
are compared and battery models are reviewed. The findings of this state-of-the-art review
are discussed and recommendations for future research are also provided.

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title of Figure

Fig 1.1 Wireless EV Charging System
Fig 3.1 Inductive coupling
Fig. 6.1 WPT
Fig.6.2 Wire and Wireless method
Fig. 7.2 Capacitive WPT
Fig. 7.3 Magnetic gear WPT
Fig.7.4 Inductive WPT
Fig. 7.5 Resonant Inductive WPT
Fig.8.1 Compensation topology
Fig.9.1 Wireless power transfer from various view
Fig.9.2 Coil shape
Fig.9.3 Ferrite shapes

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title of Table

Fig 4.1 Stationary WCS for EV
Fig.7.1 Comparison of WCT
Fig.8.2 Advantages and features of compensation networks
Fig.10.1 Difference between batteries

vii
 Contents

Candidate’s Declaration (ii)

Certificate (iii)
Acknowledgment (iv)
Abstract (v)
List of Figures (vi)
List of Tables (vii)

Chapter-1 3-4
1.1Introduction 3
1.2Historical Context 4

Chapter – 2 5-6
2.1 Literature Review 5-6

Chapter – 3 7-8
3.1 Wireless power transfer 7-8

Chapter – 4 9-15
4.1 EV Charging Techniques 9
4.1.1 Capacitive power transfer 9
4.1.2 Inductive power transfer 10
4.2 Static Charging 10-11
4.3 Dynamic Charging 11-13
4.4 Charging pads 13-14
4.5 Magnetic structure for IPT System 14-15

Chapter – 5 16-17
5.1 Comparison of capacitive and inductive power transfer 16-17

Chapter – 6 18-21
6.1 WPT System and charging in EV 18
6.1.1 WPT Operating principle 19-20
6.1.2 Charging Process 20-21

1
Chapter – 7 22-25
7.1 WPT Method 22
7.1.1 Capacitive WPT 22-23
7.1.2 Magnetic Gear WPT 23-24
7.1.3 Inductive WPT 24
7.1.4 Resonant Induction WPT 24-25

Chapter – 8 26-27
8.1 Compensation method 26-27

Chapter – 9 28-31
9.1 Wireless Transformer topologies 28
9.1.1 Coil shapes 28-30
9.1.2 Magnetic ferrite shapes 31
9.1.3 Protective and supportive structure 31

Chapter – 10 32-34
10.1 EV Batteries 32
10.2Battery type 32-33
10.2.1 Lead Acid 32
10.2.2 Nickel cadmium 32
10.2.2 Nickel metal hybride 32
10.2.3 Lithium ion 32-33
10.3 Battery models 33-34

Chapter – 11 35-36
11.1 Conclusion 35
11.2 Future Research 36

References 37-38

2
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Transmission of power without wires for supplying power to electrical devices and
equipment, and for charging has been contemplated since the times of Tesla. However, this
was not possible at that time because associated enabling technologies were not available. A
breakthrough to this end was achieved in 2007 when researchers lit up a bulb from a wireless
power source at a distance of two meters. Much advancement in this field has been made
since this major success. Electric vehicle (EV) charging is one of the many other areas where
the option of wireless power transfer (WPT) has good potential and is being actively
explored due to its many advantages.

The traditional wired or plug-in charging systems are also called conductive charging
systems. There are a few problems associated with these wired charging systems. For
example, they require heavy charging wires and connectors. Furthermore, the charger should
be manually connected to the electrical supply and the device to be charged. The wired
charging system is also not user and environment-friendly. If there is a short circuit or
breakdown of the insulation of the charging wire due to reasons, such as high temperature,
friction with the ground, or the charging device itself, then this can cause an electric shock
which can be fatal. To reduce the charging time, and hence the potential hazards associated
with it, a large number of batteries can be used or the drained batteries can be swapped with
the charged batteries when needed. For example, if a vehicle can run a certain distance on a
single charge with a given number of batteries, then the travel range can be increased by
using a higher number of batteries. Alternatively, the vehicle batteries can be swapped with
the charged batteries at charging stations during travel. However, the batteries have their own
set of problems. The batteries have heavyweight and have a high initial cost but short life.
Due to their weight, it may not be possible to carry a large number of batteries beyond a
certain number. Future innovations in energy storage devices may help overcome these
problems. However, another possible method to overcome the problems associated with the
batteries is the WPT. For example, heavy and large large-cemeteries can be avoided and the
initial cost can be reduced by using the dynamic wireless power charging system [12].
Furthermore, the WPT method is convenient and user- friendly as it removes the hassle of
wires and connectors associated with manual plugged-in charging systems.

1.2 Historical Content

The great scientist Nikola Tesla for his limitless amazing invention of wireless power transfer
3
is one of the great. He started his experiment on wireless power transmission in 1891 and
developed the Tesla coil. In 1901 with the primary goal to develop a new wireless power
transmission system Tesla started developing the Wardenclyffe Tower for large high-voltage
wireless energy transmission stations. The saddest part is to satisfy Tesla's debts, the tower
was dynamited and demolished for scrap on July 4th, 1917.

The basic principle of wireless charging is the same as the transformer working principle. In
wireless charging there are a transmitter and receiver, 220V 50Hz AC supply is converted
into High frequency alternating current and this high-frequency AC is supplied to the
transmitter coil, then it creates an alternating magnetic field that cuts the receiver coil and
causes the production of AC power output in the receiver coil. But the important thing for
efficient wireless charging is to maintain the resonance frequency between the transmitter
and receiver. To maintain the resonant frequencies, compensation networks are added on
both sides. Then finally, this AC power at the receiver side is rectified to DC and fed
to the battery through Battery Management System (BMS).

Fig. 1 Wireless EV charging system

4
 CHAPTER 2

2. 1 Literature Review

Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) systems are designed to deliver

power efficiently from a stationary primary source to one or more movable
secondary loads over relatively large air gaps via magnetic coupling. The
fundamental principles of such systems are identical to well-known closely
coupled electromechanical devices such as transformers and induction
motors, where the leakage inductance is much lower than the mutual
inductance. [1-3]

The mutual coupling within ICPT systems is generally weak. To deliver the
required power and ensure equipment sizes remain manageable, it is
necessary to operate at high frequency (normally above the audible range).
At present, the operational frequency for high-power applications is limited
to below 100 kHz as a result of switching losses. Moreover, resonant circuits
are normally employed in the primary and/or secondary networks to further
boost the power transfer capability, while minimizing the required voltage
and current ratings of the power supply. [4-6]

Modern power electronics have enabled many new applications such as

contactless power supply for professional tools, contact-less battery charging
across large air gaps for electric vehicles, compact electronic devices,
mobile phones, and medical implants. Other examples include material
handling systems and public transport systems where the secondary systems
are electrically isolated and move along a long track. Electric isolation is
also essential for power supplies in harsh environments such as mining and
outdoor lighting. The advantages of such systems are safety, reliability, low
maintenance, and long product life. [7-9]

Both the primary and secondary resonant circuits of the ICPT systems are
normally designed to operate at the nominal resonant frequency, but care
must be taken in such designs since system performance could deviate from
design expectations if the loading becomes significant. Generally, such
deviations are small if the mutual inductance is much lower than the leakage
inductance, but become more significant if the mutual inductance is
comparable to the leakage inductance as is the case in many practical
applications. In this paper, a general design approach is proposed that
includes the magnetic coupling effect in the primary resonance design for
5
the commonly used resonant

6
topologies. A design example for contactless electric vehicle battery charging
using a variable-frequency controller is proposed and verified. [10-12]

7
 Chapter – 3

3.1 Wireless power transfer

In a WPT system, the electrical energy may be transferred from the source to
the destination using near-field and far-field transmissions. The medium
used for far-field WPT may be acoustic, microwave, or optical. For the near
field, a capacitive or inductive coupling technique that is nonradiative
electric, magnetic or electromagnetic field is usually used. Microwaves may
be employed for transferring energy using frequencies in the range of 1 GHz
to 1000 GHz. In the optical method, power is transferred by a laser beam.
Both microwave and laser can be used for power transmission over long
distances. However, both require a clear line of sight between the transmitter
and the receiver. These are potentially harmful to humans and biological life
also. Some work for EV charging using microwave and laser has also been
done. However, these are not being used commercially as yet. WPT using
mutual coupling is an effective wireless charging technique. In this method,
the mutual coupling can be capacitive or inductive. Capacitive coupling
employing capacitors forms the basis of the CPT, and inductive coupling
using inductors results in the IPT. CPT-based wireless charging produces
low power levels and the charging gap is also small when compared to IPT-
based wireless charging. Therefore, IPT-based wireless charging techniques
are considered better and are being used for commercial deployment. In an
inductive coupling-based WPT, the current is produced by means of mutual
induction. A pair of coils is used for the transfer of electrical power. One of
the coils is the primary and may be considered an antenna for the
transmission of power. The other coil can be thought of as a secondary
serving as the receiving antenna. A time-varying voltage applied to the
transmitter side coil results in a magnetic field in the near field of that coil.
Due to this magnetic flux, a voltage is induced in the receiver side coil that is
present in the near field of the first coil. This is due to the mutual induction
between the coils. The inductive coupling-based WPT system may
additionally be augmented by a magnetic resonance network between the
primary and the secondary sides. At the resonance frequency, the coupling
wave has its maximum, and therefore, it results in an efficient power
transfer. The performance of the system may be affected by a number of
parameters which include the operating frequency, resistance, turns of coils,
and the diameter of the coils. So, these parameters should be considered and
tuned while using this technique. The process of inductive coupling-based
WPT is illustrated with the help of Fig. 3.1 In the IPT technique, the energy
is transferred using flux that is produced by the transmitter. If a large amount
8
of flux is received by the

9
receiver, then this means that the coupling between the coils is good. The
distance between the coils has a direct impact on the system efficiency, as it
limits the transmission of flux from the transmitter to the receiver. If the
distance between the coils increases beyond a certain limit, the coupling
decreases, and consequently, the working efficiency of the power
transmission reduces. Of the three methods used for the WPT described in
this section, only the mutual coupling is employed for the wireless charging
of EVs at present and will be the focus of discussion in the remainder of this
article. A comparison of the aforementioned power transfer methods on the
basis of cost, output power, distance, and biological effects on humans.

Fig.3.1 Inductive coupling is employed for wireless power transfer over a

short distance.

Mutual induction between a pair of coils is used for the transmission of

power. The primary coil acts as the transmitting antenna, whereas the
secondary coil serves as the receiving antenna.

10
 Chapter – 4

4.1 Electric vehicle charging techniques

The techniques used for the charging of an EV may be broadly categorized as wired or
wireless. The wired conductive charging may be further subdivided into three different
levels, which are level 1 (L-1), level 2 (L-2), and level 3 (L-3). Likewise, wireless charging
techniques may be divided into two main categories, which are, the CPT and the IPT. The
IPT is considered to be the preferred technique for wireless charging as compared with the
CPT method. The wireless charging techniques may also be subdivided into static and
dynamic methods. These different techniques and their further division.

4.1.1 Capacitive power transfer technique for charging

In a CPT system, the electric power is transferred using an electric field. When passing
through the electrically isolated metal barriers, the electric field shows only small power
losses. Therefore, it is considered suitable for the charging of EVs. Transmission of power is
done by using the capacitors. These capacitors are formed by using metal plates that are
cheaper. For example, aluminum plates can be used as these are good conductors, have
lightweight, and are low cost. The alignment of the vehicle and the charging pad is important
in a charging system. If there is a misalignment of position, detuning cannot be avoided in
the CPT charging method. The structure of a CPT charging system is simple, as metal plates
are used instead of coils. Two capacitive couplers for the transmission of power are formed
using four metal plates. These plates are placed horizontally and vertically depending upon
the application. The CPT wireless charging system is suitable for short-distance applications
that typically require low power. Usually, the distance is as small as 1 mm, which limits the
applications of the CPT charging system. In addition to EV charging, some of the additional
applications include robot charging, light-emitting diode (LED) drivers, and the excitation of
synchronous motors. The circuit topologies employing coupling capacitors in a CPT system
are a cause of the distance limitation. A CPT circuit topology is classified either as a resonant
topology or a non-resonant topology. The non-resonant topology uses the PWM for
conversion. To supply smooth power to the circuit, a coupling capacitor is used as a power
storage component. In a resonant topology, class E converter and series resonance converter
are used [123]. A compensation circuit is used in which the coupling capacitor resonates with
an inductor [97]. As a result, the coupling capacitance can be reduced while the resonant
inductance and switching frequency are high. However, self-resonant frequency limits the
inductance and efficiency, whereas power capability of the converter limits the switching
frequency. Another limiting factor of this topology is that it is sensitive to parameter
variation which may be caused by misalignment.

11
4.1.2. Inductive power transfer technique for charging

A typical IPT system may be subdivided into two main parts i.e. the primary side, which
transmits power, and the secondary side, which receives power. In an EV charging system
using the IPT, the primary side of the IPT system may be placed on or under the road while
the secondary side is mounted on the moving vehicle. The primary side transfers power to the
secondary side. The power source is mainly application dependent on the power
requirements of the device used. If the device being charged is power hungry, then a single or
three-phase system can be used while on the other hand if the power requirements for the
device are small, then small batteries can suffice. To convert low frequency to high
frequency, an inverter is used. The power transfer between the primary coil and the
secondary coil of an IPT system takes place due to the mutual coupling between the two
coils.

A physical contact between the EV and the charger is not required in an IPT system, as a
coupling technique with a small gap between the coils is used for the wireless transfer of
power. Therefore, the IPT is considered to be the prime method for the wireless charging of
an EV.

The working principle of an IPT system is the same as that of a transformer, as

electromagnetic induction is used for the transfer of power from the transmitting primary coil
to the receiving secondary coil. An IPT system may use resonance for an efficient power
transfer. The IPT provides a convenient charging process as it does not need any physical
connection. Charging can be done while the EV is steady or in a state of motion. The design
of magnetic structures is of prime consideration in an EV charging system. Shapes and sizes
of the materials that are used in the designing of magnetic structures are the prime parameters
for the determination of coupling and magnetic flux leakage between the coils. The power
transfer capability can be directly influenced by magnetic coupling. Leakage may result if the
coupling is not optimum. The leakage flux is that magnetic flux that does not take part in the
power transfer in an IPT system. International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation
Protection has a guideline that the leakage magnetic flux density should not be more than 27
micro Tesla when exposed to human beings as it is harmful beyond this threshold.

4.2. Static charging

All EVs have battery-related problems, such as heavy weight, high cost, long charging time,
and short driving range. The arrangement of a large number of available electric chargers on
a route can be viewed as a reasonable methodology to alleviate this problem . Wired chargers
are fixed, and therefore, a vehicle has to stop at a charging station for the purpose of
charging. Moreover, the mechanical connectors should be maintained routinely. Handling the
wires and the mechanical connectors is dangerous, especially in wet and dry conditions.
These issues can be resolved by adopting a wireless charging system. In a static wireless
12
charging system, an EV still has to stop charging, but there is no hassle of maintaining and
connecting mechanical connectors.

13
To charge an EV using the IPT static wireless charging technique, the vehicle is parked on
the charging pad at a charging station. The vehicle or the battery need not have a physical
connection with the charging system. Misalignment between the assembly installed on the
EV and the charging pad is acceptable to a certain degree. This technique is appropriate for
shopping malls and offices as the vehicle are parked for a specific time interval. A large
battery pack is required in this technique as previously seen for conductive charging systems.
Dynamic charging system helps to overcome the problem of large batteries. A summary and
comparison of various static charging technologies.

4.3. Dynamic charging

Dynamic wireless charging is an ideal candidate for the WPT methodology, as this allows the
vehicle to be charged while it is in motion. This also increases its traveling range, saves
drivers’ and passengers’ time, and improves their safety. The maintenance costs are also
reduced, as the mechanical connectors are no more needed for charging. Roadway-powered
EVs is one way to employ dynamic WPT. With this method, the EV is charged dynamically
by the WPT and does not require a long time for charging. By using this technique, public
transport can be charged even at stops when the passengers get down or board the bus or taxi.
This idea can also be used on highways. Certain paths can be consistently powered to charge
EVs. This will reduce the size of the battery pack, initial cost, complexity, and weight of the
vehicle. The range also increases with the use of this technique. Two types of magnetic
couplers are used for dynamic charging. In the first type, a single longitudinal coupler is laid
down while in the second type, the coupler is divided into segments. The segmented coupler
is more advantageous as compared to the longitudinal coupler. In the segmented coupler
approach, only that segment is energized where the receiving system of the vehicle is
currently present. This helps reduce power losses. The challenges involved in this technique
are high initial cost, installation to be distributed possibly along highways, and complex
management for scheduling. This technique is still being developed and only a few dynamic
charging systems are available. A summary of various dynamic wireless charging systems is
provided in Table 6.1.

A commonly used wireless charging system is proposed, which is based on the IPT mutual
inductance model. In the mutual inductance model, a two-port network is obtained by
transforming the T-type transformer. It is the most commonly used and simple model.
Likewise, a double-sided LCC compensation technique is proposed. In this technique, the
transmitting and the receiving sides use external capacitors and inductors. This technique is
not affected by the changing voltage of the battery in battery charging applications. This is
possible due to the resonant circuit. In this technique, the unity power factor is achieved and,
therefore, it has high efficiency. A topology that uses the CC and the CV charging modes
with a double-sided LCC technique is proposed. The flaws of the IPT charger can be
overcome by using this technique. Another model to dynamically charge an EV is
14
proposed. One of the

15
major disadvantages of dynamic wireless charging is low efficiency. For the purpose of high
efficiency of power exchange, various systems have been proposed, such as compelling
pickup tuning, pickup voltage strategies, proficient pickup modules, and resonant inverters
for wireless power exchange.

A typical model of electric vehicle dynamic wireless charging system

Some of the key elements of a DWCS for an EV are the power track and the battery. A major
part of the economic expense of a DWCS is also due to these two elements. Therefore, the
battery and the power track should be optimized and special consideration should be given to
these two elements while designing a dynamic charging system. An online electric vehicle
(OLEV) system uses dynamic wireless charging to charge the vehicles while they are in
motion. The following conditions are defined for the operation of this system:

• To serve passengers on a defined route the same OLEV buses are used.
• Speed of the bus and the driving cycle are predefined.
• When a bus is not in use, it is parked at a bus station.
• Once a bus completes its driving cycle, it stays at the bus station for charging. The
interval is called the resting or dwell time.

These rules are defined on the basis of the OLEV system model that was implemented in an
actual city.

16
 Fig.4.1 Stationary wireless charging systems for electric vehicles.

4.4. Charging pad

Transmitting pads, whether single or multiple, can be energized by a single power supply in
both SWPT and DWPT. Multiple power supplies are not necessarily needed for multiple
transmitting pads. There are different types of structures of charging pads, such as circular,
rectangular, or double D coils. Various types of materials are used for the construction of
coils. Copper is a commonly used material, but other materials are also being tested. High-
temperature superconductors (HTS) are suitable due to their properties. A single transmitting
pad is used by SWPT, while in DWPT, there are other possibilities too. For example, a single
17
long rail or multiple transmitting pads can be used for the charging of an EV. There are pros
and cons to both methods. A long rail can help reduce the number of components and control
difficulty. The advantage of using a long transmitting rail is that when an EV comes in the
near field of the rail, it provides constant power and current to the EV. However, the cost of
the components increases if the rail is energized by a single power source. Moreover, this
also results in a system with a single point of failure, and the entire system would shut down
if there were a problem at a single point. As a result, the reliability of the system is
compromised. Furthermore, if there is a significant difference between the size of the EV and
that of the rail, then this results in decreasing the coupling between the two. Hence the
system becomes inefficient. The coupling can also be affected by the air gap and the coil
distance. There is an inverse relation between the distance and the coupling. The size of the
coils also matters. Similarly, if there is a large difference in the primary and the secondary
coil sizes, then again this results in a small coupling between them.

Contrary to this, if more transmitting pads are used, then more power supplies, high-
frequency inverters, and a large number of components are used in the topology. However,
this topology has redundancy, and is more reliable as the single point of failure is avoided. If
a fault occurs in a system, the system may still function. Moreover, efficient use of switching
can decrease the number of active components. As multiple transmitting pads are used in this
system, only that transmitting pad can be switched on where EV passes, and all the
remaining pads can be switched off. This will result in enhancing the required coupling and
lowering the electromagnetic radiation. However, this topology increases the cost, and the
system complexity would also increase. The spacing between the pads is also an important
parameter in this system, which requires optimization. If the distance between the
consecutive pads is too small, then unwanted coupling may develop between the pads
thereby leaking energy. If the distance between the pads is too large, then this reduces the
undesired coupling, but the power cannot be transferred continuously. This also results in a
negative effect on the grid network. The magnetically coupled coils of an inductive WPT
system behave as a transformer, and the air gap between these coils results in a high leakage
inductance. For this reason, they are called loosely coupled coils. To enhance the system
efficiency, these coils are usually used along with capacitors so that a resonant circuit is
achieved. Series and parallel combinations of capacitors and inductors may be used for this
purpose . The compensating circuit is connected between the inverter and the primary coil on
the transmitting side, while it is connected between the rectifier and the secondary unit on the
receiving side. The main purpose of using the capacitors along with the inductors is to
optimize the reactive power.

4.5. Magnetic structures for the IPT system

Many designs of magnetic structures have been developed by researchers for the IPT
charging system. Some of the widely used magnetic structures for the charging of an EV are,
• bipolar pads (BPP),
• circular pad (CP), and
18
• double D (DD).

19
For the operation of single-phase mode, CP and DD magnetic structures are used as the
primary pads. The number of phases in the magnetic structures is determined by the number
of coils that are used in them. Different types of magnetic fields can be produced by different
arrangements of magnetic structures. The magnetic field produced as a result of the CP
structure is directed outwards from the center of the coil, whereas it is generated in the
direction of one axis of the pad in the DD structure. To produce a magnetic field on a single
side, ferrite is used underneath the coils in CP and DD structures. This results in the
improvement of the coefficient of coupling between the transmitting and the receiving coils.
In the CP structure, the magnetic field scatters. As a result, there is a small leakage of
magnetic flux. Moreover, when the secondary is not aligned well, then this results in a
lowering of the coupling factor. In a DD structure, the coil is wound such that two magnetic
poles of opposite polarity are created. This results in concentrating the magnetic field in the
space between the poles. Consequently, the tolerance to misalignment and magnetic coupling
is better in comparison with that in the CP structure. However, the magnetic flux leakage is
higher in DD as compared with the CP structure. In BPP, there are two mutually decoupled
coils. By changing the phase and the magnitude of the primary currents, these can be used in
many different modes. In BPP, the currents that are used for driving the coil are in phase or
out of phase by 180◦ so that a magnetic field equivalent to the CP or the DD can be generated
respectively. To generate a different magnetic shape, it can operate out of phase at other
angles rather than 180. Due to the ability of phase variation and ease of switching, the BPP is
a suitable candidate because performance can be improved by switching the modes .

20
 Chapter – 5

5.1 Comparison of capacitive and inductive power

transfer techniques

Both CPT and IPT, which are the two main techniques for WPT, have pros and cons. An
overview of the comparison between the CPT and the IPT techniques Both these techniques
are further discussed in this section. While the CPT is suited only to low-power systems, the
IPT is considered to be appropriate for both high and low-power applications. As an EV
requires high power in the range of kWs for charging, the IPT may be preferred over CPT for
EV charging applications. IPT works on the same principle as that of a transformer. Without
a physical connection, the energy is transferred between the coils. Therefore, mutual
induction and coupling play an important role in an IPT system. To achieve a good
coefficient of coupling, the gap between the transmitting primary and receiving secondary
coils should be appropriately adjusted. In a regular transformer, efficient transmission of high
power is not possible by utilizing this approach alone. Therefore, a compensating circuit
must be used that provides high voltages at the input and the output for the transmission of
high power. Based on the combination of the capacitor and the coil in the compensating
circuit, the IPT can be subdivided into different categories. The compensating capacitor can
be either in parallel or in series with the coil. Therefore, four combinations are possible.
These combinations are,
• parallel-parallel (PP),
• parallel-series (PS),
• series-parallel (SP), and
• series-series (SS).
Simplicity is the key advantage of this approach. However, all these combinations do not
support all the load conditions Efficiency can be compromised by variations in the load.
Moreover, there should be an alignment between the coil and the capacitor so that the power
level is maintained. To resolve this problem, different methods, such as the double-sided
LCC compensation method have been proposed. In the double-sided LCC compensation
method, one inductor and two capacitors are attached on both sides. For both the input and
the output, the resonant tank behaves as an energy source, and the current at the output is not
affected by the load conditions. One of the problems associated with IPT technology is
related to the coefficient of coupling. When the coefficient of coupling is low, the reactive
power is high, and the efficiency of power transmission is low.
Compensation tank helps improve the efficiency and reduces the reactive power [74]. As a
result, the load and the coupling coefficient are invariant of the resonance frequency. This is
one of the main advantages of the IPT technology.

For an efficient transfer of electric energy from the primary to the secondary side coil in an
IPT system, the frequency should be high. For this purpose, the low-frequency AC current

21
that is supplied by the grid is first converted into DC. After this, it is changed to high-
frequency

22
current by using DC/AC converters. Next, the power transfer takes place as a result of the
magnetic induction. The voltage induced on the secondary side is then rectified and
converted to DC and is utilized by the EV battery. To transfer high power and achieve high
efficiency, compensation capacitors are used on both sides. The choice of the compensating
elements is made by taking into consideration the mutual inductance and self-inductance of
the coil in case of static inductive charging. The use of such compensating elements should
be carefully evaluated in dynamic inductive charging systems because the inductance value
changes with respect to the motion of the EV. Though the IPT has advantages for charging
an EV, the CPT method is also being investigated for EV charging. In addition to the
consideration for EV charging, the CPT method is mostly used in low-power applications,
such as universal serial buses (USB), lamps, and small robots. The main limitation of the
CPT method is that the transmitted power is low and the distance over which it can be
transmitted is also small. The CPT method can also be categorized based on the type of
compensation circuit used. For a series resonant circuit, a series inductor is used with the
coupling capacitor. The capacitance is usually large as compared to the inductor. Another
method in CPT is the use of a class E converter. However, its power and efficiency are
limited due to the high-frequency converters. For the transmission of capacitive power, PWM
converters are used. Other topologies are also possible, such as LLC in which two inductors
and two capacitors are used on both sides. However, there is a loss of power due to a leakage
electric field in case the air gap is large.

23
 Chapter – 6

6.1 WPT systems and charging in electric vehicles

The WPT systems used for wireless charging can be divided into the following three
categories with respect to the state of motion of the EV,
(a) Stationary WPT (SWPT),
(b) Semi or quasi-dynamic WPT (QDWPT),
(c) Dynamic WPT (DWPT).

With the SWPT, a stationary EV is charged using the WPT. When compared to the plug-in
wired charger, the SWPT is different only in the wireless transfer of energy. The SWPT is
efficient in urban areas where the stations may be installed for EV charging. In the SWPT
system, two pads are used. One is for receiving, installed on the vehicle and the other is for
transmitting, installed on the charger. The QDWPT is used for short-term charging, and that
is why it may be installed at bus and taxi stands. Temporary stops at traffic lights can also be
used to energize EVs in this system. In a DWPT system, the electrical energy is transmitted
to an EV using a wireless medium while it is in motion. There is no need to stop and wait for
the charging of the vehicle. Each of the SWPT, the QDWPT, and the DWPT can be achieved
by using either the IPT or the CPT. Commercial scale deployments, at present, use the IPT
due to its higher power transfer ability with a larger gap between the transmitter and the
receiver when compared with the CPT. However, the IPT implementations of the SWPT, the
QDWPT, and the DWPT involve large copper coils with ferrous cores which make the
system bulky and heavy. On the other hand, CPT-based prototypes and implementations use
simpler structures involving plates and foils. The resulting charging system is not only lighter
but also cost- effective. However, power transfer levels are lower and the air gap is also quite
small. Due to the simplicity and cost-effectiveness, research is underway to overcome these
shortcomings of the CPT-based SWPT, QDWPT, and DWPT charging systems.

24
 Fig. 6.1 WPT

6.1.1 WPT operating principles

The basic principle of operation of a WPT system for an EV. The transmitter and receiver are
the two basic modules of this system. The transmitting i.e. the primary, and the receiving i.e.
the secondary coils are coupled and there is an air gap between these coils. A power
conversion circuit is installed on both sides. The primary coil is energized by the grid by
using a diode rectifier that is connected in series with an inverter. The operational frequency
of the inverter is high. The inverter, the rectifier, and the grid are used for setting up the
power supply to the primary coil. This power supply is equivalent to that which is provided
by a power source with a voltage and an internal resistance. One of the main parameters
25
for energy transfer is the

26
voltage provided by the power source or the generator. Therefore, the selection of the
generator is also important, which should provide a sinusoidal output. The voltage induced
by the secondary coil is fed to a rectifier circuit which is connected in series with a DC-to-
DC converter [103, 104]. The output is provided to the battery charging circuit. The output
voltage and the current can be adjusted according to the charging requirements of the battery.
The load on the secondary side is connected by a rectifier, chopper, and battery. Mutual
inductance is affected by a variation in the air gap that exists between the two coils. If there
is a large air gap between the coils, then a small mutual inductance will be produced and
there would be a large leakage inductance. Consequently, a large current is required to
transfer a specific amount of power. Losses will be induced due to this large current. These
losses will, in turn, affect the efficiency of the system. A compensating capacitor is used to
alleviate this problem. By using this capacitor, there would be only a resistive part in the
topology. This results in the reduction of losses that are produced by the circulating current.
As a result, the efficiency of the system is improved.

6.1.2. Charging process

The charging process of EV batteries involves two modes. In one mode, the charging current
is constant and the charging voltage is allowed to vary. It is referred to as the constant current
(CC) charge. In the other mode, the charging voltage is kept fixed and the charging current is
allowed to change. This is referred to as the constant voltage (CV) charge. At the start of the
charging process of a drained battery, the CC mode is used. The charging current is usually
kept at almost 10% of the battery rating. As soon as the battery SoC reaches near its rated
capacity, say 80%, the CV mode is then used for charging the battery. This ensures a smooth
charging process without overheating and damaging the battery, though it may require a
longer period of time to charge. If the CV mode is used to charge a drained battery at the
beginning, then a heavy charging current may result which may overheat or damage the
battery. Therefore, the CV mode is usually not used when a battery is charged to less than
80% of its full capacity. Similarly, if the CC mode is used to charge a battery near the rated
capacity, then it may result in overcharging the battery, which may also overheat or damage
it. The fluctuation of the current and the voltage decreases the
battery life. If the load varies during the charging process of the batteries, thereby resulting in
a change of its SoC, then the CC and the CV modes can be used as needed to maintain an
efficient charging process. For constant-duty converters, two modulation techniques can be
used to deal with the load variations. In pulse width modulation (PWM), the frequency is
constant while the pulse width is varied. In pulse frequency modulation (PFM), the width of
the pulse is constant while the frequency is variable. Instead of using a single modulation
technique, both PWM and PFM can also be used. In the PWM control, the switching noise
can be predicted as the frequency is fixed. Therefore, the filtering process is easier. On the
other hand, the number of switching operations also remains the same due to the constant
frequency irrespective of heavy or light load. Hence, the self-consuming current is also fixed,
which leads to high switching losses at light loads thereby reducing the efficiency. In the
PFM control, the frequency increases when the load is heavy and it decreases when the
27
load is light. As the

28
switching frequency decreases under light loads, the number of switching operations also
decreases. This also decreases the switching losses. However, noise filtering in the PFM is
difficult due to variations in the frequency. Therefore, for heavy loads and loads with small
variations, PWM is preferable. For light loads and loads with significant variation, the PFM
technique may be used, as a change in the frequency is unavoidable for operations with a
changing load. Due to this variation, the converter would need more work for regulating the
current. Furthermore, the voltage may not remain stable and, as a result, zero voltage
switching (ZVS) operation will be affected. The same is true for the current, thereby
affecting the zero current switchings (ZCS) operation. Power transfer capacity and power
loss can also be affected. However, variation in the battery voltage does not affect the
resonance circuit. Misalignment also has a negligible effect on resonance due to self-
inductance of the coils. Therefore, it is appropriate that the batteries are charged using the CC
charging mode when the SoC drops well below the rated capacity due to load variation [107].
The input power factor of the inverter and the efficiency can be improved by using this
method.

Fig.6.2 An EV can be charged using wired or wireless methods

29
 Chapter – 7

7.1 Wireless power transfer method

Since the introduction of wireless charging systems for EVs, four methods for the design of
WEVCS have been utilized: traditional inductive power transfer (IPT), capacitive wireless
power transfer (CWPT), magnetic gear wireless power transfer (MGWPT), and resonant
inductive power transfer (RIPT). Table 1 presents the summary of available wireless power
transfer technologies for battery-operated electric vehicles (BEVs).

Fig. 7.1 Comparison of wireless charger technologies

7.1.1 Capacitive wireless power transfer

The low cost and simplicity of CWPT technology, using advanced geometric and mechanical
structures of the coupling capacitors is very useful for low-power applications, such as
portable electronics devices cellular phone chargers, and rotating machines shows a typical
schematic diagram of the series resonant circuit-based CPWT. In the CWPT, coupling
capacitors are utilized to transfer power from the source to the receiver instead of using coils
or magnets. The main AC voltage is applied to an H-bridge converter through power factor
correction circuitry. High-frequency AC generated by the H-bridge passes through coupling
capacitors at the receiver side. Unlike the IPT, the CWPT operates for both high voltage and
low current. In order to reduce the impedance between the transmitter and receiver sides at
the resonant arrangement, additional inductors are added in series with the coupling
capacitors. This arrangement also helps to enable soft switching into the circuitry. Similarly,
the received AC voltage is converted to DC for the battery bank or load with the utilization
of a rectifier and filter circuitry. The power transfer level totally relies on the size of the
coupling capacitor and the distance between the two plates. For a small air gap, CWPT offers
excellent performance and better field constraints developed between two plates of the
30
[Link] date, the

31
application of CWPT for EVs has been limited due to large air gaps and high power level
requirements. Air-gap reduction and high capacitance coupling designs were suggested for
the rotary mechanism. The author proposed to use the car’s bumper bar as a receiver, to
reduce the air gap between the two coupling plates. A stationary laboratory prototype >1 kW
was demonstrated with approximately 83% efficiency from the DC source to the battery bank
at the 540 kHz operating frequency.

Fig.7.2 Schematic diagram of Capacitive Wireless Power Transfer.

7.1.2. Magnetic gear wireless power transfer

Magnetic gear WPT (MGWPT) is relatively different to both the CWPT and [Link] this
method, two synchronised permanent magnets (PM) are positioned side-by-side in contrast to
other coaxial cable based WEVCS. The main power as the current source is applied to the
transmitter winding to produce a mechanical torque on the primary PM. With the utilisation
of the mechanical torque, the primary PM rotates and induces a torque on the secondary PM
through mechanical interaction. In two synchronised PMs, the primary PM works as
the generator mode and the secondary PM receives power and delivers it to the battery
through the power converter and BMS . A laboratory prototype of 1.6 kW of the MGWPT
was developed and is capable of delivering around 150 mm air gap distance. However, this
technique has many challenges associated with incorporating the technology into static and
dynamic applications. According to, at 150 Hz rotators lost their synchronization speed,
which significantly affected the transmitted power. The speed requires constant adjustment,
with the advanced feedback system from the battery side to the primary side, in order to
prevent the upper power limit from being exceeded. The power transfer capability is
inversely proportional to the axis-to-axis separation between the primary and secondary PMs
as the coupling between the two synchronized windings reduces abruptly. As a result, it may
be usable for stationary WEVCS but considerably challenging for dynamic applications.

32
 Fig.7.3. Schematic diagram of magnetic gear based WPT.

7.1.3. Inductive power transfer

Traditional IPT was developed by Nikola Tesla in 1914 to transfer power wirelessly. The
basic block diagram of the traditional IPT. It is based on several EV charging structures. IPT
has been tested and utilised in a wide variety of areas ranging from milliwatts to kilowatts to
transfer contactless power from the source to the receiver. In 1996, General Motors (GM)
introduced the Chevrolet S10 EV, which was charged by the magne-charge IPT (J1773)
system to provide level 2 (6.6 kW) slow and level 3 (50 kW) fast charges . The primary coil,
known as a charging paddle (inductive coupler) of the magne-charge, was inserted into the
vehicle charging port where the secondary coil received power and allowed to charge the
EV. A
6.6 kW Level 2 EV charger was demonstrated by the University of Georgia, which was able
to charge from 200 to 400 V battery voltage at 77 kHz operating frequency. In this universal
IPT, a 10 KVA coaxial winding transformer offered significant advantages, such as easy-to-
modify power range and flexibility of the inductive coupling design .
.

Fig. 7.4 Schematic Diagram of Traditional Inductive Power Transfer

7.4. Resonant inductive power transfer

The RIPT is one of the most well-known and advanced versions of the traditional IPT, in
33
terms of designing power electronics and wireless transformer coils. Like other WPTs, the
main AC

34
voltage is converted into the HF AC source and supplied to the transmitter or primary
winding. The receiver or secondary coil receives power via varying magnetic fields. The
received power is converted to DC for the battery bank of the EVs through additional power
electronics and filter circuitry. In comparison to the traditional IPT, additional compensation
networks in the series and/or parallel configurations are added to both the primary and
secondary windings not only to create the resonant case as presented in (1) but also to reduce
additional losses.

Fr(p,s) =1/2*pi(root(Lp*Cp) (1)

where fr is the resonant frequency of the primary and secondary coils, and Land C are the
self- inductance and resonant capacitor values of the transmitter and receiver coils,
respectively. When the resonant frequencies of the primary and secondary coils are matched
together, efficient power transfer is possible. The operating frequency of the RIPT ranges
from tens of kilohertz to several hundred kilohertz. The magnetic flux generated at this
frequency range, without any magnetic core, has a significantly adverse effect on the mutual
inductance and hence the reduction of the coupling coefficient (k). The value of the coupling
coefficient in the RIPT varies from 0.2 to 0.3 due to the minimum height clearance
requirement of the EVs, which is 150–300 mm . Eq. (2) can be applied to calculate
the coupling coefficient. Lp and Ls are the self-inductance of the transmitter and receiver
coils, respectively. Lmis the mutual inductance between the two coils. If the primary and
secondary coils are strongly coupled, the mutual inductance value would be higher, and vice
versa

Km = Lm/(Root(LpLs) (2)

Fig. 7.5 Schematic diagram of Resonant Inductive Power Transfer.

35
 Chapter - 8

8.1Compensation networks
Compensation capacitors are added in series and parallel combinations on both the
transmitter and receiver sides in the static wireless charging systems for EVs to create RIPT.
Four types of compensation network topologies, namely series-series (SS), series–parallel
(SP), parallel- series (PS) and parallel-parallel (PP). The source compensation is required to
eliminate phase difference between current and voltage and to minimise the reactive power in
the source .The installation of a secondary compensation network maximises the load power
transfer and efficiency . Additionally, the selection of the network topologies relies on the
specific application requirements in the WPT. The PS- and PP-compensated WCS are
protected so that the source coil does not operate in the absence of the receiver coil. Even
though it offers a safe environment, the system is unable to transfer sufficient
power in the case of misalignment between the source and the receiver .It also requires
additional series inductors to regulate the source current to flow into parallel in the resonant
circuit. The value of the capacitor is its reliance on the magnetic coupling and quality factor .
The primary compensation capacitor value is not dependent on mutual inductance in SP-
based compensated WCS and can offer high power transfer than the graded system.
However, it is critically dependent on variation of load . SS-compensated topology is the
most suitable for EV applications because it offers two significant advantages . The first
advantage is that the value of the capacitor in the source and receiver sides is independent
from the load conditions and mutual inductance. As a result, the resonant frequencies of the
source and receiver sides are not reliant upon the mutual inductance and loads but depend on
self-inductance of the primary and secondary coils . The second advantage is that such
systems maintain a unity power factor by drawing active power at the resonant frequency as
the reflected impedance from the receiver coil does not add an imaginary part in the
transmitter coil. This SS-topology based WCS can offer a better battery charging option
because it may offer a constant voltage and current for the battery.

Fig.8.1. Compensation topology (a) Series-Series (b) Series-Parallel (c) Parallel-Series (d) Parallel-
Parallel.

36
Fig. 8.2 Advantages and features of compensation networks.

37
 Chapter – 9

9.1 Wireless transformer topologies

In the wireless charging systems, the transmitter and receiver pads are made of multiple
component layers in order to gain maximum power transfer efficiency and
lower electromagnetic interference with cost effectiveness. There are three main components
of the wireless transformer pads: coil, shielding material (ferrite and aluminium plate), and
protective and supportive layers a variety of views of the wireless transformer pads.

Fig. 9.1 Wireless Transformer (a) exploded view (b) Top view (c) Cross-section.

9.1.1 Coil shapes

In WCS for EVs, an air-core wireless transformer concept is used to transfer several watts to
kilowatts of power from the source to receiver sides. A variety of planar coil shapes such as
circular, rectangular, and hybrid arrangements have been utilised in the wireless transformer
designs to improve performance and to solve misalignment problems between the transmitter
and receiver pads . Wireless charging coils are categorised in two main areas: polarised pads
(PPs) and non-polarised pads (NPPs). Polarised pads are created from multiple coils and
shapes to generate perpendicular (vertical) and parallel (horizontal) components of the flux.
In contrast, non-polarised pads are constructed from the single coil shape to produce only
perpendicular (vertical) components of the flux . NPPs are the traditional shaped coils, such
as circular, square, rectangular and hexagonal. The circular coil is a well-known and widely
used structure in wireless transformers because eddy current in this structure is kept to a
minimum (there are no sharp edges). By adjusting internal diameter, the magnetic flux
distribution can be controlled. For smaller centre diameters, the magnetic field lobe would be
a spike shape, which can help to improve the coupling coefficient. Increasing the centre
diameter can expand the magnetic flux distribution areas with lower amplitude compromise,
which can assist in misalignment problems When the offset distance between two
windings reaches around
38
±40%, the receiver power reduces to minimal . Square and rectangular shape coils are suitable

39
when they require arrangement in an array due to perfectly aligned sides. However, they
increase inductance because the sharp corner edges generate eddy current and increase
impedance and hot spots. This makes it unsuitable for high-power applications. Rectangular
shape coils demonstrate greater horizontal misalignment tolerance in comparison to the
circular and square coils. However, hexagonal coil shapes present the maximum power
transfer efficiency at the central position of the transmitter and receiver coils, but with a
significant reduction in the power when it reaches the edge of the coil . Oval shaped coils
provide more tolerance with misalignment but these are not suitable for high power
applications Due to poor performance on the horizontal misalignment, PPs are invented by
arranging multiple shape coils in a variety of arrangements. Such shapes are not only suitable
for single-phase applications, but also for three-phase applications. Solenoidal coil, double D
(DD), Double D quadrature (DDQ), bipolar (BP) and Quad D quadrature (QDQ) are
examples of the PPs pads or coupler. Solenoidal coils are created by winding coils around the
flat ferrite plate, which can produce polarised sharp arching magnetic fluxes on both sides of
the coupler. This can be done by magnetically connecting two wound coils in series and
electrically in parallel. Such polarised fluxes are higher than the NPP’s fluxes . Double D
(DD) polarised pads are created from two square or rectangular coils that generate flux in
only one direction (opposite to the ferrite plate) with minimal leakage fluxes at the edge. It
offers significant advantages in that it covers both horizontal (X & Y) and vertical directions.
In addition, this design can provide an excellent coupling coefficient and quality factors for
the unloaded coil. Due to higher tolerance of the horizontal misalignment, this pad can be
suitable for primary coupling in stationary and dynamic applications . The Double D
quadrature (DDQ) coil is the advanced version of the DD pad with the production of a twice
flux height compared to the circular pad. In addition to the DD pad’s features, it also
provides significant improvement on the lateral misalignment issues with the Q coil
manufacturing versatility. The DDQ coupler is suitable for the single or three-phase power
source application, either primary or secondary. It can be an excellent choice as a secondary
pad due to its ability to grab both sine and cosine magnetic flux vectors . Bi-polar (BP)
charging pads are constructed from multiple similar size coils. In comparison to the DDQ
pad, BP requires around 25 to 30% less copper for the construction. However, it drops 13%
in coupling coefficient with 30° angular misalignment between the primary and secondary
coils in single or three-phase applications. Quad D quadrature (QDQ) pads have been
suggested to improve the overall performance, including misalignment and flux height to
reach the receiver. Such shapes utilise two or more circular and square coils in order to
design wireless transformers . QDQ pads offer a significantly higher coupling coefficient
(0.33 at 150 mm air gap) and are able to transfer sufficient power with 50% misalignment
displacement .

40
Fig. 9.2. Coil shapes (a) Circular (b) Square (c) Rectangular (d) Double D (e) Bi-polar (f) Double-D
quadrature (g) Quad-D quadrature.

Fig. 9.3 Ferrite shapes (a) Circular (b) circular striated (c) square (d) rectangular (e) T-core (f) U-core
(G) E-core (h) Double U (i) striated blocks.

41
9.1.2. Magnetic ferrite shapes
Another important component of the wireless transformer is magnetic ferrite structure. In the
WEVCS, the magnetic flux is generatedin medium to high power ranges. This would be high
and there is a need to meet safety standards to avoid any health and safety issues. In addition,
it affects coupling efficiency between two windings, particularly if there is no shielding to
reduce the leakage fluxes. Proper design of magnetic ferrite cores can not only assist to
redirect path to magnetic fluxes from primary to secondary, but also improve mutual
inductance and self-inductance of the coils . The selection of ferrite core depends on multiple
factors including size, shape, permeability, operating frequency and cost. Basic ferrite shapes
such as circular, square and rectangular (as demonstrated in E-core and U-core) have been
utilised in the source pad as well as on the receiver side to reduce leakage fluxes in the WCS
for EVs .Circular hollow and circular arranged ferrite bars have been modified to reduce
either weight or cost, or adjusted depending on the application. Even though EE-core, U-
core, ETD and pot ferrite shapes offer a higher coupling coefficient, they are not suitable due
to their height, because EVs have limited standard ground clearance. Striated ferrite
structures have also been utilised to create a variety of shapes and sizes to reduce leakage
inductance and enhance cost effectiveness. Higher permeability materials, such as Mn-Zn,
are the best option for such application because of affordability and availability.
In WEVCS, aluminium plating offers two significant functions: shielding material and
structure integrity. Aluminium construction reduces flux leakages and improves the coupling
coefficient in the WCS for EVs through means of eddy currents The utilisation of the
aluminium plate sizes are generally a few millimetres to some millimetres (5), which is
higher than the skin depth of the WCS’s operating frequency range from 20 kHz to 100 k Hz.
When the magnetic fluxes try to pass through the aluminium structure, it prevents penetration
through the surface thickness and forces them to increase the length of the magnetic flux
contour as a result. This weakens the value of the magnetic fluxes due to higher magnetic
path resistance. Aluminium plates are mostly placed underneath the ferrite structures because
without the ferrite the mutual inductance of the coils is greatly reduced . In addition, ferrite
plates are very fragile and may be constructed from the multiple planar blocks due to limited
availability of the larger planar ferrite plates on the market.

9.1.3. Protective and supportive structure

In WEVCS, the transmitter pad is mounted underneath the concrete structure of the road and
is able to handle a car’s weight and additional vibration of the vehicle. In order to improve
structure stability, the top and bottom players of the charging pads are manufactured from a
PVC plastic sheet. The length and width are dependent on the charging pad size and
thickness and vary in size from 5 mm to 20 mm. Sometimes transparent acrylics are also
added around the coil for support and to enhance the appearance of the charging pad.

42
 Chapter – 10

10.1 Electric vehicle batteries

In an EV, batteries are used for the storage of electrical energy, which is supplied by the
charging system. Some parameters of a charging system, such as, charge rate and charging
time, may depend upon the type, size and other characteristics of the batteries. Therefore,
batteries play an important role in the overall system performance .In this section, we briefly
discuss different types of batteries which are commonly used in EVs. We also provide a short
description of different types of models which are used for the study and investigation of
these batteries.

10.2 Battery types There are different types of batteries that may be used in the EVs for
storage of the energy supplied by the charging system. The most common types of batteries
which have been used in the EVs include lead acid, nickel cadmium (NiCad), nickel metal
hydride (NiMH) and lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries . In the following, we give a brief
description of each type of these batteries.

10.2.1. Lead acid It is one of the earliest types of batteries that was developed. It dominated
the market before other types of batteries were introduced. Lead acid batteries are low cost
and have high availability . However, these batteries have low specific energy and therefore
are quite heavy. These batteries are not recommended to be discharged below 50% of their
capacity as it would shorten their life . While in operation and while being charged, these
batteries may emit chemical fumes which should be vented.

10.2.2. Nickel cadmium Nickel cadmium batteries have specific energy higher than a lead
acid battery but smaller than a Li-ion battery . It can tolerate deep discharge compared to
other types of batteries and is considered suitable for use under rough conditions. Moreover,
NiCad batteries have a high life cycle . However, these batteries may have charging
problems at high temperatures. Furthermore, NiCad batteries should be disposed off carefully
as these batteries use cadmium which is a toxic heavy metal.

10.2.3. Nickel metal hydride NiMH batteries have high specific energy and have long lives.
These batteries provide nearly constant voltage even when the SoC is low . They are also
considered environment friendly. However, they have low efficiency when being charged
and discharged. Moreover, charging these batteries at a fast rate may result in temperature
rise . They have a high self discharge rate and do not perform well under cold weather
conditions.

10.2.4. Lithium ion Li-ion batteries have high specific energy and high energy density
compared with the other types of batteries . These batteries have high cell voltage, good life
span and low self discharge rate. They have fast charging ability as compared with the other
battery types .The load characteristics are also good and a Li-ion battery provides a
43
reasonably constant cell voltage. However, the performance of these batteries is sensitive to
temperature

44
.Moreover, their capacity may drop with age and after a certain number of charge discharge
cycles. Apart from these common batteries, other types, such as, sodium nickel chloride and
ultracapacitors are also being investigated for use in EVs. However, due to their high cell
voltage, high energy efficiency and low self discharge rate, the Li-ion batteries are preferred
for use in EVs. The other types of batteries that have been discussed may also be used for
supplementary usage or in small and medium EVs. A quantitative comparison of the
different types of batteries .

10.3. Battery models Drivetrain is connected with the battery pack and provides power to the
vehicle so that the vehicle can move. Hence, the battery is an important component in a
wireless charging system, and its electrical properties should be investigated and analysed .
Performance of a battery depends upon many factors, such as, capacity, temperature, battery
life, state of health and state of charge (SoC) .

Fig.10.1 Difference between batteries

45
Therefore, different types of battery models have been proposed. Each model has its own
utility so that each model may be used for the analysis of a different aspect of a battery.
There are pros and cons of each type of model. These models are categorised as
electrochemical, electrical and mathematical models.

46
 Chapter - 11

11.1 Conclusion

This thesis has dealt with Wireless Charging Systems for Electric Vehicle Batteries. An
Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) system for an E-bike battery charging has been designed and
assembled. The target is a 36 V 10 Ah LiFePO4 battery and the power level ranges from 100
W to 250 W. After the magnetic design of the IPT coils, the electric model of the coupling
structure has been gained and acquired from an electronic simulation tool, in order to
complete the design of the whole system. A series-series (SS) compensation topology has
been chosen for the capacitive network that has been connected to the coupled coils. In the
assembled open- loop prototype, a half-bridge converter in the transmitter side and a four-
diode rectifier in the receiver side have been designed. From the experimental results, a 79 %
coupling efficiency for an about 100 W level arises. A magnetic characterization of the
region surrounding the assembled prototype has been made as well. According to the
magnetic field exposure guidelines, by ICNIRP, a minimum 25 cm distance from the center
of the system is suggested as safety distance. After the experimental measurements on the
power efficiency, alternative solutions of power electronics and coupling structures have
been investigated. A Bi- Directional IPT system has been analyzed and an algorithm for its
efficiency optimization has been proposed. Mathematical analysis has been validated through
power electronics simulations. For this system, an investigation has been carried out on
different magnetic coupling structures, all compliant with an E-bike wheel, and the best
option in terms of system efficiency and tolerance to lateral misalignments has been defined.
The investigation has been made according to the results of 3D magnetic simulations and
their elaboration.

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11.2 Future Research

For a highly efficient WPT, the primary and the secondary side coils should be perfectly
aligned .Even a slight misalignment of the coils reduces the coefficient of coupling and
results in decreasing the efficiency of the WPT . The misalignment results in flux leakage
thereby reducing the system efficiency. The flux leakage may also cause a linkage with a
nearby metal object which not only results in energy loss but it may also damage the object.
Therefore, misalignment in wireless charging systems is an important challenge which
should be overcome . Different methods have been proposed to increase the misalignment
tolerance. These proposed methods use different types of coil geometries, combining coils of
different geometries into one unit, overlapping configuration, and resonance frequency
tuning circuits. These methods may require additional space and they also add to the weight .
Therefore, they have limited applications in EVs. Similarly, improved compensation
topologies and radio based methods have also been proposed to handle misalignment .
Alternative methods which do not depend upon altering the coil geometry, such as vehicle
tracking and autonomous guidance system are also being explored to address the
misalignment problem . For example, sensors may be used for the detection and
measurement of misalignment between the transmitter and the receiver coils. Afterwards, an
autonomous control system is used for the alignment of the receiver coil with the transmitter.
For SWCS, these methods can be used along with autonomous parking systems . However,
in the case of DWCS, application of these methods requires additional considerations, such
as, type of vehicle and vehicle speed. For future research, it is recommended that the
deployment of the sensor systems may be investigated for the improvement in the alignment.
The misalignment can also be compensated using electromagnetic meta material. In addition,
the misalignment effect may be handled by using active compensation networks and coupler
systems. Improved communication and control systems may also be investigated to solve the
misalignment problem.

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