METRICAL APPENDIX1

(i) BASIC PRINCIPLES

(A) STRESSED AND Q U A N T I T A T I V E VERSE

In metres familiar to speakers of English, rhythm is measured by the predictable alter-

nation of one or more stressed syllables with one or more unstressed syllables (dis-
tinguished by the notation - and >->, or ' and x ). Consequently, it is word-accent that
determines whether or not a word or sequence of words may stand in a certain part
of the verse. Thus the word Hellenic may occupy the metrical unit represented by the
notation *->^~> by virtue of the stress imparted to its second syllable in everyday pro-
nunciation. In contrast, the rhythms of classical Greek metres are measured by the
predictable alternation of one or more 'heavy* syllables with one or more 'light'
syllables (defined below, and distinguished by the notation - and <->), so that in the
construction of Greek verse the factor of primary importance is not word-accent but
syllabic 'weight*. Thus the word 'EAXrivcov, although accented in normal speech on
the second syllable, consists for metrical purposes of three heavy syllables, and for
this reason can only occupy the metrical sequence . Verse constructed upon this
principle is conventionally designated quantitative: it should be emphasized that this
term refers to the quantity (or 'weight') of syllables, and that throughout this account
such quantity is described by the term 'heavy' and 'light' to distinguish it from the
intrinsic length of vowels; unfortunately, both syllabic weight and vowel-length are
still generally denoted by the same symbols, - and <->.

(B) SYLLABIFICATION
A syllable containing a long vowel or diphthong is heavy (e.g. the first syllables of
Scopov and 6oOXo$).
A syllable containing a short vowel is light if it ends with that vowel (e.g. the first
syllable of 9£pos), but heavy if it ends with a consonant (e.g. the first syllable of

1
References by name only are to bibliography under (4) below.

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To decide whether or not a short-vowelled syllable ends with a consonant (and thus
to establish its quantity), the following rules should be observed:1 (i) word-division
should be disregarded; (ii) a single consonant between two vowels or diphthongs
belongs to the succeeding syllable (thus Wyw -»• le-go; irddsvfiXyect-> pd-the-nal-
ge-a); (iii) of two or more successive consonants, at least one belongs to the pre-
ceding syllable (thus te\i\xa - • lem-ma; <P1ATCCTE £kwy\> -»• phll-ta-tek-se-non).
Note: the rough breathing does not count as a consonant (except in the case of
p, which normally makes the preceding syllable heavy; see West 15-16); 3, § and y
count as two (id, ks and ps).
To (iii) there is an important exception. In the case of the combination of a plosive
and a liquid or nasal consonant (irp9, T69, Kyx followed by A or p, or by M or v), the
syllabic division may be made either between the consonants (e.g. Trorrpdj ->pat-ros)
or before them (e.g. pa-tros), resulting in either a heavy or a light preceding syllable.
However, when two such consonants belong to different parts of a compound or to
two different words, the division is always made between them, giving a heavy
preceding syllable e.g. eKXeyco -> ek-le-go not i-kle-go; EK X6ywv -*• ek~lo-gon, not
e-klo-gon). Lastly, when, after a short final vowel, these consonants begin the next
word, the division is nearly always (except in epic) made before them, giving a light
preceding syllable (e.g. 6 KASIVOS -> Ad-klei-nos).
See further West 15-18.

(C) ACCENT
The accent of ancient Greek was basically one of pitch (i.e. 'tonal'). It had a negligible
influence on the construction of recited verse (though it clearly affected the melody
of the spoken line), and in lyric verse was completely subordinate to the requirements
of the musical accompaniment. Whether there was also an element of stress in the
accentuation of classical Greek (either related to the tonal accent or independent of it),
and, if there was, whether it had any significant effect on the construction of recited
verse, are matters of debate: see Allen (1973) 274-334, (1974) 120-5, 161-7 (with
bibliography 161; see also M. L. West, Gnomon 48 (1976) 5-6).
A fundamental change in accentuation took place by gradual stages in later an-
tiquity. By the latter part of the 4th c. A.D. the tonal accent had been replaced by a
'dynamic' one: i.e. the accented syllable was no longer differentiated by variation of
pitch but by stress. This change was reflected in the structure of verse, which ceased
to be quantitative and came to be based on the opposition of stressed and unstressed
syllables; see Allen (1974) 119-20, West 162-4.

1
The resulting division is practical only; for the difficulties involved in an absolute definition of
the syllabic unit see Allen (1973), esp. 27-40.

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(2) TECHNICAL TERMS

Anceps (' unfixed'): term used to describe a metrical element which may be represented
by either a heavy or a light syllable. The final element of many Greek metres is
regularly of this nature, but not in certain lyric metres in which there is metrical
continuity (synaphea) between as well as within lines. In this account the convention
is followed of marking final anceps as heavy.
Antistrophe: see Strophe.
Aphaeresis: see Synecphonesis.
Arsis: see Thesis.
Caesura ('cutting') and diaeresis: division between words within a verse is tradi-
tionally termed caesura when occurring inside a foot or metron, and diaeresis when
occurring at the end of a foot or metron (but cf. M. L. West, C.Q. n.s.32 (1982) 292-7).
The varied distribution of these plays an important part in avoiding monotony in the
construction of verse; in particular, the caesura prevents a succession of words co-
extensive with the feet or metra of a line.
Catalexis: the truncation of the final syllable of one colon or metron in relation to
another (e.g. the pherecratean is the catalectic form of the glyconic; see under (3b)
below).
Contraction: the substitution of one heavy syllable for two light ones.
Correption: see Elision.
Crasis: see Synecphonesis.
Diaeresis: see Caesura.
Elision and hiatus (' cleft'): a short final vowel is generally suppressed or elided when
immediately preceding another vowel. When it is not elided in these circumstances it
is said to be in hiatus; by the process of correption (commonest in early epic and elegy)
a long vowel or diphthong in hiatus (either within a word or at word-juncture) may
be scanned short to make a light syllable. See further West 10-15.
Epode: (1) A two-line period in which a short line follows a longer line (e.g. Archi-
lochus uses iambic trimeter plus dactylic hemiepes, hexameter plus iambic dimeter
etc.). (2) See Strophe.
Prodelision: see Synecphonesis.
Responsion: see Strophe.
Resolution: the substitution of two light syllables for a heavy one.
Strophe: metrical structure used by the dramatists and lyric poets, made up of one
or more periods and recurring in the same form either once (when the second strophe
is called the antistrophe) or more often. Triadic structure denotes the scheme in which
two strophes (strophe and antistrophe) are followed by a third of different metrical
form (epode); the scheme may be repeated ad lib.
Synaphea: see Anceps.
Synecphonesis: the merging into one syllable either of two vowels within a word

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(e.g. 6^6s as a monosyllable) or of afinaldiphthong or long vowel (or 6, 4, T6, T<4)
and an initial vowel; when the second word begins with e (generally tort) this is
known as prodelision or aphaeresis (e.g. irou 'OTIV). According to whether or not the
synecphonesis is indicated in writing, it is sometimes termed crasis (e.g. Kal £ycb->K&ycb)
or syniiesis (e.g. f| oCr as a monosyllable).
Syneiesis: see Synecphonesis.
Thesis and arsis: terms used originally to designate those parts of Greek verse
accompanied by the setting down and raising of the foot (i.e. the down beat and up
beat). Since the terms are now generally used in the opposite of their original meanings,
West recommends abandoning them and using substitutes such as ictus for the down
beat.
Triadic structure: see Strophe.

Units of analysis:
Period: metrical structure, sometimes extending over many written lines (e.g. the
Sapphic strophe), (i) whose boundaries do not cut into a word, (ii) within which
there is metrical continuity (synaphea), and (iii) whose final element is anceps.
Colon: single metrical phrase of not more than about twelve syllables (e.g. the
glyconic); generally cola are subdivisions of periods, though some may be used as
short periods in themselves.
Metron: the rhythm of some verse is regular enough to be divided into a series of
identical or equivalent units known as metra, and the period may be described accord-
ing to the number of metra it contains (dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter,
hexameter = metron x 2, 3 etc.).
Foot: metrical unit which is identical with the metron in some types of verse (e.g.
dactylic), a division of it in others (e.g. in iambic, trochaic and anapaestic verse there
are two feet in each metron).

(3) COMMON METRES

For the sake of simplicity only the most basic characteristics of each metre are given
here. For the numerous divergencies regarding anceps, resolution, position of caesura
etc., see Dale, Raven and West. The notation used below is basically that of West:
- = heavy, or final anceps; <-> = light; x = anceps; ^ = usually heavy; o = usually
light; w^ = resolvable heavy; 0 0 = contractible pair of lights).

(a) Stichic verse (constructed by repetition of same metrical line; chiefly intended for
recitation or recitative, though some stichic metres were sung)

Iambic tetrameter catalectic:

x-w-| x-<J-\X-^>-\\->—

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(very common metre of comedy, used mainly for entries and exits of chorus and
in contest scenes)
Iambic trimeter:

(principal metre of dramatic dialogue; used by iambographers as an 'informal'

metre for satirical and abusive poetry; used by Archilochus in alternation with a
shorter line (hemiepes, iambic dimeter etc.) to form an epode)
Choliambus or scazon:

(= iambic trimeter with heavy in place of final light; used for satirical and scurrilous
poetry (Hipponax, Callimachus, Herodas), for philosophical invective (Timon)
and for fable (Babrius))
Trochaic tetrameter catalectic:
-«—x | - ^ - x l-'-'-x |-<->-
(apparently (Arist. Poet. 1449321) the original metre of tragic dialogue, but in
extant tragedy (where it is associated with scenes of heightened tension) far less
common than the iambic trimeter; very common in comedy, particularly in the
epirrhemes of the parabasis (see pp. 358ff.))
Dactylic hexameter:
—uul-v^wl—uul->^>wl—\J^>\
(regular metre for epic, pastoral and didactic poetry; also used for oracles, riddles,
hymns and laments; occasionally found in drama; used by Archilochus in alter-
nation with a shorter line (hemiepes, iambic dimeter etc.) to form an epode)
Dactylic 'pentameter' (properly = hemiepes x 2):

(almost invariably following the hexameter to form the elegiac couplet, which is
regarded as an entity and hence as stichic (or 'distichic'); used for a wide variety
of themes (sympotic, military, historical, descriptive, erotic) and the standard metre
for epigram)
Anapaestic tetrameter catalectic:
1.... 1. I
1 1 1
(dignified metre, very common in comic dialogue)
(b) Non-stichic verse (constructed by combination and expansion of different metrical
cola and metra; chiefly intended for singing, either solo (monody) or choral, to the
accompaniment of music and/or dance)
The principal units may be classified as follows (though n.b. units from different
categories are frequently found in combination):
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Iambic: based on metron x -v/-; commonest sequences are of dimeters and trimeters;
often combined with other cola.
Trochaic: based on metron -<-»-x ; commonest sequences are of dimeters and
trimeters; often combined with other cola.

lekythion: -w-o|-«-'- (= catalectic dimeter)

ithyphallic: -^-\^|—
scazon: - w - x | - w - x |->-»-x |

Dactylic: based on metron -w; commonest sequences are of from two to six metra;
often combined with iambics and trochaics.
hemiepes: -w«_>-<_iv^-

Dactylo-epitrite: based on the hemiepes (-v^w-w-'-) and cretic (-^-), which may be
preceded, separated or followed by an anceps which is normally heavy (epitrite =
- w — ; for the terminology see West 70); particularly common in Pindar and
Bacchylides.
Anapaestic: based on metron u u - w - ; traditionally a marching metre, and particu-
larly associated with parts of drama where movement takes place on stage; com-
monest sequence is of dimeters, often ending in a paroemiac (w~>-v-"~>-|v^/— =
catalectic dimeter).
Dochmiac: based on metron u—w-; associated with scenes of great excitement; very
common in tragedy, rare in comedy except in parodies; commonest sequences are
of metra and dimeters; often combined with iambics, cretics and bacchii (= w—).
Cretic: based on metron -*J- or -wow ('first paeon') or u w - ('fourth paeon');
common in comedy, rare in tragedy; commonest sequences are of dimeters,
trimeters and tetrameters.
Ionic: based on metron <~>w— (minor ionic) or — u u (major ionic); associated with
cult, and with the exotic and barbaric; commonest sequences are of dimeters and
trimeters; often found in combination with the anacreontic = ww-v^-w—.
Aeolic: term sometimes used to include other cola of asymmetrical length, but here
restricted to those containing as a nucleus the choriamb (-v^-»-):

glyconic: xx
pherecratean: xx
telesillean: x
reizianum: x
hipponactean: x x
hagesichorean (or enoplian): x
aristophanean:
dodrans:
adonean:
Some Aeolic cola are used as periods in themselves; more often they are used to form
longer periods, (i) by combination with other cola (Aeolic or otherwise), (ii) by the
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addition of prefix or suffix (e.g. addition of bacchius to glyconic gives the phalaecian =
x x |-<_>\J-|VJ-^—), or (iii) by dactylic or choriambic expansion from within (e.g.
choriambic expansion of glyconic gives the lesser asclepiad = x x |
Two common Aeolic strophes based on Aeolic cola are the Sapphic (= -*->-x |
w— (three times) plus -VA-«-|- = adonean) and the Alcaic (= x
(twice) plus x -VJ-X -v— plus -v^w-v^/-| w—); for different analyses of these strophes
see West 32-3, Raven 77-9, OCD 683.

(4) BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, W. S., Accent and rhythm (Cambridge 1973)
idem, Vox Graeca, 2nd ed. (Cambridge 1974)
Dale, A. M., The lyric metres of Greek drama, 2nd ed. (Cambridge 1968)
eadem, Metrical analyses of tragic choruses, fasc. 1, B.I.C.S. suppl. XXI.I (1971); fasc.
11, B.I.C.S. suppl. xxi.2 (1981)
Maas, P., Greek metre, tr. H. Lloyd-Jones (Oxford 1962)
Raven, D. S., Greek metre, 2nd ed. (London 1968)
Sommerstein, A. H., The sound pattern of ancient Greek (Oxford 1973)
West, M. L., Greek metre (Oxford 1982)
White, J. W., The verse of Greek comedy (London 1912)
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, U. von, Griechische Verskunst (Berlin 1921)

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