MODULE-1

INTRODUCTION: An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at

least one closed path in which current can flow. An Electric circuit is used as a component for any
engineering system. The performance of any electrical device or machine is always studied by
drawing its electrical equivalent circuit. By simulating an electric circuit, any type of system can be
studied for e.g., mechanical, hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction etc. All
control systems are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits. The analysis, of any
system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory. The analysis of any system can
be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.

Elements of an Electric circuit: An Electric circuit consists of following types of elements. Active
elements: Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own and can
impart it to other element of the circuit.

Active elements are of two types

a) Voltage source
b) Current source

A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of current flowing
through it.
A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage appearing across it.

Passive Elements: The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own.
They receive energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the inductance and
the capacitance. When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it will respond in one and
more of the following ways. If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor. If
the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor. And if the energy is stored in
an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor.

Linear and Non-Linear Elements:

Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its voltage-current
characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin. For example, the current passing
through a resistor is proportional to the voltage applied through its and the relation is expressed as
V I or V = IR. A linear element or network is one which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e.,
the principle of homogeneity and additivity. Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples of
the linear elements and their properties do not change with a change in the applied voltage and the
circuit current.

Non linear element’s V-I characteristics do not follow the linear pattern i.e. the current passing
through it does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage across it. Examples are the
semiconductor devices such as diode, transistor. Bilateral and Unilateral Elements: An element is
said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage and current for the current
flowing in both directions. Ex: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance.
The circuits containing them are called bilateral circuits. An element is said to be unilateral, when
the same relation does not exist between voltage and current when current flowing in both
directions. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits. Ex: Vacuum diodes, Silicon
Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc.

Lumped and Distributed Elements Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in
size & in which simultaneous actions takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors,
inductors. Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical
purposes. For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may
extend for hundreds of miles. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.

Types of Sources: Independent & Dependent sources: If the voltage of the voltage source is
completely independent source of current and the current of the current source is completely
independent of the voltage, then the sources are called as independent sources. The special kind of
sources in which the source voltage or current depends on some other quantity in the circuit which
may be either a voltage or a current anywhere in the circuit are called Dependent sources or
Controlled sources.

There are four possible dependent sources:

a. Voltage dependent Voltage source

b. Current dependent Current source
c. Voltage dependent Current source
d. Current dependent Current source

The constants of proportionalities are written as B, g, a, r in which B & a has no units, r has units of
ohm & g units of mhos. Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as battery, a dc
generator & an alternator. But dependent sources are used to represent electrical properties of
electronic devices such as OPAMPS & Transistors.

Ideal & Practical sources:

1. An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant terminal voltage,
irrespective of the current drawn by the load.
2. An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to the load,
irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.
3. A Practical voltage source always possesses a very small value of internal resistance r. The internal
resistance of a voltage source is always connected in series with it & for a current source; it is always
connected in parallel with it. As the value of the internal resistance of a practical voltage source is
very small, its terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant within a certain limit of current
flowing through the load. 4. A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current,
irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load connected to it.
When two ideal voltage sources of emf’s V1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what voltage appears
across its terminals is ambiguous. Hence such connections should not be made. However if V1 = V2=
V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by V. In that case also, such a connection is
unnecessary as only one voltage source serves the purpose.
 When
ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through the line is ambiguous.
Hence such a connection is not permissible. However, it I1 = I2 = I, then the current in the line is I.
But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose.

Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current source.

Source transformation: A current source or a voltage source drives current through its load
resistance and the magnitude of the current depends on the value of the load resistance. Consider a
practical voltage source and a practical current source connected to the same load resistance RL as
shown in the figure
R1’s in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source VS and current source IS. Two
sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal voltage VL and load current IL.
The circuit in figure represents a practical voltage source & a practical current source respectively,
with load connected to both the sources. The terminal voltage VL and load current IL across their
terminals are same. Hence the practical voltage source & practical current source shown in the
dotted box of figure are equal. The two equivalent sources should also provide the same open circuit
voltage & short circuit current.

Hence a voltage source Vs in series with its internal resistance R can be converted into a current
source I =Vs/R , with its internal resistance R connected in parallel with it. Similarly a current source I
in parallel with its internal resistance R can be converted into a voltage source V = IR in series with its
internal resistance R.

A network is a collection of interconnected electrical components. In general, the electrical

networks are made to exchange the energy between different elements .These electrical networks
can be constructed either by using Resistors or Inductors or Capacitors or combination of these
elements. Network analysis is the process of finding the voltage response or the current response for
any element in the network by using the available techniques.

Star to Delta and Delta to Star Transformations: Like in series and parallel connections, electrical
components may be connected in Star or Delta configurations as shown in the figure below (with
Resistances). Many a times circuits have to be transformed from Star to equivalent Delta and Delta
to equivalent Star configurations such that the net terminal Resistances ( Impedances)across the
terminals are the same. We will show this transformation methodology and the resulting
configurations for both Delta to Star and Star to Delta one by one.
Star to Delta Transformation: Now we have to get the equivalent values of R1, R2 and R3 in Delta
connection in terms of the three resistances RX,RY and RZ in Star connection. Let us use the
equations we got earlier i.e. RX,RY and RZ in terms of R1,R2 and R3 and get the sum of the three
product pairs i.e. RXRY + RYRZ + RZRX as :

Introduction to Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis: Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis are two
important techniques used in network analysis to find out different branch currents and Node
voltages. The suitability of each analysis depends mainly on the number of voltage/current sources
in the given network. If the voltage sources are more Mesh analysis is suitable and if current sources
are more Nodal analysis is more suitable. Mesh Analysis: Mesh analysis provides general procedure
for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for
planar networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits that have many loops .This analysis is done by
using KVL and Ohm's law.
Planar circuit: A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one
another. In the figure below

(a) is a planar circuit. A planar circuit is one that cannot be drawn in a plane without the branches
crossing one another.
(b) In the figure below (b) is a non-planar circuit and (c) is a planar circuit but appears like a non-
planar circuit

Loop: It is a closed path along the circuit elements. Mesh: Mesh is a loop which does not contains
any loop within it.

Super Mesh Analysis: If there is only current source between two meshes in the given network then
it is difficult to apply the mesh analysis. Because the current source has to be converted into a
voltage source in terms of the current source, write down the mesh equations and relate the mesh
currents to the current source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be avoided by
creating super mesh which encloses the two meshes that have common current source

Super Mesh: A super mesh is constituted by two adjacent meshes that have a common current
source. Let us illustrate this method with the following simple generalized circuit.

Nodal analysis: Nodal analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits nodal
voltages as the circuit variables. It is preferably useful for the circuits that have many no. of nodes. It
is applicable for the both planar and non planar circuits. This analysis is done by using KCL and Ohm's
law.

Node: It is a junction at which two or more branches are interconnected.

Simple Node: Node at which only two branches are interconnected. Principal Node: Node at which
more than two branches are interconnected.

Nodal analysis with example: Determination of node voltages:

Procedure: Step

(1): Identify the no. nodes, simple nodes and principal nodes in the given circuit. Among all the
nodes one node is taken as reference node. Generally bottom is taken as reference node. The
potential at the reference node is 0v. In the given circuit there are 3 principal nodes in which node
(3) is the reference node.
Step (2): Assign node voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference node and assign
branch currents to all branches.

Step (3): Apply KCL to those principal nodes for nodal equations and by using ohm's law express the
node voltages in terms of branch current. Applying KCL to node (1)----I1=I2+I3 Using ohm's law, we
get (V-V1)/R1 =(V2-0)/R2 +(V1-V2)/R3..........(1) Applying KCL to node (2)----I3=I4 +I5 Using ohm's law,
we get (V1-V2)/R3 =(V4-0)/R4 +(V5-0)/R5 ..............(2) Step(4): Solve the above nodal equations to
get the node voltages.

Super Node Analysis: If there is only voltage source between two nodes in the given network then it
is difficult to apply the nodal analysis. Because the voltage source has to be converted into a current
source in terms of the voltage source, write down the nodal equations and relate the node voltages
to the voltage source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be avoided by creating super
node which encloses the two nodes that have common voltage source.

Super Node: A super node is constituted by two adjacent nodes that have a common voltage source.
Example: Write the nodal equations by using super node analysis.
Procedure:

Step(1):Identify the position of voltage source.Here the voltage source is common to the two nodes
2 and 3.so, super node is nothing but the combination of nodes 2 and 3 .

Step (2):Apply KCL to super node and to other nodes. Applying KCL to this super node (combination
of meshes 2 and 3 ),

we get (V2-V1)/R2 + V2/R3 + (V3-Vy)/R4 + V3/R5 = 0...............(1)

Applying KVL to node 1 ,we get I = V1/R1 + (V1-V2)/R2.................(2)

Step (3): Make the relation between node voltages with voltage source to get third equation. Third
equation is nothing but the relation between VX , V2 and V3 which is V2 - V3 = Vx..............(3)

Step (4): Solve the above nodal equations to get the node voltages.

DUALITY

Two electrical networks are said to be dual networks if the mesh equations of one network is equal
to the node equation of the other.

For evaluating a dual network, you should follow these points

1. The number of meshes in a network is equal to number of nodes in its dual network
2. The impedance of a branch common to two meshes must be equal to admittance
between two nodes in the dual network
3. Voltage source common to both loops must be replaced by a current source
between two nodes
4. Open switch in a network is replaced by a closed switch in its dual network or vice
versa

Formation of Dual Networks:

The principle of duality is applicable to planar circuits only. Carefully read the points stated below,
follow each step and draw the dual circuit

1. Place a dot within each loop, these dots will become nodes of the dual network
2. Place a dot outside of the network, this dot will be the ground/datum node of the
dual network
3. Carefully draw lines between nodes such that each line cuts only one element
4. If an element exclusively present in a loop, then connect the dual element in
between node and ground/datum node
5. If an element is common in between two loops, then dual element is placed in
between two nodes
6. Branch containing active source, consider as a separate branch
7. Now to determine polarity of voltage source and direction of current sources,
consider voltage source producing clockwise current in a loop. Its dual current source will
have a current direction from ground to non-reference node