1920s–1970s

Table of Contents
Introduction Introduction
History THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE
Principles of the International Style The International Style of Architecture, which
Social and Political Influences developed mainly in Netherlands, Germany, and France,
The International Style
S
St during the 1920s, before spreading to America in the
Characteristics INTRODUCTION 1930s, where it became a dominant influence in the
and Modernism Building Types American Architecture. It became the main architectural
Key Figures of International Architecture style for institutional and commercial buildings. It also
The Decline of the International Style super-ceded the traditional historical styles for schools,
commercial and civic buildings and more.
Transition to Contemporary
LAGATA, JEFTE
LASALA, KIARA Conclusion
TADOY, PATRICIA
United Nations Building 1948-1952

THE MODERN ARCHITECTURE AND THE THE MODERN ARCHITECTURE AND THE
INTERNATIONAL STYLE INTERNATIONAL STYLE

The terms "modern architecture" and It is a broader movement comprising not only the
"International Style" are often used interchangeably, International Style but also Art Deco, expressionism,
but they are not the same. Modern architecture and several others that differ in their approach from
refers to the major changes that happened in the field the classical ones followed till then. The International
Style is a subset of modern style that rejects the use of
during the early twentieth century to the mid-
sophisticated ornamentation and bright colors. The
HISTORY
Introduction twentieth century, a movement bent on changing the
THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE traditional ornamental design styles to one purely early skyscrapers that came up around the 1920s are
The term "International Style" was first used in 1932 by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson based on function. examples of the International Style.
in their essay titled The International Style: Architecture Since 1922, which served as a catalog for an
architectural exhibition held at the Museum of Modern Art.

THE DESTRUCTION OF WORLD WAR I THE DESTRUCTION OF WORLD WAR I THE AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR I THE AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR I
International Style emerged in the 1920s as a The International style embraced the new industry and The Werkbund aimed to streamline the
In the 19th century, architecture was dominated
response to the changing social, political, and advancing technology. The aftermath of the World War 1 production of high-quality applied art and
by stylistic choices, such as Neoclassical, Gothic
economic landscape of thee time. highlighted the Importance of accepting new technology in crafts, and its practical approach made it
revival, and colonial revival, placing primary
order to aid a systematic recovery. influential among industrialists, designers, and
importance on design, often leading to eclectic
Central to this was The aftermath of World architects
and inconsistent buildings. (HISTORISCISM)
War I (1914-1918). which led to a search for a 1. Peter Behrens, a leading German architect, had a significant
newly regulated urban order and the connection to the International Style of architecture
The International Style emerged as a rejection of Behrens' work with the Werkbund and his
development of new ideas of city building that through his involvement with the Deutscher Werkbund.
19th and early 20th-century architectural norms, pioneering designs for AEG, such as the AEG
would come to dominate urban planning and Behrens was a founding member of the German Werkbund
particularly the emphasis on ornamentation and Turbine Factory, contributed to the
policies for urban renewal and reconstruction in 1907, an organization focused on improving the design of
eclectic combinations of different styles. later in the twentieth century.
development of modernist architecture and the
everyday objects and products, which had a profound
International Style
influence on industrial design and architecture Peter Behrens
1868 - 1940

THE AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR I WORLD WAR II (1939 - 1945) WORLD WAR II (1939 - 1945)
The International Style emerged largely as a result of four factors that
His influence extended to future architects, including During World War II, many of the The International Style represented
confronted architects at the beginning of the 20th century:
Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Mies van der International Style's founders found new life technological and industrial progress and
Rohe, who propagated his ideas and had a significant attached to American institutions, such as became a global symbol of modernity both
impact on 20th-century architecture, particularly the Harvard and the Illinois Institute of Eclectic decorative features with no relation to the function of the building;
before and after World War II, especially in
International Style and the Second Chicago School. Technology, where they trained a new The need to build large numbers of commercial and civic buildings that
Latin America and Asia. The most common
generation of Americans in the principles of served a rapidly industrializing society;
characteristics of International Style
The style spread from its base in Germany and France The successful development of new construction techniques involving the
the International Style. The style's European buildings are rectilinear forms, light, taut
to America, Scandinavia, Britain, and Japan in the
proponents resettled in the United States due plane surfaces, open interior spaces, and a use of steel, reinforced concrete, and glass;
1930s and '40s, and its clean, efficient, and geometric
to opposition from totalitarian regimes in the visually weightless quality engendered by A strong desire to create a modern style of architecture for modern man.
qualities formed the basis of the architectural
vocabulary of the skyscraper in the United States in 1930s, and the economic expansion after the use of cantilever construction. This underlined the need for a neutral, functional style, without any of the
Gas filling station Gas filling station
the 1950s and '60s. World War II allowed it to flourish, particularly Hans Borkowsky (top) and Alfred Hans Borkowsky (top) and Alfred decorative features of old architectural styles which were obsolete.
in skyscraper construction. Clauss/George Daub (bottom) Clauss/George Daub (bottom)
 FEATURED ARCHITECTS IN (MoMA) MODERN ARCHITECTURE:
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION

Philip Johnson Henry-Russell

Hitchcock

The "Modern Architecture: International Exhibition" held at the Museum of Modern

WALTER GROPIUS LE CORBUSIER
Art (MoMA) in 1932 played a pivotal role in defining the International Style of FEATURED WORK:
FEATURED WORK:
SAVOYE HOUSE, POISSY'SUR-SEINE,
BAUHAUS, DESSAU, GERMANY. 1926
architecture. This exhibition, curated by Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, FRANCE. 1929-1930

introduced Americans to the International Style, a modern architectural style that FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
FEATURED WORK:
emerged in Europe, principally Germany and France, in the 1920s and 1930s. PROJECT FOR HOUSE ON THE LLOYD MESA, DENVER, COLORADO

MIES VAN DER ROHE MIES VAN DER ROHE RAYMOND M. HOOD
FEATURED WORK: FEATURED WORK:
TUGENDHAT HOUSE, BRNO, TUGENDHAT HOUSE, BRNO, FEATURED WORK:
JACOBUS JOHANNES PIETER OUD CZECHOSLOVAKIA. 1930 CZECHOSLOVAKIA. 1930 PROJECT FOR APARTMENT
TOWER IN THE COUNTRY. 1932
FEATURED WORK:
PROJECT FOR HOUSE AT PINEHURST, N. C. 193I

Monroe Bengt Irving Bowman

THE PRINCIPLES
William Lescaze George Howe
Bowman

BOWMAN BROTHERS OF ARCHITECTURE

HOWE & LESCAZE RICHARD J. NEUTRA FEATURED WORK:
FEATURED WORK: PROJECT FOR THE LUX
FEATURED WORK: APARTMENTS, EVANSTON, III.
PROJECT FOR RING PLAN
PROJECT FOR HOUSING DEVELOPMENT, 193I
SCHOOL
CHRYSTIE'FORSYTH STREETS NEW
YORK. BLOCK PLAN

THE PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE FIRST PRINCIPLE: FIRST PRINCIPLE: FIRST PRINCIPLE:

ARCHITECTURE AS VOLUME - THIN PLANES OR ARCHITECTURE AS VOLUME - THIN PLANES OR ARCHITECTURE AS VOLUME - THIN PLANES OR
In their catalogue 'Modern Architecture: International SURFACES CREATE THE BUILDING’S FORM, AS SURFACES CREATE THE BUILDING’S FORM, AS SURFACES CREATE THE BUILDING’S FORM, AS
Exhibition' and the book 'The International Style: OPPOSED TO A SOLID MASS OPPOSED TO A SOLID MASS OPPOSED TO A SOLID MASS
Architecture Since 1922' written for the exhibition, the
Hitchcock and Johnson identified the style's three To understand the volume, it is a good way to understand the
While this remark supports volume formation with planes on the
principles: intention of International Style about volume, here is what the
one hand, it also touches on volume being different than mass and
architects following the style comprehend: “The modern architect
solidity on the other hand. In this regard, Ching declares following:
First Principle: Architecture as volume - Thin planes or working in the new style (The International Style) conceives of his
As the three-dimensional element in the vocabulary of
surfaces create the building’s form, as opposed to a solid building not as a structure of brick or masonry with thick columns
architectural design, a volume can be either a solid space
mass and supporting walls resting heavily upon the earth but rather as a
displaced by mass or a void space contained or enclosed by
Second Principle: Concerning Regularity - The facade skeleton enclosed by a thin light shell. He (architect) thinks in
planes. Solid volumes contain mass, while void volumes contain
exhibits regularity rather than building symmetry terms of volume of space enclosed by planes or surfaces as
space surrounded by planes. In architecture, a volume can be seen
opposed to mass and [Link] principle of volume leads him to
to be either a portion of space contained and defined by wall,
Third Principle: The avoidance of applied decoration - The make his walls seem thin flat surfaces by eliminating moldings and
floor, and ceiling or roof planes, or a quantity of space displaced
style rejects applied ornamentation, emphasizing by making his windows and doors flush with the surface.”
by the mass of building.
simplicity and functionality
 SECOND PRINCIPLE: CONCERNING
REGULARITY - THE FACADE EXHIBITS THIRD PRINCIPLE: THE AVOIDANCE OF
APPLIED DECORATION - THE STYLE REJECTS
REGULARITY RATHER THAN BUILDING
APPLIED ORNAMENTATION, EMPHASIZING
SYMMETRY THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE OF
SIMPLICITY AND FUNCTIONALITY
In the various styles of the past, a principle of axial ARCHITECTURE WAS INFLUENCED BY
symmetry controlled design rather than a principle of International Style architecture is often described as SOCIAL AND VARIOUS SOCIAL FACTORS,
regularity as that is understood here Modern "minimalist" due to the tendency of its adherents to
standardization gives automatically a high degree of design buildings that were devoid of all ornament
WHICH SHAPED ITS DEVELOPMENT
consistency in the parts. Hence modern architects have and reduced to their most basic structural AND IMPACT. HERE ARE THE SOCIAL
no need of the discipline of bilateral or axial symmetry to elements. Such buildings often make use of large
achieve aesthetic order. Asymmetrical schemes of design expanses of unbroken windows and use other
POLITICAL INFLUENCES IN THE
INTERNATIONAL STYLE OF
are acutally preferable aesthetically as well as elements like cantilevers to help eliminate the
technically. For asymmetry certainly heightens the
ARCHITECTURE:
distinction between interior and exterior space as INFLUENCES
general interest of the composition. Function in most much as possible and to bring the inhabitants closer
types of contemporary building is more directly to nature.
expressed in asymmetrical form

2. SOCIETAL NEEDS AND FUNCTIONS:

1. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL The need to build large numbers of commercial and civic buildings that served a
4. GLOBAL POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT:
PROGRESS: rapidly industrializing society influenced the International Style. Dissatisfaction
The International Style became a global symbol of modernity, especially in Latin
The International Style represented with building designs that incorporated a mixture of decorative features from
America and Asia, where nations desired to industrialize and compete politically and
technological and industrial progress, different architectural periods, especially where the resulting design bore little or
economically with traditional powers in Europe and North America. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
with a focus on new methods, materials, no relation to the function of the building, also played a role in shaping the style.
ATRIUM IN THE MARINA BAY SANDS
and technology. The emergence of large,
airy spaces in industrial buildings, 3. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES: 5. CULTURAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS: INTERNATIONAL STYLE
demanding minimal ornamentation, The International Style was influenced by cultural and social events, including people's
The International Style represented a renaissance of social constructs that would
response to architectural designs. It aimed to reflect the changing cultural and social
influenced the style’s emphasis on open forever influence architecture. It sought to make the lives of people better and
landscape of the time.
plans and lightweight structures. enhance social and economic opportunities.

HERE ARE SOME COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL STYLE:

Despite its unconditional commonality, the International Style was never a single
A. COMMON CHARACTERISTICS Rectilinear forms
phenomenon. The style demonstrated a unity of approach and general principles,
The international style is sometimes considered “Architecture of the Machine Age” Light
including lightweight structures, new materials, a modular system, an open plan, KEY FIGURES IN THE
and symbolizes modernism. It was one of the first architectural movements to be Plain decorated surfaces, devoid of applied ornamentation
a frame structure, and the use of simple geometric shapes. The International Style
adopted across all inhabited continents. It is known for the way it strips away Open, even fluid, interior spaces
is sometimes understood as a general term associated with architectural DEVELOPMENT OF
ornamentation and blurs the lines between exterior and interior spaces, and is often Machine aesthetics
referred to as “minimalist” architecture. The International Style of architecture, as phenomena such as Brutalist architecture, constructivism, functionalism, and
Acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques THE INTERNATIONAL
described in the article "How International was International Style of Architecture?" rationalism. The article suggests that similar phenomena existed in other artistic
Adoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials
by Mgbemena Emeka Ebuz and Okonta Ebere Donatus, was revealed differently in fields, such as graphics, where it is referred to as the International Typographic
Use of cantilever construction STYLE
various countries. The article emphasizes that the International Style is an ambiguous Style and Swiss Style. Therefore, the International Style of architecture exhibited
variations and adaptations in different countries, reflecting diverse interpretations
Transparency of buildings and construction, referred to as the honest
term, and its formal features were manifested differently in different countries.
and applications of its principles and characteristics. expression of structure

BAUHAUS BUILDING (1925-26)

KEY FIGURES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WALTER GROPIUS The Bauhaus' relocation from Weimar to the industrial city of
WALTER GROPIUS
Dessau provided Gropius with a blank site on which to build a
INTERNATIONAL STYLE
campus that embodied the principles of the school. In his choice of
Walter Gropius, (born May 18, 1883, Berlin, Ger.—died Most assessments of Gropius’ influential career centre upon his
materials and design, Gropius developed ideas first fostered in the
The International Style grew out of the work of a small group of brilliant and original July 5, 1969, Boston, Mass., U.S.), German American achievements as educator and author rather than as architect. In his Fagus Factory in Saxony and the buildings all utilize new industrial
architects in the 1920s who went on to achieve great influence in their field. These major architect and educator who, particularly as director of own building designs he turned away from personal and subjective materials such as reinforced concrete and are geometric in design
figures included Walter Gropius and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in Germany and the United the Bauhaus (1919–28), exerted a major influence on the aspects in favour of reaching for intellectual solutions of larger and with flat roofs. Additionally, each space was carefully designed to
States, J.J.P. Oud in the Netherlands, Le Corbusier in France, and Richard Neutra and Philip development of modern architecture. His works, many socially urgent problems. Among his most important ideas was his reflect its function.
Johnson in the United States. executed in collaboration with other architects, included belief that all design—whether of a chair, a building, or a city—
THE FAGUS FACTORY (1910)
the school building and faculty housing at the Bauhaus should be approached in essentially the same way: through a
WALTER GROPIUS
LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE (1925–26), the Harvard University Graduate Center, and systematic study of the particular needs and problems involved, a shoe last factory in Alfeld on the Leine, Lower Saxony,
JACOBUS JOHANNES PIETER OUD (J.J.P. OUD) taking into account modern construction materials and techniques, Germany, is an important example of early modern
the United States Embassy in Athens.
LE CORBUSIER without reference to previous forms or styles. architecture. Commissioned by owner Carl Benscheidt who
RICHARD NEUTRA
wanted a radical structure to express the company's break from
PHILIP JOHNSON
the past, the factory was designed by Walter Gropius and Adolf
Meyer.
 CROWN HALL (1956) NATIONAL MONUMENT AMSTERDAM
(1956)
LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE Completed in 1956, Crown Hall is the home of the College of JACOBUS JOHANNES PIETER OUD
Architecture at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, The National Monument on Dam Square is a 1956 cenotaph in
where van der Rohe was the school’s director for twenty
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, (born March 27, 1886, Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud, (born Feb. 9, 1890, Purmerend, near Amsterdam, Netherlands. A national Remembrance of the
years. He made the school world-renowned for not only for
Aachen, Germany—died August 17, 1969, Chicago, Amsterdam—died April 5, 1963, Wassenaar, near The Hague), Dutch Dead ceremony is held at the monument every year on 4 May
its defining role in architectural education but also for its
Illinois, U.S.), German-born American architect campus building, that Mies himself designed in the late 1940s. architect notable for his pioneering role in the development of modern to commemorate the casualties of World War II and
whose rectilinear forms, crafted in elegant The Crown Hall was an elegant addition to the campus that architecture. subsequent armed conflicts.
simplicity, epitomized the International Style of clearly illustrates the architect’s simple steel-and-glass
Oud became the chief proponent of the de Stijl idiom in modern
architecture. construction technique.
architecture. Among his earliest architectural projects in this austere,
Mies van der Rohe was a German architect, striving FARNSWORTH HOUSE, 1951 highly geometric style were theoretical projects for houses at VILLA ALLEGONDA (1901 - 1937)

to create a new modern form and functional theory Scheveningen (1917) and for a factory at Purmerend (1919). He designed a Villa Allegonda was originally in 1901 to a design by the Leiden architect H.J.
Mies Van Der Rohe followed the ideals of rationalism and hotel at Noordwijkerhout (1917) and the Allegonda villa at Katwijk (1917).
of architecture, an unornamented style Jesse and was rented to the painter Gerhard 'Morgentjerne' Munthe, who
minimalism Rationalism within architecture kept a strong These and other buildings featured subtle oppositions of horizontal and named the building after his daughter Sigrid. In 1909 the property was
incorporating geometric shapes, new construction
Commitment to the conguests of the aesthetics of vertical lines; long, straight walls wrapping into smoothly rounded bought by the Rotterdam tea merchant Josse Emile René Trousselot, who
techniques and materials. The buildings he designed Cubism. “Less is more” became a guicing principie within corners; building units enclosing an open space; and simplified rectilinear decided in 1916 to give this villa a different look. He hired the architect J. J.
were usually flat roofed, asymmetrical with ribbon his work. Mies Van Der Rohe believed in structural and circular forms that achieve a subtly poised equilibrium despite their P. Oud, one of the founders of De Stijl and still unkown at the time, which
windows in a rectangular form. honesty and designed sSome of the earliest glass and asymmetrical arrangement. radically changed the Villa's original design through successive renovations
curtain wall office towers on the 1950s. until 1936, when a cellar and a garage were added.

VILLA SAVOYE

LE CORBUSIER Villa Savoye is a modernist villa and gatelodge in Poissy, on the outskirts of Paris, France. It was THE FIVE POINTS OF ARCHITECTURE ARE: FREE FACADE:
designed by the Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret, and built
The exterior walls of a building should not bear
Le Corbusier, (born October 6, 1887, La Chaux-de-Fonds, between 1928 and 1931 using reinforced concrete. Pierre and Eugénie Savoye approached Le PILOTIS (SUPPORTING COLUMNS): the load of the structure.
Corbusier about building a country home in Poissy in the spring of 1928. The house was originally
Switzerland—died August 27, 1965, Cap Martin, France), built as a country retreat for the Savoye family. After being purchased by the neighbouring school, it
internationally influential Swiss architect and city planner, became the property of the French state in 1958. Due to many different problems it was rarely
Le Corbusier advocated for the use of pilotis, or slender RIBBON WINDOWS:
inhabited. After surviving several proposals to demolish it, it was designated as an official French supporting columns, to lift the building off the ground. Le Corbusier popularized the use of ribbon
whose designs combine the functionalism of the modern
historical monument in 1965 (a rare event, as Le Corbusier was still alive). It was thoroughly By elevating the structure, the ground floor could be windows, which are continuous horizontal bands
movement with a bold sculptural expressionism. renovated between 1985 and 1997, and the refurbished house is now open to visitors year round freed from the constraints of supporting walls, allowing of windows that run along the length of a
under the care of the Centre des monuments nationaux. for an open and flexible use of space beneath the building.
Architecture was heavily influenced by International building.
style most notably attributed by Le Corbusier. ROOF GARDEN:
UNITÉ D'HABITATION DE MARSEILLE FREE PLAN:
Corbusier's concept lavished in the idea of space, The inclusion of a flat roof that serves as a usable
simplicity and modern structural design. Corbusier A modernist residential housing typology developed by Le Corbusier, with the
outdoor space characterizes the Roof Garden
The Free Plan concept involves the elimination of load- principle. Le Corbusier believed in integrating
identified three major architectural discoveries; the collaboration of painter-architect Nadir Afonso. It formed the basis of several housing
bearing walls on the interior, providing architects with greenery into urban environments, and the flat
Contrast between space, classical proportion and developments throughout Europe designed by Le Corbusier and sharing the same name.
the freedom to arrange living spaces without being roof provided an opportunity for residents to
geometric forms- a unified idea crutial to the The most famous of these buildings is located in the southern part of Marseille, France.
restricted by structural constraints. This approach enjoy outdoor activities while fostering a
It was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2016 because of its importance to
modernism of todays architecture. allows for an open and adaptable floor plan.
the development of modernist architecture, along with 16 other works by Le Corbusier. connection with nature.

GLASS HOUSE
KAUFMANN HOUSE
RICHARD NEUTRA PHILIP JOHNSON The Glass House is best understood as a pavilion for viewing the surrounding
The Kaufmann Desert House, or simply the Kaufmann House, is landscape. Invisible from the road, the house sits on a promontory
Richard Joseph Neutra, (born April 8, 1892, Vienna, Austria— a house in Palm Springs, California, that was designed by Philip Johnson, (born July 8, 1906, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.—died January 25, 2005, overlooking a pond with views towards the woods beyond. The house is 55
died April 16, 1970, Wuppertal, [Link].), Austrian-born architect Richard Neutra in 1946. It was commissioned by Edgar feet long and 33 feet wide, with 1,815 square feet. Each of the four exterior
New Canaan, Connecticut), American architect and critic known both for his
J. Kaufmann, Sr., a businessman who also commissioned walls is punctuated by a centrally located glass door that opens onto the
American architect known for his role in introducing the promotion of the International Style and, later, for his role in defining
Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright. The house has been landscape. The house, which ushered the International Style into residential
International Style into American architecture. postmodernist architecture.
described as "an architectural marvel that helped define the American architecture, is iconic because of its innovative use of materials and
modernist aesthetic of the resort city of Palm Springs". its seamless integration into the landscape.
Neutra created his most memorable works: the Kaufmann Philip Johnson had a profound impact on the field of architecture. He lived through
Desert House, Palm Springs, Calif. (1946–47), and the and effected the two major ages of twentieth-century architecture, loosely
SONY TOWER
Tremaine House, Santa Barbara, Calif. (1947–48). Elegant categorized as modernism and postmodernism. In particular, he played a leading
and precise, these houses are considered exceptionally fine LOVELL HEALTH HOUSE role in the spread of modernist architecture both through his early designs and
through the articulation of what his hugely influential 1932 dubbed The 550 Madison Avenue formerly known as the Sony Tower, Sony Plaza, and
examples of the International Style. Carefully placed in the
The Lovell House or Lovell Health House is an International AT&T Building is a postmodern skyscraper on Madison Avenue between 55th
landscape, Neutra’s houses often have patios or porches that International Style. Also, through the legacy of his skyscrapers, Johnson helped to
style modernist residence designed and built by Richard and 56th Streets in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City.
make the outdoors seem part of the house. He believed that Neutra between 1927 and 1929. The home, located at 4616
reimagine what a city landscape could be, as well as predicting the look of Designed by Philip Johnson and John Burgee with associate architect Simmons
architecture should be a means of bringing man back into Dundee Drive in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles, postmodernist architecture. Author Mark Lamster writes that "the legacy he did Architects, the building is a 647-foot-tall (197-meter), 37-story office tower
California, was built for the physician and naturopath Philip leave extends beyond his architecture into art, design, and urban affairs“. with a facade made of pink granite. It was completed in 1984 as the
harmony with nature and with himself and was particularly
Lovell. headquarters of AT&T and later became the American headquarters of Sony.
concerned that his houses reflect the way of life of the
A four-story granite annex to the west was demolished and replaced with a
owner. shorter annex in the early 2020s.

PHILADELPHIA SAVINGS FUND SOCIETY (PSFS)

The International Style of architecture, which emerged in the 1920s and BUILDING - PHILADELPHIA, USA (1929-32):
1930s, is characterized by several key design principles and is often Designed by George Howe and William Lescaze, the
associated with iconic steel, glass, and concrete forms. Some of the key PSFS Building is considered one of the first UNITED NATIONS BUILDING - NEW YORK,
building types associated with the International Style include: International Style skyscrapers, featuring a sleek glass USA (1948-1952):
and steel facade, open interior spaces, and a lack of The United Nations Building, designed by a
applied ornamentation team of international architects including
1. CIVIC AND INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS: WILLIAM LESCAZE Oscar Niemeyer and Le Corbusier, is a
prominent example of the International Style,
BUILDING TYPES The International Style has been used to design a wide range of civic and with its simple, rectilinear form, glass curtain
institutional buildings, including museums, government buildings, and walls, and emphasis on functionality and
educational institutions. These buildings typically feature clean, minimalist modernity
designs and an emphasis on open interior spaces and natural light
William Lescaze George Howe
 Bauhaus Building VILANOVA ARTIGAS SCHOOL
(SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL) 2. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
Dessau, Germany 1961 - 1968
(1925–26) The International Style has also been applied to the design of industrial
buildings, including factories, warehouses, and manufacturing facilities.
These buildings often feature simple, functional designs and an
Illinois Institute of Technology, Crown Hall - Chicago, USA: Considered a seminal work of European modernism and an early example of the International emphasis on modern materials and construction techniques
Designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and completed in 1956, Crown Hall is a prominent Style, the Bauhaus Building in Dessau, Germany, exemplifies the style's emphasis on mass- Vilanova Artigas was involved in establishing the academic direction of the new school and,
example of the International Style in education architecture. It features a simple, rectilinear produced and lightweight materials, modular forms, flat surfaces alternating with glass panels, along with Carlos Cascaldi, designed the school building itself in a style that came to be
form, a glass and steel facade, and an open interior space that can be adapted for various uses and a rejection of color and ornament. known as the Paulista, reflecting the influence of the International Style

GAS FILLING STATION

HANS BORKOWSKY (TOP) AND ALFRED
CLAUSS/GEORGE DAUB (BOTTOM) FAGUS FACTORY IN ALFELD,
These gas stations exemplify an idealized use of GERMANY VAN NELLE FACTORY
minimalist industrial design for efficient car refueling. COMPLETED IN 1914: ROTTERDAM, NETHERLANDS
Comprising pavilions with glass curtain walls, steel 3. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS:
1925 - 1931
structures, and flat roofs, they prioritize functionality
over ornamentation. Borkowsky's station features a
The International Style influenced residential architecture, particularly in Europe in
canopy covering pumps, enhancing efficiency. The the 1920s and 1930s, and had a lasting impact on modern design, with its philosophy
stations, devoid of exterior embellishments, underscore dedicated to the pure functionality of form.
One prominent example of International Style industrial buildings is the Fagus Factory in Alfeld, Germany,
the economical use of industrial materials. Their clear
designed by Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer. Completed in 1914, this factory is considered a seminal
structures convey transparency and honesty in business.
Anticipating the postwar era's reliance on automobiles, work of modern architecture and a precursor to the International Style. It features a clean, functional
The Van Nelle Factory is an early example of modern industrial architecture with International
these stations played a pivotal role in shaping a design with a steel and glass curtain wall, emphasizing simplicity, functionality, and a departure from
Style elements. The factory, designed by Brinkman and Van der Vlugt, features large windows,
enduring modern building type that persists today. traditional ornamentation. The Fagus Factory is renowned for its innovative use of materials and spatial
a flat roof, and a functional, efficient layout.
organization, reflecting key principles of the International Style in industrial architecture.

THE WEISSENHOF ESTATE (GERMAN:

WEISSENHOFSIEDLUNG) IS A HOUSING ESTATE BUILT LOVELL HOUSE
FOR THE 1927 DEUTSCHER WERKBUND EXHIBITION IN (LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, UNITED STATES, BY RICHARD NEUTRA) 1927-1929
STUTTGART, GERMANY. IT WAS AN INTERNATIONAL
VILLA TUGENDHAT (BRNO, CZECH
This house, designed for wealthy clients, exemplifies the International Style with its
SHOWCASE OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE'S ASPIRATION REPUBLIC, BY LUDWIG MIES VAN
open floor plan, large glass windows, and integration with the surrounding landscape
TO PROVIDE CHEAP, SIMPLE, EFFICIENT, AND GOOD- KAUFMANN HOUSE (PALM DER ROHE):
QUALITY HOUSING. THE ESTATE WAS BUILT FOR THE SPRINGS, CALIFORNIA, UNITED This house, designed for a wealthy
DEUTSCHER WERKBUND EXHIBITION IN 1927, AND
INCLUDED TWENTY-ONE BUILDINGS COMPRISING STATES, BY RICHARD NEUTRA): industrialist, is a significant example
SIXTY DWELLINGSOF THE ORIGINAL TWENTY-ONE This house, known for its sleek, of the International Style, featuring
BUILDINGS, ELEVEN SURVIVE AS OF 2006. BOMBING modern design and integration with an open floor plan, large glass walls,
DAMAGE DURING WORLD WAR II IS RESPONSIBLE FOR
the desert environment, reflects the and a seamless connection between
THE COMPLETE LOSS OF THE HOMES BY GROPIUS,
HILBERSEIMER, BRUNO TAUT, POELZIG, MAX TAUT principles of the International Style interior and exterior spaces
(HOME 24), AND DÖCKER. ANOTHER OF MAX TAUT'S
HOMES (23) WAS DEMOLISHED IN THE 1950S, AS WAS
RADING'S.

6. OFFICE BUILDINGS:
Many office buildings built in the
International Style feature open interior
spaces, asymmetrical facades, and a lack of
In summary, the International Style of architecture has been
applied ornamentation, reflecting the INLAND STEEL BUILDING (CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, UNITED
associated with a wide range of building types, including
style's emphasis on functionality and STATES) 1956-1958
modernity Another notable work by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, the skyscrapers, commercial and civic buildings, residential THE DECLINE OF THE
Inland Steel Building is an exemplary International Style architecture, schools, and high-end residential homes, reflecting
WILLIS TOWER (FORMERLY SEARS TOWER) building, characterized by its visible steel frame, large its influence on diverse architectural contexts. INTERNATIONAL STYLE
(CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, UNITED STATES) 1970-1974 panes of glass, and flat roof
This iconic skyscraper, designed by Skidmore, Owings
& Merrill, is an example of the International Style,
featuring a steel and glass exterior and a minimalist
design that reflects the principles of the style.
 THE DECLINE OF THE DECLINE OF
THE DECLINE OF THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE
THE DECLINE OF
THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE Robert Venturi's Critique (1966): Robert Venturi's "Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture" offers Hugh Pearman's Irony (2006): British critic Hugh Pearman noted irony in the contemporary use of
Elizabeth Gordon, the editor of House Beautiful a critique of the International Style, advocating for an architecture of "complexity and contradiction" over the International Style, labeling its practitioners as a form of revivalists. The negative public
Architects, including Frank Lloyd Wright, dismissed the
magazine from 1941 to 1964, was hailed as a "missionary modernist simplicity. Venturi promotes inclusivity, embracing paradoxes and diversity. The book has reaction to internationalist modernism was linked to resistance against comprehensive
International Style as a formula, criticized for lacking
of taste for the American homemaker." In her influential influenced architectural discourse, pivotal in defining the postmodernist movement. development.
respect for traditions and societal needs. Accused of
divorcing architecture from social purpose, treating 1953 essay, "The Threat to the Next America," she
criticized International Style modern architecture for Tom Wolfe's View on Elitism: Best-selling author Tom Wolfe, in "From Bauhaus to Our House,"
housing indifferently, and prioritizing form over Kenneth Frampton's Critique of Eurocentrism (2007): In the preface to the fourth edition of
being impractical, citing issues like uncomfortable portrayed the International Style as elitist, further contributing to its negative perception.
function, the style's stark appearance was deemed "Modern Architecture: A Critical History," Kenneth Frampton argued against a "disturbing
inhuman. Despite global influence, its universality is temperatures, emptiness, loss of privacy, and a lack of
Eurocentric bias" in modern architecture histories, highlighting the need to address this bias,
questioned, and by the late 1970s, postmodernism beauty. She also accused proponents of this style of Weakness in Universal Applicability (Postulated Strength Turned Weakness): The International Style's
supposed strength of universal applicability, ignoring location, site, and climate, was identified as a
which also extended to the United States.
emerged as a reaction. In conclusion, the International undermining people's appreciation for beauty and subtly
Style is acknowledged for global impact but criticized advocating for a totalitarian society. earning approval major weakness. The style's indifference to local history and national vernacular diminished its
for social shortcomings, with success or failure from Frank Lloyd Wright and forging a friendship with practicality.
challenging to measure empirically and left to judgment him.
by posterity.

HIGHLIGHTED ISSUES The transition from the International Style to contemporary architecture
occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. Criticized for its failure to address social issues
CONCLUSION
and formal monotony, the International Style led to the exploration of new design
directions, giving rise to postmodernism.
LACK OF INABILITY TO Robert
R b tV Venturi
t i Mies
Mi Van
V Der
D Rohe
R h
MONOTONY AND Postmodern architecture rejected certainties, embraced eclecticism, and
CONTEXTUAL ADDRESS SOCIAL
REPETITION incorporated popular culture elements, featuring innovative structures with color
SENSITIVITY ISSUES
LESS IS MORE and humor.
The shift from postmodernism to contemporary architecture in the 21st century
is marked by diverse influences, including postmodernism, high-tech architecture,
LESS
LES
S
SSS IS A BORE and reinterpretations of tradition. Contemporary architecture lacks a singular
style, emphasizing innovation, sustainability, open-floor plans, geometric lines,
NEGLECT OF
STRIPPING AWAY OF
CLIMATIC AND LIMITED FORMAL and integration with nature. Rooted in modern principles, it utilizes advanced
ARCHITECTURAL
ENVIRONMENTAL VOCABULARY technology and reflects a free-for-all ethos, distinguishing itself from both the
ELEMENTS
CONSIDERATION
International Style and postmodern architecture.

The International Style of Architecture, which emerged in the 1920s and 1930s,
has been influential and controversial. It has been praised for its innovative use of
modern materials, functional design, and emphasis on light and space. However, it has
also faced criticism for its lack of contextual sensitivity, overemphasis on form, rigidity, 5)"/,
:06
and disregard for human scale and local context. Despite these criticisms, the
International Style has left a lasting impact on contemporary architecture and
continues to inform the work of many architects today