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Aircraft Industries
ISBN: 978-0-88487-646-5

Jeppesen
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10277282-001
Acknowledgments
This textbook could not have been produced without the tireless
commitment of the Guided Flight Discovery (GFD) team members listed
below. Additional personnel in Jeppesen’s Training and Courseware
department deserve special thanks for taking care of other projects so that
GFD team members could focus their efforts on this project.
Writers/Editors
Anthony Werner
Chuck Stout
Chad Pomering
Darrel Schultz
Jeffrey Marten
James W. Powell
Liz Kailey
Kenlon Shockley
Tara Schifferns
Ray Eastes
Graphic Designers
Larry Montano
Pat Brogan
Frank Bush
Rick Patterson
Veronica Mahr
Scott D. Saunders
Photographers
Dave Chance
Gary Kennedy
Jeff Cochran
Virgil Poleschook
Welcome to Guided Flight Discovery

G
uided Flight Discovery is designed to make your learning experience
exciting and enjoyable. Rather than just teaching facts, Guided Flight
Discovery concentrates on an application-oriented approach to pilot
training. The comprehensive system emphasizes the why and how of
aeronautical concepts when they are presented. As you progress through
your training, the Guided Flight Discovery system leads you through
essential aeronautical knowledge and exposes you to a variety of interesting
and useful information that expands your understanding of the world of
aviation.
Each element of the Guided Flight Discovery Pilot Training System is
designed to work with the others. You can use each component separately,
but using them together maximizes their effectiveness. To help you efficiently
organize your studies and get the most out of your training, cross-references
direct you to related Guided Flight Discovery study materials. The main
components of the Multi-Engine Program are described below.

MULTI-ENGINE TEXTBOOK
The Multi-Engine textbook is your primary source for both initial study and
review. The text contains complete and concise explanations of the advanced
concepts and ideas that every multi-engine rated pilot needs to know. The
subjects are logically organized so that new information builds upon
previously introduced topics. Discovery Insets expand on the core material
and offer interesting background and context. Human Element Insets help
you better understand how your mind and body function in flight. The FAA
requires no Knowledge Test to obtain a multi-engine rating, so unlike other
Guided Flight Discovery textbooks there are no FAA Question Insets in this
book. You can evaluate your understanding of the material by completing the
review questions at the end of each section and comparing your answers to
those in Appendix A. Read the the section entitled “How the Textbook
Works” for a more detailed explanation of the text and how to use its unique
features.

MULTI-ENGINE SYLLABUS
The Multi-Engine Syllabus is designed to meet or exceed the requirements of
Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Part 141 for the addition of a
multi-engine rating to an existing private or commercial certificate. The
syllabus provides a basic framework for your training. Ground and flight
lessons are coordinated so that your training progresses smoothly and you
are introduced to topics on the ground before applying that knowledge in the
airplane.

FLIGHT SCHOOL SUPPORT MATERIALS

Flight schools that use the Guided Flight Discovery System could provide a
variety of additional resources and instructional support materials. The flight
school support materials help to provide you with a well-administered,
quality training program. They foster an environment that maximizes
comprehension as you become a multi-engine rated pilot. Some of these
resources are described below.

MULTI-ENGINE VIDEO SERIES

The Multi-Engine Video Series on DVD is an integral part of the Guided
Flight Discovery Pilot Training System. The DVD menu follows the Jeppesen
syllabus exactly, so you can jump directly to the lesson you are studying, or
review lessons that need more work. This series provides you with a high
quality video ground school, with quick and easy access to multi-engine
operations, aerodynamics, maneuvers, engine-out operations, and
instrument flight. The dynamic videos use state-of-the-art graphics and
animation, as well as dramatic aerial photography to help explain complex
ideas.

INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE
Flight instructors and flight school operators can use the Multi-Engine Insert
in the Guided Flight Discovery Instructor’s Guide to help make training more
efficient and effective.
Preface

T
he purpose of the Multi-Engine textbook is to provide you with the
most complete explanations of aeronautical concepts for pilots
seeking to add a multi-engine rating to an existing private or
commercial certificate. The textbook features colorful illustrations, full-color
photos, and a variety of innovative design techniques. The Multi-Engine
textbook and other Guided Flight Discovery materials are closely coordinated
to make learning fun and effective. To help you organize your study, the
Multi-Engine textbook is divided into two parts:

PART I — MEET THE CHALLENGE

Part I provides insight into your role as a multi-engine rated pilot and
introduces you to the airplane. Chapter 1, Exploring the Multi-Engine Rating,
presents some of the unique history of multi-engine flight, familiarizes you
with the requirements necessary to obtain a multi-engine rating, and
introduces human factors concepts associated with piloting a twin-engine
airplane. Chapter 2, Understanding Your Airplane, provides an extensive
discussion of the systems in multi-engine airplanes, weight and balance, and
performance. Chapter 3, Discovering Aerodynamics, delves into the world of
multi-engine aerodynamics. The chapter describes and illustrates the
principles that apply to flying with both engines operating and with one
engine inoperative.

PART II — EXPERIENCE THE ADVENTURE

Part II focuses on flying skills in multi-engine airplanes. Chapter 4,
Performing Maneuvers and Procedures, provides step-by-step descriptions
of how to perform multi-engine operations, from takeoffs and landings to
steep turns and stalls. By exploring Chapter 5, Mastering Engine-Out
Operations, you gain the necessary knowledge to safely pilot a twin-engine
airplane in engine-out situations. In addition, this section examines
instrument procedures. Chapter 6, Applying SRM, explores effective
decision-making skills.
Table of Contents
HOW THE TEXTBOOK WORKS

PART I — MEET THE CHALLENGE

CHAPTER 1 — EXPLORING THE MULTI-ENGINE
RATING
SECTION A – Seeking a New Experience
SECTION B – Considering SRM

CHAPTER 2 — UNDERSTANDING YOUR AIRPLANE

SECTION A – Examining Systems
SECTION B – Calculating Weight and Balance
SECTION C – Determining Performance

CHAPTER 3 — DISCOVERING AERODYNAMICS

SECTION A – Introducing Multi-Engine Aerodynamics
SECTION B – Mastering Engine-Out Aerodynamics

PART II — EXPERIENCE THE ADVENTURE

CHAPTER 4 — PERFORMING MANEUVERS AND
PROCEDURES
SECTION A – Normal Operations
SECTION B – Maneuvers

CHAPTER 5 — MASTERING ENGINE-OUT

OPERATIONS
SECTION A – When an Engine Fails
SECTION B – Engine-Out Maneuvers
SECTION C – Operating on Instruments

CHAPTER 6 — APPLYING SRM

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A – QUESTION ANSWERS
APPENDIX B – GLOSSARY

How the Textbook Works

The Multi-Engine textbook is structured to highlight important topics and
concepts and to promote an effective and efficient study/review method of
learning. To get the most out of your textbook, as well as the entire Guided
Flight Discovery Pilot Training System, you might find it beneficial to review
the major design elements incorporated in this text.
 PART I

Meet the Challenge

It’s human nature to stretch, to go, to see, to
understand. Exploration is not a choice, really;
it’s an imperative.
—Michael Collins
 PART I

P
ilots tend to seek out new experiences and to
enhance their abilities. Exploring the world of
multi-engine flight will stretch your skills,
show you unique aspects of flight, and might even
advance your career. Earning your multi-engine
rating not only improves your piloting skills, but
expands your knowledge of aircraft systems,
performance, and aerodynamics. Exploring the
Multi-Engine Rating traces some of the history of
multi-engine flight, examines the opportunities
available to multi-engine pilots, and provides an
overview of single-pilot resource management (SRM)
concepts. Advanced aircraft systems, weight and
balance calculations, and performance determination
for a light twin are all topics covered in
Understanding Your Airplane. Discovering
Aerodynamics challenges you to think about
aerodynamics in a new way as you learn the
aerodynamic principles applicable to both multi-
engine flight and operations with an inoperative
engine.
 CHAPTER 1

Exploring the Multi-

Engine Rating
SECTION A
Seeking a New Experience
SECTION B
Considering SRM
SECTION A
Seeking a New Experience

I
n May of 1913, a 23-year-old Russian airplane designer introduced the
most magnificent flying machine the world had ever seen. It was a big
and impressive biplane, with an enclosed cabin, upholstered seats, large
windows, an outdoor observation deck, dual controls, and many other
advanced features. All this luxury, and the associated weight, might have
resulted in terrible performance, but the Bolshoi (“Grand”) performed
reasonably well, because it also had four engines. The designer, Igor
Sikorsky, began thinking about an airplane with more than one engine after
making a forced landing in one of his earlier airplanes. (Mosquitos had
clogged his carburetor!) He quickly realized that additional powerplants
would also allow the creation of a larger aircraft, with greater capabilities,
and the world’s first multi-engine airplane began to take shape in his mind.
To take advantage of the expanded capabilities of multi-engine airplanes, you
will need to acquire some new expertise. Mastering the additional complexity
and becoming comfortable with the higher performance increases the
professionalism of all your flying. You will refine your decision-making skills
and become adept at weighing options. The multi-engine airplane might
offer you a new perspective on the beauty and challenge of flight, as it has
others throughout the history of aviation.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF HISTORY

Sikorsky’s Bolshoi (“Grand”) had four 100-horsepower engines, and could
carry ten people.
Aeronautics was neither an industry nor a science. It was a miracle.
—Igor Sikorsky
The U.S. Navy Curtiss NC-4 flying boat flew across the Atlantic in May, 1919
making several stops enroute (left). The first nonstop transatlantic flight was
made barely two weeks later by John Alcock and Arthur W. Brown in a
British Vickers Vimy (right). The Curtiss NC-4 had four engines, and the
Vickers Vimy had two.
A small machine is ideal for short flights, joy riding the heavens, or sight
seeing among the clouds; but there is something more majestic and stable
about the big bombers which a pilot begins to love. An exquisite community
grows up between machine and pilot; each, as it were, merges into the
other.
—Sir Ross Smith, KBE, “National Geographic” magazine, March 1921
(Smith flew a Vickers Vimy from London to Darwin, Australia in
1919.)
Multi-engine airplanes were optimized as bombers, transports, and airliners.
This is a Rohrbach Ro. VIII in service with Luft Hansa.
Ours is the commencement of a flying age, and I am happy to have popped
into existence at a period so interesting.
—Amelia Earhart, 20 Hrs 40 Mins, 1928
Not all two-engined airplanes are conventional twins. At first glance, the
Macchi Castoldi MC-72 looks like a single-engine racing seaplane, but it has
two massive V-12 engines in its fuselage, driving contra-rotating propellers.
In 1934 it set a piston-engine seaplane speed record that still stands.
The Boeing 247D airliner was one of the first airplanes with feathering
propellers, which made multi-engine flying safer by reducing the drag of a
failed engine’s windmilling propeller.
Travelers are always discoverers, especially those who travel by air. There
are no signposts in the air to show a man has passed that way before. There
are no channels marked. The flier breaks each second into new uncharted
seas.
—Anne Morrow Lindbergh, North to the Orient, 1935

It’s hard to conceive of a time before airlines, or that average people used to
believe that flying was strictly for fools and daredevils. The Douglas DC-3
began to convince the public that flying was as safe and reliable as rail travel.
In this photo the right engine is shut down, showing that the airplane is
capable of flight on one engine.
One of the first civilian airplanes to use constant-speed propellers was the
Lockheed 12 Electra Jr. Constant-speed props differ from variable-pitch
props by having a governor that constantly adjusts the blade pitch to
maintain a specific engine rpm set by the pilot.
You would think the safety and performance gained by additional engines
would lead to multi-engined fighter planes, but single engines remained the
standard until the jet age. Relatively few twin-engine fighters were developed
for World War II. The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was among the most
successful.
I fly because it releases my mind from the tyranny of petty things…
—Antoine de St.-Exupéry (St.-Exupéry disappeared over the
Mediterranean while flying the reconnaissance version of the
Lightning in 1944.)

Many a bomber crew was grateful for the extra horsepower that brought
them home with an engine or two shut down.
“Number four’s on fire,” came over the interphone, loud and scared.
“Just smoke,” Spaugh said coolly. “Smoking bad, sir.”
I looked down and we hadn’t moved. We were standing still over France,
and they were pouring it at us.
“It isn’t the engine, Sam,” I said. “It’s the oil, I think.”
The instruments were okay. We weren’t losing oil pressure yet.
“Feather number four,” Sam said.
I hit the feathering button and the fuel-shut-off switch in one motion. I
knocked off the mixture control and chopped the throttle, and pulled off the
RPM. We just sat there while the prop windmilled a while and then
feathered into a clean upright Y.
In a little while the smoke stopped.
—Bert Stiles, Serenade to the Big Bird (Stiles flew 35 missions as
copilot on B-17s.)

Early jets had relatively low thrust. Although the first experimental
prototypes had one engine, the first practical jets had two, in order to provide
performance exceeding that of contemporary piston-engine aircraft.
From the end of WWII through the 1950s, many weird and wonderful
aircraft were developed. The Martin XB-51 bomber had two engines in pods
attached to the fuselage, and a third engine in the tail.
The Lockheed SR-71 reconnaissance jet could fly more than 2,000 miles per
hour at altitudes exceeding 85,000 feet. It used two Pratt and Whitney J-58
engines, each of which produced 32,500 pounds of thrust.
The cockpit was my office. It was a place where I experienced many
emotions and learned many lessons. It was a place of work, but also a
keeper of dreams. It was a place of deadly serious encounters, yet there I
discovered much about life. I learned about joy and sorrow, pride and
humility, fear and overcoming fear. I saw much from that office that most
people would never see.
—Brian Shul, Sled Driver; Flying The World’s Fastest Jet, 1992

With an unrefuelled range of over 25,000 miles, the Rutan Voyager flew
nonstop around the world in December of 1986. The airplane was piloted by
Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager, and its average speed for the trip was around
100 knots.
It was exciting watching it all come together, exploring your own self and
finding out, “yeah, I can do this; I’m capable.” It was a fun discovery
period… All experiences of your life are training and development for your
next level of expertise. I would say that Voyager is a training situation for
my next level. I have no idea what the next level is going to be, but I know
I’ll be capable of whatever I decide to do.
—Jeana Yeager

Over the past hundred years, airplanes have explored the surface of the earth
and the layer of atmosphere that surrounds our planet. This airplane only
goes to around 60,000 feet, but it is a stepping-stone into space.
WhiteKnightTwo carries SpaceShipTwo, a tourist spacecraft capable of
suborbital spaceflights to 68 miles (110 km). It has four turbofan engines and
is the world’s largest all-composite aircraft.
Just like when early airplanes were flying in 1910, we didn’t know what the
benefits [would be], but we were doing it because it was fun. (…) The next
25 years will be a wild ride; one that history will note was done for
everyone’s benefit.
 —Burt Rutan, one of the designers of White Knight Two, and designer
of Voyager and dozens of other innovative and historic aircraft

BALANCE OF POWER
One of the problems of the conventional multi-engine layout is the
asymmetrical thrust and drag that result from an engine failure. Through
the years, aircraft designers have developed a number of innovative solutions
to this potentially dangerous situation. One approach is to locate both
engines along the centerline of the airplane, so the failure of either engine
causes no change in the direction of the thrust. This is called, logically
enough, centerline thrust. [Figure 1-1]
 FIG01-001

Figure 1-1. The U.S. Air Force explored centerline thrust possibilities with the
Douglas XB-42 “Mixmaster,” a bomber driven by two engines with tail-mounted
contra-rotating propellers.
In 1962, Cessna introduced the Skymaster. The aircraft was different enough
from conventional twins to warrant a special multi-engine rating limited to
centerline thrust. Cessna stopped producing Skymasters in 1980, but they
are still a familiar sight at many airports. [Figure 1-2]
 FIG01-002

Figure 1-2. The progressive Cessna Skymaster prompted the FAA to offer a multi-
engine rating limited to centerline thrust. (The rating is no longer issued.)
Another approach to minimizing asymmetrical thrust problems is to put the
engines as close to the center of drag as possible. You can see this in
airplanes like the Northrop T-38, Boeing 727, BAC Lightning, and the
Raytheon/Beechcraft Starship. [Figure 1-3]
 FIG01-003

Figure 1-3. Designers of the English Electric Lightning minimized yaw problems by
mounting the engines above and below each other.

MORE THAN TWO ENGINES

You will probably do your multi-engine training in a twin-engine airplane.
After you obtain your rating, you might operate airplanes with more than two
engines, but most of them require additional training and a specific type
rating. Although airplanes with three and four engines are relatively
common, engineers have often designed airplanes with more than four
engines. After World War II, the early Consolidated B-36 bombers had six
huge radial piston engines, each with 3,250 horsepower. Later B-36 models
had an additional four turbojet engines, for a total of ten engines. Howard
Hughes’ HK-1 flying boat had eight engines, and almost everyone is familiar
with the eight-engined Boeing B-52 Stratofortress jet bomber. But the record
was set way back in 1929, when the German Dornier company built the
powerful Do-X flying boat. It had twelve engines mounted in six tandem
pairs across the top of its thick wing. [Figure 1-4]
 FIG01-004

Figure 1-4. At one time, the Dornier Do-X flying boat had 12 American-made Curtiss
Conqueror engines. Each engine produced 640 horsepower, for a total of 7,680
horsepower.
The rationale behind early multi-engine airplanes was that additional
engines permit larger airplanes, higher performance, or increased safety.
That rationale remains the same today. Early engines had limited
horsepower, and adding engines was often the only way to obtain more
thrust. Likewise, engines were much less reliable, so designers played the
averages. If an engine quit on a three- or four-engine airplane, the pilot still
had power remaining, and although performance suffered, the airplane could
usually make a safe landing.
Over the years, engines have become much more powerful and reliable.
Today, even large transports use only two engines, and many new airplanes
that would otherwise have needed two or more engines now rely on just one.
Still, many people believe that two engines are safer than one, so aircraft
designers often choose to use two smaller engines in place of a single, more
powerful engine. This creates many opportunities for pilots who hold multi-
engine ratings.

WHY A MULTI-ENGINE RATING?

Most pilots who decide to obtain a multi-engine rating do so for one of
two reasons: either they are pursuing a career as a professional pilot, or they
are looking for ways to enhance their skills and experience. Perhaps your
own reason combines a little of each of these goals. Learning to fly a multi-
engine airplane presents you with new challenges, and your progress is
marked by a series of satisfying accomplishments.
The systems and procedures involved in flying a twin are more complex than
in a single-engine airplane with comparable performance and capabilities.
Although the power of a second engine does increase performance, it
ordinarily does not double it. Conversely, with an engine shut down, the loss
of performance in a twin is substantial. When single-engine airplanes are
redesigned to use two engines, the performance loss from an engine failure is
usually much greater than the performance that was gained by adding the
second engine. For example, the twin-engine Beechcraft Baron 55 shares
many airframe components with the single engine Bonanza. With both
engines running, the Baron cruises about 20 knots faster than a comparable
Bonanza. However, with an engine shut down, the Baron’s speed and ceiling
drop drastically, far below the Bonanza’s. As a multi-engine student, you
learn the reasons behind some of the design compromises, and how to
understand and deal effectively with them to get the most out of each
airplane. You will need such knowledge if you choose to pursue one of the
many career opportunities open to multi-engine pilots. [Figure 1-5]
 FIG01-005

Figure 1-5. You might be attracted to some of the many exciting career
opportunities available to multi-engine pilots.
 A Close Look at a Flying Career
Interview with…
Pat Steiner
Part 135 Learjet Captain
On his flying background…
My flying career took me from completing a degree in
Aeronautical Science at Embry Riddle University to
flight instructing for several years. After gaining
experience, I moved on to flying air ambulance and
operating in the corporate environment, and finally to
my present job as a Learjet Captain for a 135
operation. I got my multi-engine rating right after
getting my private pilot certificate and completed both
my instrument and commercial training in twins. This
really helped me gain quite a lot of experience in multi-
engine airplanes early on in my career. I have flown a
wide range of twins; the Piper Seminole and Seneca, Cessna 310, 340,
and 414, Beechcraft Duchess, Baron, and King Air, and the Lear 24 and
35.
On instructing…
I signed off more than 100 students for checkrides and provided private,
instrument, commercial, multi-engine, and CFI training. As an instructor,
I worked for a flying club, but got paid per flight by each student directly.
I was basically open to schedule students at any time during the day, 7
days a week, and my days off varied. I normally took a day off when no
one scheduled on that day or when the weather was bad and none of my
students needed to have any ground instruction at that time. While not
all that profitable at the time, flight instructing has been very good to me.
I gained a tremendous amount of experience, made connections that
allowed me to get subsequent jobs, and developed lasting friendships.
And, I believe I had a really positive impact on a lot of individuals’ lives.
On life on the road…
During my first air ambulance job in a Learjet, I was based on the road.
This meant that I would fly to the first destination — for example New
York— then wait for another call to the next stop. This way, the company
 only had to charge the customer for a one-way trip. This type of
schedule was hard on the pilots, though, who often had to sit waiting
away from home for days for another call. So, when the next opportunity
came along, I moved on.
On life beyond flying…
I was hired by one of my former students as the pilot of their company’s
Cessna 414. This corporate flying job was a great experience. Since my
boss had to travel all over the country for business and pleasure, I
visited many interesting locations, including Orlando, New York, San
Diego, Cape Cod, and Las Vegas. And I was able to participate in a lot
of the activities with company employees, including snowmobiling,
jetskiing, parasailing, and attending a Broadway show in New York City.
My wife, who is also a pilot, accompanied me on many of these trips so it
was often like having free vacations.
On my current position…
After the company was unable to maintain the expense of the airplane, I
moved on to my current Part 135 job where I began flying King Air 90s
and 200s, primarily on medical flights. I was then promoted to the
Learjet, which is operated for both charter and medical flights. You can’t
beat the schedule. I have the same two days off each week and the
other five days I fly a wide range of unique trips. Sometimes I am simply
on call for any flight that pops up. Other times I have a scheduled trip.
This type of schedule affords me ample free time. I enjoy the variety of
flying I am able to do. And of course, the airplane is challenging and
great fun to fly.
About the journey…
When I was a child, my dream was to fly for a living and I am doing that
in a wonderful way. It’s been an exciting journey to get to this point in my
flying career. The variety of flying jobs I’ve had and airplanes I’ve flown
have kept flying adventurous and challenging for me along the way.

THE TRAINING PATH

You are most likely seeking to add a multi-engine rating to your existing
private or commercial pilot certificate. This book is written with you in mind.
However, if you are obtaining your initial private or commercial certificate in
a multi-engine airplane, you also need to learn a great deal of information
from other sources, such as the Jeppesen Guided Flight Discovery Private
Pilot textbook or Instrument/Commercial textbook.
A TYPICAL TRAINING FLIGHT
After you have mastered flying your multi-engine training airplane with both
engines operating, a typical flight lesson that focuses on engine-out
procedures might include some of the following elements. Your instructor
meets you and goes over the objectives for this lesson. Because you began
practicing engine-out operations in previous lessons, today you plan to work
on more specific engine-failure scenarios. Your instructor reviews what
actions to take if an engine quits in particular situations, such as during the
takeoff roll, just after liftoff, or during cruise flight. The two of you discuss
the factors that could lead to a loss of directional control during flight on one
engine.

You preflight the airplane, and then spend some time sitting in the cockpit
reviewing engine-out procedures before your instructor meets you at the
airplane.
In the run-up area, you and your instructor perform a takeoff briefing, which
includes reviewing the procedures for managing an engine failure during
takeoff. As expected, while accelerating for takeoff, your instructor retards a
throttle to simulate an engine failure. You keep the airplane on the centerline
as you reduce both throttles to idle, brake to a safe speed, and taxi clear of
the runway.
On the way to the practice area, your instructor simulates an engine failure
and reviews each step you take to identify the failed engine, maintain
directional control, and to configure the airplane for best performance. A few
minutes later, your instructor surprises you with another simulated engine
failure and you accomplish the necessary procedures.
In the practice area, you perform clearing turns to look for traffic. Seeing
none, your instructor asks you to simulate an engine failure by reducing one
engine’s power to idle. Then, with your instructor’s guidance, you practice
the procedures for regaining lost directional control. After demonstrating
recovery from a loss of directional control, your instructor coaches you
through a repetition of the demonstration.

In the practice area, your instructor reviews the procedures for performing
an approach and landing on one engine. Before reaching the airport
environment, your instructor shows you how to set the controls to simulate
that one engine has been shut down and its propeller feathered. You then fly
the approach and landing on one engine with your instructor’s guidance.
After securing the airplane, you discuss your performance during the flight.
Your instructor answers your questions, and reviews some of the major
points of today’s lesson. To help you prepare for the next lesson, you discuss
what to expect on the next flight and your instructor assigns study material.

WHAT’S REQUIRED?
As with all ratings, the requirements to obtain a multi-engine rating are
spelled out in detail in the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs), which are
identified by a specific title number (Aeronautics and Space Title 14) within
the larger group of rules contained in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
Multi-engine is a class of aircraft, so the requirements for adding a new class
rating apply. [Figure 1-6]
 FIG01-006

Figure 1-6. There are three “musts” and two “need nots” for a multi-engine class
rating in FAR 61.63 (c).
GAINING EXPERIENCE
In some respects, training for the multi-engine rating is similar to checking
out in any new airplane: you study the airplane’s systems, learn to operate all
the onboard equipment, study the performance capabilities, and gain
proficiency in flying specific maneuvers. You also learn to recognize and
handle various emergency situations. On the other hand, getting your multi-
engine rating is much different from the other flying you have done.
Although no written test is required by the FAA, you must pass both an oral
and a practical test with an FAA-designated examiner. You are expected to
apply much of the same knowledge you demonstrated for your private,
commercial, and instrument checkrides, in addition to the new skills specific
to multi-engine flight.

STAYING SHARP
Multi-engine airplanes are typically expensive to operate and you normally
must gain a certain amount of experience to meet insurance requirements
that allow you to operate as pilot-in-command of a twin. All of these factors
can make it difficult to practice multi-engine procedures often, so your skills
can become rusty after you obtain your rating. Even if you fly a multi-engine
airplane frequently and become thoroughly proficient with normal
operations, you still need to set aside time to practice the skills that you
seldom use, especially emergency procedures. Many of the companies that
insure multi-engine airplanes require recurrent pilot training, and firms such
as FlightSafety International, Recurrent Training Center, and Simcom
Training Centers offer sophisticated simulator-based courses to help you stay
sharp. As with single-engine flying, it takes determination, as well as time
and money, to maintain a safe level of flight proficiency.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
The systems and procedures involved in flying a twin-engine airplane are
more complex than in a single-engine airplane with comparable
performance and capabilities.
When single-engine airplanes are redesigned to use two engines, the
performance loss from an engine failure is usually much greater than the
performance that was gained by adding the second engine.
 Obtaining a multi-engine rating could open up career possibilities.
During the first phase of multi-engine training, you learn about the
airplane and learn to fly it using both engines.
As you become more proficient at operating the airplane, the focus of
training shifts to engine-out operations and emergency procedures.
If you are instrument rated, the next phase of training emphasizes
instrument skills with both engines operating and with one engine
inoperative.
The last phase of multi-engine training focuses on preparation for the
practical test.
During a typical flight lesson, you might begin by reviewing previous
lessons and discussing the objectives for the current lesson. In the
airplane, you might review and practice maneuvers you learned
previously, and your instructor might demonstrate new material and guide
you as you learn to apply new skills correctly. After landing, you review the
major points of the lesson, discuss your performance with your instructor,
and receive assignments to help you prepare for the next lesson.
The multi-engine rating requires an oral and a practical test, but not a
written test. The requirements are listed in 14 CFR 61.63(c).
After obtaining your rating, it’s important to maintain proficiency in all
aspects of multi-engine flying, especially emergency procedures.

KEY TERMS
Asymmetrical Thrust
Multi-Engine Rating
Class Rating
SECTION B
Considering SRM
The desire for safety stands against every great and noble enterprise.
—Cornelius Tacitus, circa A.D. 100
Why does one want to walk wings? Why force one’s body from a plane to
make a parachute jump? Why should man want to fly at all? People often
ask these questions. But what civilization was not founded on adventure,
and how long could one exist without it? Some answer the attainment of
knowledge. Some say wealth, or power, is sufficient cause. I believe the
risks I take are justified by the sheer love of the life I lead.
—Charles Lindbergh

P
iloting an airplane entails a certain amount of risk. The pioneers of
flight undertook a great and noble enterprise in their pursuit of the
sky. They felt that the benefits of flying outweighed the risk they
assumed. You most likely would not be reading these words if you did not
feel the same about your own flying endeavors. However, you do not have to
abandon your desire for safety in your quest for adventure. [Figure 1-7]
 Courtesy of
NASA

FIG01-007

Figure 1-7. Even the most adventurous of aviators do not embark upon their
missions without understanding the risks involved, and without taking appropriate
safety precautions.
Obtaining a multi-engine rating expands your airplane repertoire, and
exposes you to new, exciting experiences. At the same time, flying a twin-
engine airplane involves a unique set of factors that affect your ability to
manage risk and make effective decisions. For example, you might initially
find it challenging to operate an airplane with advanced equipment, complex
systems, and increased performance. You must master new procedures for
managing an engine failure and learn how to determine the best option for
maintaining flight safety in this situation. You also need the ability to work in
a crew environment in a multi-engine airplane if you are pursuing a career as
a professional pilot. To accomplish these goals, you must apply effective
single-pilot resource management (SRM) skills when acting as pilot in
command of a multi-engine airplane.

SAFETY IN NUMBERS?
Are two engines safer than one? Pilots casually discuss this issue at the local
FBO, and numerous multi-engine training publications and aviation
magazine articles more seriously address this subject. The same
characteristics that are intended to enhance safety—engine and system
redundancy, increased performance, and features such as de-icing
equipment—can also increase risk if you are not well-versed in your
airplane’s systems, performance data, and procedures. To gain insight into
the human factors that apply to operating light twin airplanes and to discover
how SRM can help you mitigate risk, start by examining the history of multi-
engine training and reviewing accident data.

MISTAKES OF THE PAST

During the 1960s, multi-engine airplanes gained popularity as vehicles for
personal and business travel and manufacturers developed several new
airplane models to help pilots meet the training requirements for
transitioning to piston twins. Although these trainers were fuel efficient, they
displayed other, less appealing, traits that eventually tarnished the multi-
engine safety record. If an engine quit in an under-powered trainer, the
airplane often sank to the ground. Most of these occurrences did not result in
serious damage or injuries, but they were included in the light-twin accident
tally. In addition, several trainers exhibited hazardous characteristics if
stalled with only one engine operating at high power.
Unfavorable airplane attributes, coupled with questionable pilot training and
testing methods, proved to be dangerous and sometimes fatal. For example,
demonstrating loss of control indications and recovery procedures after an
engine failure left little margin for error if this training took place at a low
altitude with the intent of teaching pilots to manage the worst-case scenario.
As you will realize during your training, discontinuing the takeoff after an
engine failure is often the most prudent course of action. However, instead of
reinforcing this concept, early training methods tended to give pilots the
impression that they could proceed with the takeoff in most cases. The
accident record that resulted from these faulty training techniques and pilot
misconceptions helped to reinforce the belief that single-engine airplanes
were safer than multi-engine airplanes. The prevailing attitude was that it
was preferable to glide to a safe landing with no power than to have the
operating engine invert the airplane and force it into the ground.
To help combat the problems encountered with multi-engine instruction,
training and testing were reformed to avoid the possible loss of control
during engine-out practice. Manufacturers developed safe procedures for
intentional engine-out operations, improved light twin design, and
emphasized takeoff performance (or the lack of it) in POHs so pilots could
easily determine if they could continue a takeoff after an engine failure.

JUST THE FACTS, PLEASE

So what conclusions can you draw from more recent accident data? You
might have encountered a variety of statistics and statements about multi-
engine accidents: some studies point to a high fatality rate after engine
failures in twin-engine airplanes and others tout the fact that multi-engine
airplanes are involved in fewer total accidents than single-engine airplanes.
However, when you determine the significance of this research, you often
must know additional information. For example, how many single-engine
airplanes are operating compared to multi-engine airplanes? What is the
total number of accidents represented? How does the number of accidents
caused by engine failure compare to total accidents during that time period?
Were many accidents in twin-engine airplanes caused by loss of control?
What types of flight operations do these reports include?
When exploring accident data and safety research, your goal is to determine
the actions that you can take to mitigate the risk involved with specific flying
situations in a multi-engine airplane. The annual NTSB Review of Accident
Data and the AOPA Air Safety Institute Nall Report contain statistical
tabulations and graphs of data compiled from NTSB reports. [Figure 1-8]

FIG01-008

Figure 1-8. Reviewing accident data can reveal general risk factors that you must
mitigate when you fly.
Often the experience level of the pilot in regard to the airplane is a factor in
accidents. Studies have shown that low time in type, even for experienced
pilots, is often a contributing factor to accidents. In addition, as airplanes
increase in size with a corresponding increase in flight speed, the probability
of a given accident to be fatal increases as well. To uncover more detailed
information about multi-engine accidents, go to ntsb.gov to gain access to
the NTSB database. [Figure 1-9]

FIG01-009

Figure 1-9. You can search the NTSB database for a specific accident report or
obtain reports that cover a certain time period.
Variations in causal factors between airplane classes are more likely due to
differences in the exposure to risk than by individual airplane characteristics.
For example, IFR weather-related approach accidents are typically more
common in multi-engine and single-engine retractable-gear airplanes than in
fixed-gear airplanes because complex airplanes operate more frequently in
the IFR environment. [Figure 1-10]
 FIG01-010

Figure 1-10. Analyzing specific accident reports can help you avoid making similar
errors.

WHAT NOW?
You might conclude from accident reports that some people are posing the
wrong question. Instead of asking whether two engines are safer than one,
pilots should be asking why the same types of accidents—resulting from poor
judgment and faulty decision-making—occur even as pilots gain more flight
time and experience. Because multi-engine pilots still make poor choices
regarding routine flight operations, SRM training is as essential for pilots
learning to fly twin-engine airplanes as it is for students beginning their
primary flight training—maybe more so. SRM consists of skills that can be
organized in six categories:
● Aeronautical decision making
● Risk management
● Task management
● Situational awareness
● Controlled flight into terrain awareness
● Automation management
AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING
Aeronautical decision making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the
mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best
course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. By now, you
have used ADM many times as pilot in command. In the single-engine
airplanes that you fly, you most likely are trained to quickly react to
emergencies by following specific procedures. You have also learned to make
and implement decisions that require a more reflective response. Your new
challenge is to apply the ADM process to operating multi-engine airplanes.
You might have used a mnemonic, such as FOR-DEC, NMATE, DODAR,
SAFE, or the FAA’s DECIDE model to remember the steps in the ADM
process. Regardless of the words used to describe the action you take or the
number of steps a particular model includes, the ADM process typically
consists of these basic steps:
1. Recognize a change.
2. Define the problem.
3. Choose a course of action.
4. Implement your decision.
5. Monitor the outcome.

Airplane Accidents, Birthday Bashes, Healthy

Habits, and Weekend Weather
Having a birthday in common with a friend or colleague is a rare
coincidence, right? If you hosted a party, how many people must be
gathered together for you to be 50% certain that at least two people in
attendance shared the same birthday? You may assume that you must
invite at least 183 people (half of the 365 days of the year.) However,
only 23 guests are required.
The ability to understand fundamental ideas regarding numbers and
chance is key to correctly interpreting statistics and statements regarding
the probability of an event, such as an accident, to occur. Through the
media, books, and conversations with friends and coworkers, we are
frequently confronted with the results of studies and statistics which
attempt to prove a wide variety of premises regarding such diverse
issues as health concerns and stock market advice.
At times, we may make assumptions and reach
inaccurate conclusions about situations when we fail
to ask the appropriate questions or thoroughly
analyze information. For example, caution must be
used in interpreting percentages based on small
numbers of events. If 100% of accidents caused by
a particular factor were fatal, but only one accident
occurred due to this factor, how significant is this
statistic? Another error that can occur when
examining percentages is inappropriate addition. If a
50% chance for snow exists on both Saturday and
Sunday, this does not add up to a 100% chance that
it will snow over the weekend.
Correlation and causation are two ideas that can be
confused with each other when trying to interpret
data. Two quantities may be correlated without
either one being the cause of the other. For
example, you may read that the consumption of a
food previously thought to be good for your health,
such as milk, has been correlated with an increase in cancer in certain
societies. The correlation may be explained by the fact that any health
practice, such as drinking milk, which correlates positively with an
increase in longevity will probably do the same with cancer incidence.
Vivid and unusual events are most often remembered, so false
perceptions of the risk involved with certain activities can be formed. The
crash of an airliner makes the newspaper headlines, which fuels the fear
of flying. However, the number of deaths caused by smoking is more
than 300,000 Americans annually, approximately equivalent to 3 fully
loaded jumbo jets crashing every day of the year. In addition, non-
occurrences, such as the absence of aircraft accidents, are not often
reported by the media, and are seldom a topic of conversation among
pilots. For example, we do not hear about the number of pilots who
encountered problems in flight, such as a power loss, who landed
uneventfully at the nearest airport.
For those of you who are curious, the birthday query is mathematically
explained as follows.
 The number of ways that 5 dates can be chosen is (365 x 365 x 365 x
365 x 365). Of all these 3655 ways, however, only (365 x 364 x 363 x
362 x 361) are such that no two dates are the same. If the latter product
is divided by 3655, the result is the probability (97%) that 5 individuals
chosen at random will have no birthday in common. Subtracting this
probability from 100% reveals the complementary probability (3%) that
at least 2 of the 5 people do have a birthday in common.
(365 x 364 x 363 x 362 x 361) = .97 (97%)
3655
100% − 97% = 3%
If this calculation is performed with 23 instead of 5, the result is 50%. At
least 2 of 23 people will share a birthday.

How is ADM different in single- vs. multi-engine airplanes? You have

additional considerations in a multi-engine airplane. For example, pilots
spend a lot of time practicing procedures for coping with an engine failure in
both single-and multi-engine airplanes. Although the loss of an engine is
certainly a serious situation in either type of airplane, making decisions
about the loss of your only engine is actually simpler than determining the
best option when you lose one of two engines. The most critical time to
experience an engine failure in any airplane is during takeoff and initial
climb. If an engine failure occurs in a single-engine airplane, you have no
choice but to land the airplane while trying to clear obstacles and avoid
stalling. However, the option of continued flight in a twin with an inoperative
engine can lead to trouble if you do not make effective decisions. [Figure 1-
11]
 FIG01-011

Figure 1-11. Making decisions regarding the loss of an engine is significantly

different in single-engine airplanes vs. light twins.
You assume some unique responsibilities as the pilot of a multi-engine
airplane. Accident studies illustrate that lack of experience in a specific make
and model of airplane is a significant risk factor. Obtaining a multi-engine
rating expands your opportunity to pilot a variety of airplanes. However, this
makes it more challenging to spend sufficient time in any one type of
airplane to maintain proficiency. [Figure 1-12]
 FIG01-012

Figure 1-12. Many pilots find it difficult just to maintain regulatory currency in both
aircraft classes when they are rated in single- and multi-engine airplanes.
In addition to the safety issues caused by lack of experience in any given
airplane, maintaining familiarity with a particular airplane’s characteristics
is also challenging because information regarding one airplane can interfere
with data learned about another. You might confuse speeds, procedures, and
systems, especially when you are operating airplanes that have similar
features. One of your greatest responsibilities as pilot in command is to
understand any airplane you fly and be able to recognize when refresher
training is necessary.

RISK MANAGEMENT
Risk management is an essential part of SRM. Reviewing accident and
incident reports, ASRS accounts, and other scenarios help you identify risks
associated with a variety of flying situations and consider actions to mitigate
these risks. However, you must have a tool to manage your risk for a specific
flight during the planning stage and while you are flying. One such tool is the
5Ps, which classifies risk factors into five categories: Pilot, Passengers,
Plane, Programming, and Plan. As a multi-engine pilot, you have new factors
to consider in each of these categories. [Figure 1-13]

FIG01-013

Figure 1-13. Although you might have used the 5P risk management tool in the
past, you have some unique factors to take into account when operating a multi-
engine airplane.

TASK MANAGEMENT
As you transition to the twin-engine cockpit, performing all the necessary
tasks might seem overwhelming at first. In addition to managing two
engines, you might have other unfamiliar equipment to operate—an
autopilot, an on-board oxygen or pressurization system, advanced navigation
equipment, weather radar, or an ice-control system. Although you have more
resources, managing all this equipment means you have increased workload.
In addition, the faster speeds at which you operate leave you with less time to
take action and make decisions.
You must be proficient at task management, especially during high
workload periods—such as transitioning from the enroute to the terminal
environment, entering the traffic pattern, or performing an instrument
approach. Another critical time that requires effective task management is
following the loss of an engine. [Figure 1-14]
 FIG01-014

Figure 1-14. After an engine failure, the tasks that you manage in a multi-engine
airplane are very different than those in a single-engine airplane.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Maintaining situational awareness means you know the current and
future status of the flight, including weather, terrain, traffic, ATC situation,
fuel state, and airplane condition. At first, operating a multi-engine airplane
might take your full attention. You can fixate on multi-engine procedures
and exclude other tasks, such as communicating with ATC, scanning for
traffic, and navigating. As you gain experience, your ability to perform
numerous duties while still maintaining an overall awareness of your flight
environment will increase. [Figure 1-15]

FIG01-015

Figure 1-15. Several factors might affect your ability to maintain situational
awareness in a multi-engine airplane.

CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN AWARENESS

A tragic outcome to a loss of situational awareness is controlled flight into
terrain (CFIT)—an accident in which a fully qualified and certificated pilot
or flight crew flies a properly functioning airplane into the ground, water, or
obstacles with no prior awareness by the pilots. CFIT accidents happen more
often in IFR conditions or at night—flight conditions in which you are more
likely to operate after you transition to multi-engine airplanes and possibly
pursue a career as a professional pilot. CFIT has tragically affected
commercial operations and accounts for approximately 17% of all general
aviation fatalities. To decrease your risk of a CFIT accident, know the CFIT
risk factors and take actions in each phase of flight to mitigate these factors.
Limited ATC services, mountainous terrain, minimal runway lighting, and
pilot/controller language barriers increase CFIT risk. The type of operation,
the weather conditions, your crew configuration, and your fatigue level also
affect CFIT risk. [Figure 1-16]
 FIG01-016

Figure 1-16. Mitigate CFIT risk by taking specific actions and having equipment on
board your airplane that displays terrain.

AUTOMATION MANAGEMENT
Aircraft automation can range from a simple autopilot that maintains
heading and altitude to advanced avionics that include a PFD, MFD, GPS,
and a fully-integrated autopilot. Many newer single-engine airplanes might
have more sophisticated equipment than the light twin in which you are
training or the turboprop or jet that you will fly as a professional pilot. Your
goal is to use automation management techniques to effectively operate
whatever type of equipment is onboard the airplane, regardless of its
complexity. If you are not thoroughly familiar with the equipment, it can
become a distraction and an obstacle to situational awareness rather than a
tool to reduce workload. [Figure 1-17]

FIG01-017

Figure 1-17. As you transition to different multi-engine airplanes, you must be able
to manage automation ranging from a simple autopilot to an integrated system with
various flight information displays.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
To operate a multi-engine airplane with advanced equipment, complex
systems, and increased performance, manage routine and emergency
situations, work in a crew environment, and make effective decisions, you
must apply the skills of single-pilot resource management (SRM).
 When exploring accident data and safety research, determine the actions
that you can take to mitigate the risk involved with specific flying
situations in a multi-engine airplane.
The annual NTSB Review of Accident Data and the AOPA Air Safety
Institute Nall Report contain statistical tabulations and graphs of data
compiled from NTSB reports.
Variations in causal factors between airplane classes are more likely due
to differences in the exposure to risk than by individual airplane
characteristics.
Studies have shown that low time in type, even for experienced pilots, is
often a contributing factor to accidents.
As airplanes increase in size, with a corresponding increase in flight
speed, the probability that an accident is fatal increases as well.
Aeronautical decision making (ADM) is the systematic approach to the
mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best
course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
The ADM process typically consists of these basic steps: (1) recognize a
change, (2) define the problem, (3) choose a course of action, (4)
implement your decision, (5) monitor the outcome.
One of your greatest responsibilities as pilot in command is to understand
any airplane you fly and be able to recognize when refresher training is
necessary.
Additional resources available on multi-engine airplanes, as well as faster
operating speeds, increase your workload and require effective task-
management techniques.
Maintaining situational awareness means that you know the current and
future status of the flight, including weather, terrain, traffic, ATC situation,
fuel state, and airplane condition.
Using automation, coordinating with another crewmember, and
managing an engine failure can affect situational awareness in a multi-
engine airplane.
Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) is an accident in which a fully
qualified and certificated pilot or flight crew flies a properly-functioning
 airplane into the ground, water, or obstacles with no prior awareness by
the pilots.
CFIT accidents happen more often in IFR conditions or at night— flight
conditions in which you are more likely to operate after you transition to
multi-engine airplanes and possibly pursue a career as a professional pilot.
Limited ATC services, mountainous terrain, minimal runway lighting, and
pilot/controller language barriers increase CFIT risk. The type of
operation, the weather conditions, your crew configuration, and your
fatigue level also affect CFIT risk.
Evaluating risk factors using the CFIT Checklist, following SOPs, and
using TAWS equipment can help mitigate CFIT risk.
Automation management enables you to effectively operate avionics and
automation to reduce workload and prevents equipment from becoming
an obstacle to situational awareness.

KEY TERMS
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
NTSB Database
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
ADM Process
Risk Management
5Ps
Task Management
Situational Awareness
Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)
Automation Management
 CHAPTER 2

Understanding Your
Airplane
SECTION A
Examining Systems
SECTION B
Calculating Weight and
Balance
SECTION C
Determining Performance
SECTION A
Examining Systems
You can’t pull a rabbit out of your hat unless you put it in there first.
—Robert A. “Bob” Hoover

A
fter a particularly precise and demanding airshow performance in a
multi-engine military airplane, a commentator asked the pilot how
many hours he had in the airplane to be able to put on such an
impressive display. The pilot replied that it was the first time he had flown
that type of airplane. He had spent an hour in the cockpit familiarizing
himself with the systems and controls beforehand. The pilot was Bob
Hoover, the aviation legend who is perhaps the only pilot in the world who
could safely accomplish such a feat. Hoover is widely regarded as the greatest
pilot who ever lived, but he approached every flight with the same calm, care,
and humility that got him through hundreds of emergencies and tough
situations in his careers as a fighter pilot, experimental test pilot, racing
pilot, and airshow performer. Whether he was testing an unproven new
design or putting a twin-engine business airplane through an airshow
routine with both engines stopped, his thorough understanding of each
airplane and its systems allowed him to operate with confidence and safety.
[Figure 2-1]
 FIG02-001

Figure 2-1. Bob Hoover learned to fly before World War II. Serving in the Army Air
Corps, he was shot down over Europe and captured in 1944. Near the end of the
war, he escaped from a German POW camp and stole a German fighter like this
one, escaping to Holland.
You might think of fast-thinking pilots applying their systems knowledge to
get out of tight spots, but pilots like Bob Hoover know that true mastery
means planning to avoid tight spots in the first place. Even if you never need
to pull a circuit breaker to stop an electrical fire, or switch to your alternate
static source to get your altimeter working, you can apply your knowledge of
your aircraft’s systems on every flight.

“BE PREPARED”
For more than a century, the motto of Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts all over the
world has been “be prepared.” This is an excellent practice for pilots, too.
Being prepared for any contingency that you might encounter in flight begins
with having a thorough knowledge of your airplane’s systems. You can
acquire this knowledge in different ways, and the methods might depend on
the size of the airplane or the complexity of its systems.
For each airplane you fly, the pilot’s operating handbook (POH) provides a
description of the systems, operating procedures, and limitations. It supplies
checklists for normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures. The POH
provides a good foundation for systems mastery, but does not necessarily
teach you how to anticipate the full effects of a malfunction, or how it might
affect other aircraft systems. You need to understand the interrelationships
between the various systems and their components, and be able to anticipate
how your actions will affect these systems during an abnormal situation in
your airplane.
Besides reading the POH and gaining experience in the airplane, you can
often use simulators and flight training devices (FTDs) to learn, to practice,
and to explore scenarios that are too dangerous to try in flight. It is easier to
learn to operate unfamiliar avionics using training software on your
computer or mobile device than to sit in a cold airplane on the ramp, running
down the battery with a book in your lap. Computer-based simulators from
avionics manufacturers often include well-designed tutorials to help you
explore the capabilities and master the operational procedures. There might
be computer-based simulators for other aircraft systems as well.
Another way you can prepare on the ground for problems that might occur in
the air is to participate in abnormal procedures training. In flight, it is often
impossible to effectively simulate faults. Simulators and FTDs provide a
convenient and safe method to train for abnormal and emergency
procedures. After you obtain your multi-engine rating, consider participating
in recurrent training on a regular basis. This helps you to keep your flying
skills and systems knowledge at a high level. [Figure 2-2]
 FIG02-002

Figure 2-2. Training in simulators and FTDs provides an opportunity to improve your
handling of engine and systems failures.

ENGINE SYSTEMS
When you learn to fly a multi-engine airplane, the training airplane is likely
to be very similar to a complex single-engine airplane. If you are proficient
operating complex single-engine airplanes, you might find that the main
differences in flying a twin are synchronizing two engines, handling an
engine failure, and learning to compensate for system failures by using
backup systems.
If you continue your flight training and advance to operating large or
turbine-powered multi-engine airplanes, you will encounter a number of
differences in system operations. In addition to covering the differences
between a single-engine airplane and your multi-engine training airplane,
this section also introduces you to some of the systems of larger, more
complex airplanes that you might operate if you pursue a flying career.

What’s All the Squawk About?

The statements shown here use humor to illustrate the importance
of clear and effective communication between pilots and maintenance
personnel.
If the only contact you have with aircraft maintenance technicians
(AMTs) is through comments on a squawk sheet, try to write clear and
concise descriptions of the problem you encountered. Be specific, and
don’t hesitate to go into the maintenance hangar and talk to an AMT
personally. They are usually eager to help, but they depend on your
knowledge and observation skills for a full and accurate description of
the situation.
Your interpersonal skills can help you develop a comfortable working
relationship with the professionals who maintain your aircraft. Keeping
the lines of communication open is essential for flight safety. Pilots and
AMTs must respect each others’ areas of expertise, and work together to
solve problems.
Obtaining your multi-engine rating is only the first step in flying the wide
variety of multi-engine airplanes. Because they vary in configuration, size,
and in the number and type of engines, each aircraft type has unique
operating considerations that you must thoroughly understand before acting
as pilot-in-command. You also need to comply with additional regulations
before operating large or turbine-powered airplanes. You can find some of
these regulations in FAR Part 91, Subpart F. [Figure 2-3]
 FIG02-003

Figure 2-3. You might fly multi-engine airplanes with piston, turboprop, or jet
engines, and with a variety of configurations. You need to thoroughly understand
their systems and special procedures before acting as pilot-in-command.

RECIPROCATING-ENGINE-POWERED OPERATIONS
Depending on what you have been flying, the engines on your multi-engine
training airplane are likely to be familiar. Most are essentially the same as
the engines on complex single-engine airplanes. However, on some
airplanes, the right engine rotates counterclockwise to increase the airplane’s
single-engine controllability. Chapter 3, Section B explains the reasons. This
section reviews basic operations for avgas-powered engines and introduces
special considerations regarding the operation of multiple engines and
systems.

FUEL METERING SYSTEMS

Multi-engine aircraft that are used for flight training can be equipped with
either carburetors or fuel injection systems. Figure 2-4 shows the
components of a typical fuel injection system, and figure 2-5 shows a system
with a carburetor. Induction system icing is more common in engines with
carburetors. To prevent carburetor ice, use carburetor heat as recommended
in the POH and whenever you suspect that carburetor icing could occur.

FIG02-004

Figure 2-4. The fuel-injection systems of twin-engine airplanes are similar to those
on single-engine airplanes.
 FIG02-005

Figure 2-5. Many multi-engine airplanes have engines with carburetors, which are
more prone to induction system icing than fuel injected engines.

IGNITION AND STARTING SYSTEMS

The ignition systems for most light twin-engine aircraft are similar to those
on the single-engine airplanes you have flown. Each engine is equipped with
dual magnetos, and two spark plugs for each cylinder. The operation of the
magnetos is conventional, but the magneto switches might be unfamiliar.
[Figure 2-6]
 FIG02-006

Figure 2-6. The magnetos are typically controlled using either toggle switches or
paddle switches.
In airplanes with magnetos, you must check their operation before takeoff.
Your instructor might teach you to check each engine’s magnetos
individually, or to check both engines at the same time. Either method is
acceptable if you are careful to observe the proper operating indications for
each magneto and to make sure that all the magnetos are ON before takeoff.
The starting circuits for multi-engine airplanes are also similar to single-
engine aircraft, but during your multi-engine flight training, starting systems
take on a new level of importance as you learn to shut down and restart
engines in flight.
Aircraft ignition systems have additional components that increase spark
intensity and delay ignition so it occurs at the optimum time during starting.
These features make starting easier, but it is usually possible to start the
engines using the normal ignition system if the starting circuit malfunctions.
However for safety, be sure that the starting systems work properly,
especially before a training flight when an engine might be intentionally shut
down. A malfunctioning starting system might make it impossible to restart
the engine.
Engines are traditionally numbered from left to right, so on a twin-engine
airplane, the left engine is number one and the right is number two. Most
manufacturers specify the order in which to start the engines. If the
manufacturer does not prescribe a specific order, start the engine that is
closest to the battery compartment first, because the shorter electrical wiring
between the battery and engine improves starting performance. If you find
one engine difficult to start, try starting the other engine. Typically, operating
either engine recharges the battery, helping to start the other engine. [Figure
2-7]
 FIG02-007

Figure 2-7. While vapor lock can certainly cause starting difficulties, it might not be
the problem at all.

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
The lubrication systems of multi-engine airplanes are also similar to those on
single-engine airplanes. In both single and multi-engine airplanes, oil
pressure from the lubrication system is used to change the pitch of the
propeller blades. On single-engine airplanes, oil pressure might rotate the
blades toward either the high-pitch, low-rpm position or the low-pitch, high
rpm position, depending on the specific propeller model, but on multi-engine
airplanes, oil pressure moves the blades toward the low-pitch, high-rpm
position. If an engine loses oil pressure on a multi-engine airplane, the
propeller moves to a high-pitch blade angle to decrease drag. [Figure 2-8]

FIG02-008

Figure 2-8. Rapidly decreasing oil pressure can lead to rapidly rising blood
pressure.

INDUCTION SYSTEMS
Multi-engine airplanes with reciprocating engines can be either normally
aspirated or turbocharged. Both systems draw air through an air filter and
direct it into the fuel metering system. The induction air inlet is often
installed in the leading edge of the wing or in the side of the engine nacelle,
with ducting to the air filter. During your preflight inspection, it might be
difficult to verify the condition of the filter, but you should still check the
inlet duct for debris if possible. Occasionally, birds or insects build nests that
clog or reduce airflow through the filter.
NORMALLY-ASPIRATED ENGINES
On engines with carburetors, check the operation of the carburetor heat
during your ground runup. Remember to limit carb heat use when on the
ground to avoid sucking dirt and other foreign objects into the engine.
Turning on the carburetor heat draws air from around a heat exchanger,
bypassing the air filter.
Because most multi-engine airplanes have constant-speed propellers, the
first sign of carburetor icing while in cruise flight is a slight loss of engine
power, indicated by lower manifold pressure. Turning the carburetor heat
ON, causes a further reduction in power, followed by an increase as the
carburetor ice melts.
Although fuel-injected engines do not have carb heat, they provide an
alternate air source in case an air filter or inlet becomes obstructed.
Bypass doors in the induction system might open automatically when
sufficient differential pressure exists, or you might select the alternate air
using a manual control. If your airplane has a manual alternate air control,
check it during the ground runup before takeoff. Using the alternate air
source typically causes a slight drop in engine power due to the use of warm
air from inside the cowling. In some cases, the power drop is so slight that it
might be difficult to verify proper operation, but at least be sure that the
alternate air controls move freely and completely through their full travel.
[Figure 2-9]
 FIG02-009

Figure 2-9. These manual controls select the alternate air source for each engine.
Other airplanes have automatic alternate air doors instead.

TURBOCHARGED ENGINES
Many multi-engine airplanes use turbocharged engines because they enable
higher altitude operations where greater true airspeeds are possible and
where it is easier to avoid adverse weather. A turbocharger uses exhaust
gases to drive a turbine, which turns an impeller in the induction system. The
impeller boosts the induction air to a higher pressure, making it possible to
achieve sea-level engine performance at higher altitudes. [Figure 2-10]
 FIG02-010

Figure 2-10. This turbocharger system represents a typical non-pressurized twin-

engine aircraft. Consult the POH for details of the system in your aircraft.
Even if you have operated turbocharged engines on single-engine aircraft,
you need to know about operational differences between turbocharged
single-engine and multi-engine aircraft. You might encounter one of these
differences during the takeoff roll when the turbochargers do not accelerate
(spool up), at the same rate. This causes the thrust produced by each engine
to vary. The moment-to-moment thrust variations can create so much yaw
that it becomes difficult to maintain directional control. It helps to make sure
the engine oil is sufficiently warm before you apply takeoff power. Cold oil
tends to cause sluggish operation in the turbocharger control system. You
can also consider holding the brakes until takeoff power has stabilized on
both engines.
These measures do not always eliminate the problem of uneven boosting.
With turbocharged multi-engine airplanes, you must be ready to use
assertive rudder pressure to maintain directional control. Always be
prepared to abort the takeoff if you have difficulty maintaining directional
control. Close both throttles, apply the brakes, and inform ATC if necessary.

COOLING AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Reciprocating engines on most multi-engine airplanes are air cooled,
although some have liquid cooling systems. To increase the amount of
airflow through the cowlings of air-cooled engines, augmentor tubes or cowl
flaps are commonly used. Augmentor tubes are installed around and aft of
the exhaust stacks. The flow of exhaust gasses through the augmentor pulls
more cooling air through the engine compartment. During your preflight
inspection, be sure the augmentors are clear of debris. The hot exhaust could
ignite debris and cause a fire.
Cowl flaps are usually opened and closed either electrically or mechanically.
To maintain the cylinder head temperatures in the normal operating range,
you generally open them for extended ground operations or climbs and close
them during cruise flight and descents. [Figure 2-11]

FIG02-011

Figure 2-11. Augmentor tubes and cowl flaps help to control engine temperature.
When descending from cruise, reducing power without reducing the cooling
airflow can cause the engines to cool too quickly, which can cause engine
problems. Planning and proper use of the cooling system can prevent rapid
cylinder cooling. Plan ahead to begin your descent early enough to carry
partial power throughout the descent, and close the cowl flaps during the
descent to maintain normal cylinder head temperatures.
You also need to remember to enrich the mixtures as you descend to lower
altitudes. Unless you do, detonation might damage the engines when you
reapply power. Higher air density at the lower altitude makes the mixture too
lean. Be careful not to enrich the mixtures too quickly or the rapid cooling
that the fuel produces could damage the engines. To prevent this type of
damage, enrich the mixture in small increments during descent.

ENGINE INDICATING SYSTEMS

Each multi-engine airplane is equipped with the following powerplant
monitoring gauges:
● Tachometer and manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
● Oil temperature and oil pressure
● Fuel flow and fuel pressure
● Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and cylinder head temperature (CHT)
In most light twin-engine airplanes, the rpm for each engine is shown on a
single indicator with two needles. [Figure 2-12] This type of indicator makes
it easier to match the engine rpm. Other aircraft might have separate
tachometers for each engine.
 FIG02-012

Figure 2-12. Combining both tachometers into a single indicator makes it easier to
match the rpm. This tachometer also has a strobe-effect indicator to help you
synchronize the rpm. A difference in rpm causes the white marks to blur and appear
to move toward the faster engine. When they stop, the engines are in sync.
The tachometers in most multi-engine airplanes are electric, but others have
cable-driven tachometers, similar to those in some single-engine airplanes.
Electric tachometers use a tach generator on each engine that produces
the power to drive the indicator. Because they develope their own power, the
tachometers are not affected by failures in the aircraft’s electrical system.
The manifold absolute pressure (MAP) for each engine might be displayed on
separate indicators, or on a single instrument with two needles. The MAP
gauge measures the pressure inside the intake manifold in inches of mercury.
Before starting the engines, check to see that the gauges indicate the ambient
absolute pressure. When the engines are idling or at low power, they indicate
a significantly lower pressure. At full power, normally aspirated engines
indicate slightly less than ambient pressure. Turbocharged engines can
produce manifold pressures that are higher than ambient atmospheric
pressure.
In most multi-engine airplanes, transducers sense oil pressure and
temperature and convert it into electrical signals that drive the indicators in
the cockpit. These indicators do not operate when the battery or master
switch is off, and a failure in the electrical system can cause them to stop
working. In some airplanes, the oil pressure and temperature gauges display
direct readings from pressure and temperature lines that run directly from
the engine to the instrument. In these airplanes, the oil pressure and
temperature gauges are independent of the electrical system, and continue to
operate even when the electrical system is turned off. The POH explains
which type of system is installed in your airplane.
Some aircraft have annunciator lights to warn you of low oil pressure. The
warning light systems are extremely reliable, but they occasionally give false
warnings. If the warning light comes on, look for supporting indications to
determine the validity of the warning, and do not take action until you verify
the problem by checking the oil pressure gauge.
Typical reciprocating-powered twin-engine airplanes use a single gauge to
indicate both fuel pressure and fuel flow to each engine. They determine
consumption rates by sensing the pressure of the fuel as it flows through a
calibrated orifice. The indicators are marked to show fuel pressures as well as
an equivalent flow rate in gallons or pounds per hour. The fuel pressure
gauges help you to monitor operation of the fuel pumps and assures you that
each engine is receiving sufficient fuel. You typically use the fuel flow gauges
to make precise power settings and to compare actual performance with the
expected performance from the performance charts you use in your flight
planning. Differences in the fuel-flow rates between engines could indicate a
gauge or engine malfunction. Report such discrepancies to maintenance
personnel. [Figures 2-13 and 2-14]
 FIG02-013

Figure 2-13. Markings on the fuel flow gauge can help you set the power to achieve
the airspeeds and fuel consumption predicted in the performance charts.
 FIG02-014

Figure 2-14. If you can only obtain smooth engine operation with a large difference
in fuel flow rates, there is a fuel system malfunction.

EICAS
In many business and transport category aircraft, engine
information is displayed on screens. These displays are also gaining
popularity in light general aviation aircraft. The most common system in
turbine-powered airplanes is the engine indicating and crew alerting
system (EICAS). A typical EICAS uses two displays mounted in the
center of the instrument panel. They display all primary and secondary
powerplant instruments, including the compressor rotational speed (N1),
engine pressure ratio thrust settings (EPR), and exhaust gas
temperatures (EGT) on the top display, and the high pressure
compressor speed (N2), bypass fan speed (N3), fuel flows, engine
vibration meters, and oil temperature, pressure, and quantity on the
lower display. A crew alerting function displays system faults and
warning messages. The EICAS might also monitor the electrical,
hydraulic, pneumatic bleed air, and cabin pressurization.
In some systems, the lower screen is blank during routine cruise. If a
fault is detected, the upper screen displays a warning, while the indicator
for the faulty system appears in the lower screen. Some EICAS systems
also display a schematic of the entire system so pilots can determine the
location of the fault and the effects it might produce.
Each engine also has an exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and cylinder head
temperature (CHT) indicator. They help you to make precise mixture control
adjustments to obtain optimum engine performance. Some of these gauges
continue to operate even with a total loss of aircraft electrical power, but
others rely on the electrical system to operate. The displays and operating
instructions vary widely, and incorrect operation can cause engine damage,
so follow the procedures in the POH carefully. [Figure 2-15]
 FIG02-015

Figure 2-15. Some CHT indicators use a single sensor installed on the hottest
cylinder, and others have sensors for every cylinder. Likewise, your EGT system
might let you see the temperature for each cylinder.
Engines with carburetors might also have a carburetor air temperature
gauge, which can help you to prevent carburetor icing. Turbocharged engines
might include a turbine inlet temperature (TIT) gauge to measure the
temperature of exhaust gases entering the turbocharger turbine. This
instrument functions much like an EGT.

ENGINE ACCESSORY SYSTEMS

Engine-driven accessories provide the primary source of electric, pneumatic,
and hydraulic power to operate the aircraft systems. These components are
installed in various locations on the engine and are usually driven by gears or
belts. Both engines have the same types of accessories, providing redundancy
in case a malfunction occurs with either engine or one of its components.
Electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic systems are covered later in this section.
[Figure 2-16]
 FIG02-016

Figure 2-16. Ask your instructor to point out the locations of the various engine-
driven accessories. For a better look at them, you might visit an aircraft repair facility
to see an airplane with its cowling removed.

DIESEL ENGINES
Some multi-engine trainers have diesel engines, which operate differently
than other aviation piston engines. Like diesel engines in ships, locomotives,
trucks, and heavy equipment, airplane diesel engines run on a derivative of
kerosene, in this case jet fuel. Rather than using a spark plug to ignite the
fuel-air mixture in the cylinder, diesel engines depend on the heat generated
by compression to ignite the fuel-air mixture. The engine can be much
simpler because it doesn’t have spark plugs, magnetos, or the related wiring
and switches. To obtain the temperature needed to initiate combustion,
diesels have much higher compression ratios than gasoline-fueled engines.
The compression ratio for a typical avgas-fueled general aviation engine is
8.5:1, but the compression ratio for a comparable diesel aircraft engine is
17:1. Because jet fuel contains more energy per gallon than aviation gasoline,
a diesel engine can provide greater fuel economy than an engine using avgas.
If you fly a diesel, you will see that the starting and shutdown procedures are
much different. You need to be especially vigilant to be certain that the
airplane is fueled with the correct grade of jet fuel rather than with gasoline.

PROPELLER SYSTEMS
Most multi-engine aircraft use constant-speed, controllable-pitch, full-
feathering propellers. These are similar to constant-speed propellers on
single-engine airplanes, but with the added ability to feather the blades.
When feathered, each blade is rotated so that its chord line is nearly parallel
to the relative wind over the aircraft. This stops the propeller from
windmilling, which greatly reduces drag and stops rotation of a damaged
engine. On some airplanes a windmilling propeller can cause so much drag
that sustained flight is impossible. [Figure 2-17]

FIG02-017

Figure 2-17. The right engine is feathered. Feathering decreases drag to reduce the
adverse effects of an engine failure.
Another difference is that the propellers used on multi-engine airplanes use
oil pressure to turn the blades to a low-pitch, high-rpm position, but on a
single-engine propeller, oil pressure might rotate the blades toward high
pitch or low pitch, depending on the specific propeller model. The reason for
the difference is so that during an engine failure on a multi-engine aircraft,
the loss of engine oil pressure moves the blades toward a feathered blade
angle to reduce drag.
The propellers on most multi-engine airplanes use a combination of two
forces to reduce the blade pitch, and another two forces to increase pitch.
Forces acting to reduce blade pitch:
● Aerodynamic twisting force results from the spinning propeller blades
tending to align themselves with the relative airflow in a low pitch angle
that produces no thrust.
● Hydraulic force comes from oil pressure moving the pitch change
mechanism in the propeller hub.
Forces acting to increase blade pitch:
● Spring force is applied by mechanical springs, gas springs, or a
combination of both.
● Centrifugal force comes from counterweights mounted on the blades.
The weights are designed to overcome the aerodynamic twisting force.
[Figure 2-18]

FIG02-018
Figure 2-18. Two forces act to reduce the blade pitch, and another two forces to
increase pitch. An imbalance in the forces causes the pitch to change in one
direction or the other until the forces are in equilibrium again.
What happens inside the propeller hub to change the pitch of the propeller
blades? The mechanism is simple and reliable. Pressurized oil from the
engine enters the hub through a hollow rod in the center of the propeller
shaft. In addition to serving as an oil passage, the hollow rod can slide fore
and aft within the hub. A hydraulic piston is attached to its front and U-
shaped forks are attached near the middle of its shaft to rotate the propeller
blades. A spring in front of the piston pushes the piston backward, and
hydraulic pressure drives the piston forward. When the opposing forces are
balanced, the blade pitch does not change. [Figure 2-19]

FIG02-019

Figure 2-19. Constant-speed, full-feathering propellers use engine oil pressure to

move a piston in the propeller hub to position the blades to the low-pitch position.
Spring force and counterweights move the blades to the high pitch or feather
positions.
Each constant-speed propeller has a governor to maintain rpm. Most
governors use a combination of centrifugal force and spring pressure to move
a valve that allows pressurized oil to travel into or out of the propeller hub.
The spring pressure is supplied by the speeder spring, which tends to open
the valve ports that let oil into the propeller hub. You adjust the force of the
speeder spring when you move the propeller control lever in the cockpit. In
opposition to the speeder spring, centrifugal force from the flyweights tends
to open the valve ports that let oil flow out of the propeller hub. The
flyweights are spun by a shaft from the engine. When the engine speeds up,
the increased centrifugal force moves the flyweights outward, and as the
engine slows down, they move inward, opening and closing the appropriate
valve ports to the propeller. [Figures 2-20 and 2-21]

FIG02-020

Figure 2-20. The propeller governor is simply a valve controlled by engine RPM. A
linkage to the propeller control in the cockpit lets you select a specific engine speed
for the governor to maintain.

FIG02-021

Figure 2-21. The governor maintains the engine rpm by regulating the amount of oil
pressure in the propeller hub.

CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER OPERATION

The propeller control lever selects the rpm for the governor to maintain.
Moving the lever forward sets a low pitch angle, which increases the engine
rpm. Moving the lever aft brings the blades to a higher pitch, resulting in
decreased rpm. The pitch stops of the propeller limit the range of constant-
speed operation. This is commonly referred to as the governing range of
the propeller. As the engine rpm slows, the blade pitch progressively
decreases to maintain rpm until reaching the high-pitch stops. With the
blades against the stops, the propeller is out of the governing range and
functions like a fixed-pitch propeller—moving the throttle changes the rpm.
On the other hand, when the engine rpm is sufficient to move the blades off
the stops, the governor can control rpm by changing the blade pitch.

POWER CONTROL
You make power adjustments on multi-engine airplanes the same way that
you do on single-engine airplanes with constant-speed propellers. The
throttles control engine power, indicated on the manifold pressure gauges.
The propeller controls adjust engine rpm, indicated on the tachometers.
Most manufacturers have settled on a standard arrangement for the power
controls, with throttles on the left, propeller controls in the center, and
mixture controls on the right, but there are many airplanes in service that
have non-standard control arrangements. Be sure you fully understand the
controls of every airplane you fly, and do not let habits developed in one
airplane result in unpleasant surprises when you fly another. [Figure 2-22]
 FIG02-022

Figure 2-22. The propeller control levers on most twin-engine airplanes are located
between the throttles and the mixture controls. On a number of airplanes the
positions of the throttle and propeller controls are switched.
To develop maximum power for takeoff, set the throttles and propeller
controls full forward and set the mixture controls as recommended by the
manufacturer. After takeoff, decrease power for better fuel economy and to
keep the engine within climb power limitations. Increasing the pitch of the
blades produces more thrust at the increased airspeed. When leveling off at
your cruising altitude, reduce the throttles and propeller controls again,
keeping the engine within operating limits and further decreasing fuel
consumption and increasing thrust. Set the mixture for cruise.
You can damage the engines if you do not operate the engine and propeller
controls in the correct sequence. With normally aspirated engines, if the
MAP is too high for the engine rpm, high internal pressures in the cylinders
can lead to detonation. To prevent engine damage, be sure that the manifold
pressure is within allowable limits before you reduce the rpm with the
propeller control. Conversely, before you increase the throttle for additional
power, verify that the engine rpm is high enough to permit the increased
manifold pressure. In general, when reducing power, pull back the throttle
before the propeller control; when increasing power, push the propeller
control forward before increasing the throttle.
You can also damage the engine by making power changes too abruptly.
When you move a throttle too quickly, heavy parts that are mounted on the
engine crankshaft to damp out torsional vibration can move out of place and
begin hammering on their mountings. This is called detuning, and it can
damage the magnetos, oil pump, and other engine parts. In extreme cases it
can cause the crankshaft to break. You cannot detect detuning while it is
happening, so it is important to avoid it in the first place.
To help prevent detuning, avoid rapid throttle movements. If you decide to
simulate an engine failure by retarding the throttle, reduce power slowly and
smoothly. Some aircraft manufacturers recommend leaving the throttle open
and pulling the mixture control to the idle-cutoff position to practice engine
failures if you are at a safe altitude. This technique allows the maximum
amount of intake air to enter the cylinders. The air provides a cushioning
effect on the pistons, allowing the engine to decelerate smoothly.

FULL AUTHORITY DIGITAL ENGINE CONTROL

Full authority digital engine control (FADEC) replaces many
mechanical engine and propeller control systems with computer-controlled
electronic systems. In light general aviation airplanes, FADEC can control
throttle valve position, fuel injection, fuel-air mixture, spark timing, and
turbocharger waste gate position. The electronic systems can monitor engine
performance hundreds of times each minute, and make continuous tiny
adjustments to provide optimum performance and efficiency throughout the
flight. From the pilot’s perspective, FADEC simplifies engine and propeller
operation. The FADEC system replaces traditional cockpit controls like the
throttle, mixture, and propeller rpm with a single power lever for each
engine. The words “full authority” signify that there are no manual overrides
or backup controls. Usually FADEC-controlled engines have no magnetos,
and the spark plugs are fired by an electronic ignition system that depends
on power from the aircraft electrical system, with battery backup.

PROPELLER SYNCHRONIZATION
You need to synchronize the propellers on a multi-engine airplane to rotate
at the same speed to avoid an annoying pulsating oscillation in the cabin. If
the propellers are operating in the governing range, you can synchronize
them by adjusting the propeller controls to match the rpm. If the propellers
are out of the governing range, use the throttles for synchronization.
Some airplanes have propeller synchronizer systems that automatically
synchronize the propellers for you. Most propeller synchronizers are
controlled by a switch mounted near the propeller control levers. To use the
system, you typically set the power as usual, adjust them to within 50 rpm of
each other, and then turn on the synchronizer. The system might have an
indicator light to show that the system is on. When activated, each propeller
governor provides a signal to a control box that compares the rpm from each
propeller and fine tunes the rpm to match. Type I systems drive an electric
motor on one propeller control to match the rpm of one propeller to the
other. Because the same propeller is always adjusted to match the other, it is
said to be slaved to the other. [Figure 2-23] In Type II systems there is no
master-slave relationship. The system reduces the rpm of the faster propeller
as it simultaneously increases the rpm of the slower propeller until their
speeds match. Most synchronizer or synchrophaser systems can only change
the rpm within a limited range. This prevents the synchronizer from causing
a dramatic change in rpm if an engine fails, and is one reason that you must
adjust the propellers to roughly the same rpm before activating the system.
Even with this safeguard, however, most manufacturers require the system
to be deactivated during takeoff, landing, and during engine-out operations.
Some Type II systems may be left on during takeoffs and landings. Check the
POH for information on operating the system in your particular airplane.
 FIG02-023

Figure 2-23. When turned on, Type I synchronizers match the rpm of the “slave”
propeller to the rpm of the “master” propeller.
Operating the engines at the same speed is important, but operating them at
the optimum propeller phase angle reduces noise and vibration further. If
the blades from both propellers are in the same relative positions as they
rotate, the shock waves from the blade tips strike the fuselage at the same
time, adding to noise and vibration. Synchrophaser systems reduce cabin
noise and vibration by shifting the propellers’ rotational positions so that the
shock waves do not reinforce each other. The optimum phase angle depends
on airspeed and altitude as well as rpm, so most synchrophaser systems have
a control knob that allows you to adjust the phase angle to obtain the
smoothest, quietest operation. [Figure 2-24]

FIG02-024

Figure 2-24. Shifting the phase angle of the propellers can reduce noise and
vibration inside the airplane.

GOVERNOR CHECKS
A governor check can reveal a malfunctioning governor before takeoff. To
perform the check, increase the engine rpm into the propeller’s governing
range. This speed is specified by the manufacturer and can be verified by
moving the propeller control aft to obtain a 100 rpm reduction. After the
speed has stabilized, leave the propeller control in position and advance the
throttle. If the governor is operating properly, you will hear the propeller
pitch change, and the rpm remains at its original setting. When you complete
the check, move the propeller control full forward in preparation for takeoff.
[Figure 2-25]
 FIG02-025

Figure 2-25. You might be out of sync with your airplane.

Some manufacturers recommend a feathering check during the before-
takeoff check. With the engines at runup rpm, briefly pull each propeller
control into the feather detent and verify system operation. During the check,
watch the engine gauges for an rpm drop and a fluctuation in oil pressure,
which indicates that the propeller is receiving a free-flowing supply of oil.
This is especially important during cold weather operations.
FEATHERING
As previously mentioned, the purpose of the full feathering design is to
eliminate the drag produced by a windmilling propeller. Chapter 3, Section B
further explains the effects of a windmilling propeller.
To feather an engine, the system removes oil pressure from the propeller
hub, allowing the blade pitch piston to move aft and causing the blades to
rotate toward feather. You can feather manually by pulling the propeller
control full aft past a detent or, in airplanes with FADEC, by turning off the
master switch for the inoperative engine. The propeller can also feather on
its own due to a catastrophic loss of oil pressure or a malfunctioning
governor.
Engine rpm affects the feathering procedure. High-pitch lock pins on the
propeller hub prevent feathering at low engine speeds, usually below about
800 rpm. They prevent the propeller from feathering when engine oil
pr e ssur e i s nor mal l y low—
dur i ng engine startup, s l ow i dli ng, or shu tdown.
At higher rpm, centrifugal force retracts the locks so that the blades can
rotate into the feathered position. If an engine fails in flight, you must feather
the propeller before these locks engage or they will prevent feathering. A
windmilling propeller usually maintains sufficient rpm to give you time to
perform feathering. If the engine seizes abruptly, the propeller often feathers
automatically. These designs vary by manufacturer, so be sure to read the
POH for the specific operating details of your airplane.

RESTARTING
When flying multi-engine airplanes, you will rarely restart an engine that you
have shut down because of a malfunction. However, if you later discover the
cause of the malfunction, you might want to restart the engine in flight.
During flight training, your instructor will have you shut down an engine—
including feathering the propeller—during practice of engine-out operations.
Afterward, you restart the engine while airborne.
To restart an engine in flight, follow the aircraft manufacturer’s checklist
carefully. In a typical restart procedure, you move the throttle to idle and
move the propeller control lever from the feather detent to the high-pitch,
low-rpm position. Engage the starter to begin cranking the engine. As the
engine rotates, oil pressure builds and moves the propeller blades out of
feather, enabling the propeller to windmill to aid starting.
After the engine starts, allow full oil pressure to develop and continue
operating at low power until the cylinders stabilize in the normal operating
temperature range. You can then move the propeller lever toward a lower
pitch, high-rpm setting, and advance the throttle to cruise power.
To help reduce the strain on the starter motor and to make in-flight restarts
easier, some propellers have unfeathering accumulators. These cause
the blades to unfeather without relying on engine oil pressure. Unfeathering
accumulators store oil under pressure when the engine is running, before
you feather the propeller. When you move the propeller control out of
feather, the accumulator releases the oil into the propeller hub, which rotates
the blades so that the propeller begins windmilling. This lets you restart the
engine without using the starter. If the unfeathering system fails, you can still
use the starter to restart the engine.

Reversible-Pitch Propellers
Reversible-pitch propellers are designed to increase
maneuverability and decrease the landing roll of turboprop aircraft. The
propeller itself does not actually reverse direction. Instead, the blade
angle is able to move through a negative blade angle range. For
example, the total range of a particular propeller may be +87° to –19°
blade angle. The blade angle for feather in this case is +87°, while the
cruise blade angle is +11° to +17°. The zero thrust blade angle range,
which is used to control taxi speeds, is +2° to +9°, and the reverse range
is 0° to −19°.
The propeller with reversing capabilities uses engine power and a
negative blade angle to create reverse thrust. To accomplish this, the
propeller governor increases oil pressure in the propeller hub when the
power levers are moved into the reverse range. The increase in oil
pressure then forces the blades into a negative angle of attack.
Reverse-pitch propellers were originally designed for seaplanes in order
to achieve better aircraft control on the water. The Hartzell Propeller
Company designed one of the earliest reversible pitch propellers for the
Republic Seabee in 1946. By 1965, reversible pitch propellers began to
 see widespread use on turboprop aircraft. Today, it is common to see
reversible pitch propellers on multi-engine turboprop aircraft like the
Beechcraft King Air, Cessna Conquest, and the ATR 72.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
At first glance, the electrical system diagrams and descriptions for a multi-
engine airplane can be daunting, even for a relatively simple training
airplane. A closer look shows that most of the components are similar to
those on single-engine airplanes, there are simply more of them.
The basic principles are the same in all aircraft electrical systems. There are
components to create and store electrical energy, circuits to distribute the
energy, electrical loads such as avionics, motors, and lights that use the
energy, and components that protect the system from malfunctions, failures,
and from too much or too little power. However, unlike a single-engine
electrical system, multi-engine airplanes have paralleling systems, which
distribute the electrical system demands equally between the power sources.
Also, the paralleling feature automatically isolates a failed power source and
transfers the electrical load to the operating system.

GENERATION
The electrical generating systems for small multi-engine airplanes produce
12- or 24-volt direct current (DC). Most manufacturers use 24-volt DC
systems, which are more efficient than 12-volt systems because they lose less
power through the wiring. For small- and medium-sized airplanes, direct
current systems are simpler and lighter than equivalent alternating current
(AC) systems.
Engine-driven alternators produce the electrical power for most modern
aircraft electrical systems, but older airplanes equipped with generators are
still in use. Generators produce direct current, and alternators produce
alternating current, which is changed to direct current as it leaves the
alternator. The power generation system also includes control components
such as voltage regulators, alternator control units, and circuit protection
devices. Alternators offer many advantages over generators. They are lighter
and smaller than generators of equivalent power output, and they offer better
performance and longer service life when operating at high altitude. Most
importantly, alternators produce more power through a wider range of
engine speeds. If you fly a generator-equipped aircraft, reduce the electrical
load during taxi and when operating at reduced rpm during flight. Excessive
electrical loads at slow engine speeds can discharge the battery and leave you
without enough reserve power if the generating system fails.
The output rating of the generating system limits the number of electrical
components that you can operate at the same time. In the case of twin-
engine airplanes, the total electrical load is usually limited to 80% of the
combined output of the power sources. The remaining 20% is used to keep
the battery charged. If only one generating system is operating, the electrical
load could exceed the output rating of the remaining generator or alternator.
When you experience an engine failure or have a failed electrical power
system, you must make sure the electrical system is not overloaded. Monitor
electrical loads on the ammeters or load meters, and reduce them as
necessary. [Figure 2-26]
 FIG02-026

Figure 2-26. You can use ammeters or load meters to monitor the performance of
the electrical system.
After an engine or electrical system failure, determine which electrical loads
you need for safe operation of the aircraft. An “essential power” bus can be a
good starting point, but your decision depends on the situation. For example,
during a night IFR flight, instrument illumination, radios, and electric
instruments are essential for continued flight, but might be unnecessary on a
day VFR flight to an uncontrolled airport. When learning to operate any
aircraft, be sure you know which electrical items are essential so you can
quickly reduce the load if there is a malfunction.
Use the POH to determine how the electrical power system is used during
engine startup. Some manufacturers require the generating systems to be
turned on before starting the engines, but others require you to leave them
off until both engines are operating.
STORAGE AND EXTERNAL POWER
Storage batteries provide power for starting and a reserve power supply in
case the generating systems fail. They are typically 12- or 24-volt lead-acid
batteries. Designers choose the location of the battery compartment to help
with weight distribution in the airplane. The compartment might be in the
nose baggage compartment, behind the aft baggage compartment, or in one
of the wings. The compartments have air vents to get rid of corrosive acid
vapors and explosive hydrogen. Inspect the vents for obstructions before
each flight. [Figure 2-27]

FIG02-027

Figure 2-27. This battery compartment is in one of the wings. Check the battery
compartment air vents for obstructions before each flight.
One interesting aspect of a twin-engine airplane is that there are two
alternator switches, but only one battery switch. You turn the battery on and
off with the master battery switch. This makes it easy to turn off the power if
there is an electrical fire.
Most aircraft also have external power receptacles so that electrical power
from ground power units and other sources can be connected when the
airplane is on the ground. To prevent major damage, verify that you are
using the correct voltage and polarity before connecting an external power
source. Follow the manufacturer’s checklist to position all the electrical
switches properly before connecting the ground power source. Before using
an external power source to start an engine, familiarize yourself with the
details of the starting procedure in the POH. Following the correct procedure
can prevent expensive damage to the electrical system. For safety, consider
starting the engine farthest from the receptacle so that ground personnel will
be as far as possible from the running engine when they disconnect the
power source. When one engine is started, its alternator can help supply
power to start the other engine. [Figure 2-28]

FIG02-028
Figure 2-28. Follow manufacturer’s instructions carefully and coordinate with ramp
workers when using an external power source.

DISTRIBUTION BUSES
Electrical power distribution systems deliver power to the various electrical
components throughout the aircraft. Unlike single-engine aircraft systems,
multi-engine aircraft must have a means of connecting multiple power
generating sources to operate in parallel. The system also must have ways to
isolate power sources that malfunction. [Figure 2-29]
 FIG02-029

Figure 2-29. A simplified electrical schematic of a typical multi-engine airplane

distribution system shows the relationship of various components.
Electricity is delivered from the power source to various distribution buses.
The individual circuits are connected to the buses through fuses or circuit
breakers, which cut power to the circuit if an overload occurs. Most modern
aircraft use circuit breakers rather than fuses. If too much current flows
through the wiring to a particular component, the circuit breaker pops out,
opening the circuit and providing you with a visible indication of the affected
circuit. To reset the breaker, press the button after the circuit has adequately
cooled. If it pops a second time, do not try to reset it until maintenance
personnel have corrected the problem. [Figure 2-30]

FIG02-030

Figure 2-30. An open, or “popped” circuit breaker often displays a white band to
make it easier to identify.
Each main bus is powered by its respective alternator through the output
circuit breakers. The components and general operating principles are
similar in all aircraft electrical systems, but operating procedures vary widely
between aircraft types. You need to be thoroughly familiar with the electrical
system used in your aircraft.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Each engine has a pneumatic pump to power the gyroscopic flight
instruments and possibly some auxiliary systems such as wing deice boots or
inflatable door seals. The flight instruments might connect to the suction
side or the pressure side of the pump, depending on whether they are driven
by vacuum or pressure. Because vacuum systems provide cleaner and cooler
air than pressure systems, the instruments are typically vacuum-driven. Air
is drawn in through a filter, through the flight instruments, and then
discharged out the pump. If either engine or vacuum pump fails, check valves
isolate the failed system so that the remaining system can continue to
provide pneumatic power. [Figure 2-31]

FIG02-031

Figure 2-31. Pneumatic power systems include engine-driven vacuum pumps,

filters, regulator valves, and associated plumbing.
Most airplanes provide pressure or vacuum gauges to help you determine if
the pneumatic system is operating properly. Some systems use warning
lights to indicate system problems. When a vacuum gauge is used in the
system, it shows the difference between the inlet and outlet pressures of the
flight instruments, measured in inches of mercury. Suction gauges are often
equipped with indicators that warn of a pump failure. [Figure 2-32]

FIG02-032

Figure 2-32. A gauge indicates the amount of vacuum or pressure in the system.
This gauge has a red button for each pump that appears if the pump fails. When the
pumps are operating properly, the red indicator buttons disappear.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
On larger and more complex airplanes, designers can justify the weight,
complexity, and expense of a hydraulic system. Hydraulic systems can
provide faster operating speeds and mechanical advantages over electrically
powered systems. The most common hydraulic components include brakes,
retractable landing gear, and flaps. On turbine-powered or large aircraft,
hydraulic power is often used to operate other components, such as primary
and secondary flight controls, nose wheel steering, and air conditioning.
Engine-driven hydraulic pumps supply hydraulic pressure in most
multi-engine aircraft, although many smaller aircraft use pumps powered by
electric motors. Electrically driven pump systems are covered later in this
section.
Systems with engine-driven pumps are designed so that any pump can power
the hydraulic system components. These systems supply hydraulic pressure
whenever an engine is running. The pumps themselves cannot be turned off,
but you can use a shutoff valve to prevent hydraulic fluid from entering or
leaving the engine nacelle if an engine catches fire or a pump fails. Some
airplanes have firewall shutoff valves that isolate electrical and pneumatic
power as well as hydraulic lines at the firewall of the nacelle.
In normal flight, the pumps produce pressure continuously, usually more
than the system components require at any given time. To manage the excess
pressure, a bypass valve in the pressure regulator unit opens when the
system reaches its operating pressure limit, sending fluid from the pumps
back into the reservoir. Fluid circulates continuously, lubricating and cooling
the pumps.
On many systems, when system pressure is low, a pressure switch turns on
an electric auxiliary pump that provides limited hydraulic pressure to
operate critical hydraulic components. Because the pump has limited
capacity, valves prevent the operation of other hydraulic equipment.
Before each flight, verify that the hydraulic reservoir is filled to the proper
level with the correct fluid. The POH specifies the type of hydraulic fluid to
use and how to check the system quantity. After you start an engine, verify
that the hydraulic power system is operating properly by checking the
hydraulic system pressure. Usually this means monitoring a pressure gauge
inside the cockpit. Most small multi-engine aircraft with engine-driven
hydraulic pumps produce pressures near 1,000 pounds per square inch (psi).
Pumps in larger aircraft often produce pressures near 3,000 psi.
Hydraulic actuators convert fluid pressure into mechanical force.
Designers use hydraulic cylinders in applications that require linear motion,
and hydraulic motors for rotary motion.
A hydraulic accumulator is a device for storing hydraulic pressure and
for absorbing the internal shocks that result from operating the hydraulic
system. A typical accumulator has two chambers. One is precharged with
nitrogen pressure that acts like a powerful spring on one side of a piston or
diaphragm, with hydraulic fluid on the other side. Applying hydraulic
pressure to the accumulator causes the piston to compress the nitrogen. This
stored pressure can be used later, for example, if the system pressure drops
due to a pump failure. When a hydraulic cylinder reaches the end of its
travel, the accumulator piston absorbs shock within the system, preventing
damage to the hydraulic lines. [Figure 2-33]
 FIG02-033

Figure 2-33. This schematic illustrates an engine-driven hydraulic pump system and
its components. The hydraulic systems of larger aircraft have the same types of
components.
Check the nitrogen precharge pressure during your preflight inspection.
When the pumps are not operating, the hydraulic system pressure gauge
shows the precharge pressure. Check the precharge pressure before you start
an engine, because when the hydraulic pumps are working, the gauge
indicates the total pressure delivered by the pumps.

FUEL SYSTEMS
The fuel systems in most light twin airplanes are designed for simplicity and
ease of operation. Although systems differ between airplanes, most share the
same basic components. Twin-engine airplanes might have more tanks to
increase range and endurance. [Figure 2-34]
 FIG02-034

Figure 2-34. Be sure you understand the details of the fuel system and how it differs
from fuel systems in other airplanes you fly.
You might think of the fuel system in a light twin as two independent
systems, one installed in each wing, enabling each engine to operate from its
own fuel supply. The crossfeed valves interconnect the two systems so an
engine can draw fuel from a tank on the opposite side of the airplane.

FUEL PUMPS
The fuel system on each side has its own set of pumps, including electric
boost or auxiliary pumps, engine-driven pumps, and transfer pumps.
Auxiliary fuel pumps supply fuel pressure for starting or when the engine-
driven pumps fail. Boost pumps are generally operated continuously to
maintain fuel pressure to the engine-driven pumps and to supply fuel to the
engine if the engine-driven pump fails. Some airplanes use transfer pumps to
move fuel from one part of a fuel tank into another part to keep fuel near the
tank’s outlet. On some aircraft, the transfer pumps also may be used to move
fuel from one tank to another. Consult the POH to determine the proper
operating procedures and limitations for each pump installed on your
aircraft.
Many airplanes have electric fuel pumps controlled by two-position switches,
which can supply fuel at either low or high output to the engine. Typically,
you use the low output position during takeoffs, landings, high altitude
operations, and when you suspect vapor lock. Use the high output position if
the engine-driven fuel pump fails.

FUEL SELECTOR CONTROLS

The fuel selector controls vary in appearance and operation, depending on
the airplane manufacturer. Some accidents have been attributed to
mismanagement of these controls, so be sure you are familiar with the
specific operating procedures and limitations with the selectors in various
positions.

CROSS FEEDING
Cross feeding enables you to laterally balance the fuel load and increase
range after an engine fails. To provide fuel to the operating engine from the
other side of the airplane, put the fuel selector for the operating engine in the
crossfeed position and turn fuel to the failed engine “OFF.” This provides fuel
to the operating engine from the opposite tank, helping to balance the fuel
level. Depending on how long you plan to fly on one engine, cross feed the
fuel for 30 minute intervals to maintain a reasonable balance between tanks.
[Figure 2-35]

FIG02-035

Figure 2-35. The left engine is shut down and the right engine is using fuel from the
left fuel tank.
Depending on the fuel system design, you might also be able to supply both
engines with fuel from one side of the aircraft. Use this feature to balance the
fuel load when the fuel tanks in one wing have more fuel than the tanks in
the other wing. [Figure 2-36]
 FIG02-036

Figure 2-36. Both engines can draw fuel from the tanks on the heavier side of the
airplane by selecting “crossfeed” (X-FEED) on the lighter side of the airplane and
leaving the selector in the ON position on the heavier side of the airplane.

AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS

Auxiliary tanks can increase range and provide more operating flexibility, but
you will need to devote more attention to planning and fuel management.
Airplanes that have auxiliary and main fuel tanks in each wing have four-
position fuel selectors, typically main, auxiliary, crossfeed, and off. Crossfeed
operations are similar to those used with the three-position selectors. The
auxiliary position allows fuel to be delivered from the auxiliary tank to the
engine.
On some aircraft, using the auxiliary tanks when the main tanks are nearly
full can cause fuel to vent overboard, reducing your range and increasing
operating costs. In airplanes with fuel injection, more fuel is drawn from the
tank than the engine can use, and the excess is returned to the main tank.
When you select the auxiliary tanks, fuel is drawn from the auxiliary tanks,
but the unused fuel is still returned to the main tanks, so if the main tanks
are nearly full, the excess fuel will soon overfill them and flow overboard
through the fuel tank vents.
In most cases, you cannot cross feed fuel from the auxiliary tanks. To
maximize the fuel that is available for crossfeed, ensure that the main tanks
are as full as possible. Plan to use the fuel in the auxiliary tanks early in the
flight, but not until you have used enough fuel from the main tanks to leave
room for fuel being returned to the main tanks by the fuel injection system.
Because a portion of the auxiliary fuel returns to the main tanks and is not
used in the engine, the auxiliary tanks empty faster than the consumption
rate indicated on the fuel-flow gauges. To prevent fuel starvation, always
carefully monitor the fuel quantity gauges and switch back to the main tank
before the auxiliary tank runs dry. [Figure 2-37]

FIG02-037

Figure 2-37. Some airplanes vent fuel overboard if you select the auxiliary tanks
when the main tanks are full. This happens because fuel returning from the engine
goes into the main tanks. If they are full, the fuel dumps overboard.
Because fuel systems vary widely between aircraft, and they provide such a
vital function, you must thoroughly understand your system. Draw a
schematic diagram of the fuel system from memory, including details of each
component’s function and any special operating procedures, and explain the
system to your instructor. You might be required to do this during the oral
portion of your multi-engine practical test. [Figure 2-38]

FIG02-038
Figure 2-38. Engine failure can be the result of operator error.

LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS

Most multi-engine airplanes have retractable landing gear to improve
performance. The systems are usually electric, hydraulic, or a combination of
both. An electric system uses electric motors to drive linkages that extend
and retract the gear. Some hydraulic systems use engine-driven hydraulic
pumps and others use electrically powered hydraulic pumps. Systems that
use electricity to drive the pumps are often called electrohydraulic systems.
Every system includes an emergency extension provision and a gear warning
horn or lights to alert you to an unsafe condition.

ELECTROHYDRAULIC LANDING GEAR

Electrohydraulically-powered landing gear is similar to other hydraulically
powered systems, except that it uses electric power to drive the hydraulic
pump. In most systems the electric motor is reversible, so it can power the
hydraulic pump in either direction to retract or extend the gear. The
hydraulic power pack houses the reservoir, pump, electric motor, and a
series of check valves and regulators to control the system. [Figure 2-39]
 FIG02-039

Figure 2-39. Electrohydraulically powered landing gear uses electric power to drive
the hydraulic pump.
Each landing gear strut has switches that limit up and down travel. These
limit switches shut the motor off when the gear is fully up or fully down. They
also activate the gear position indicator lights. If any of these switches fail,
the motor continues to run and the system indicates the unsafe condition.
The gear limit switches are critical for the landing gear system to operate
properly. Check them visually during your preflight inspection. Remove dirt,
grease, and other debris from the switches before flight. When operating in
snow or slush, cycle the gear a few times after takeoff to help prevent water
from freezing on the switches and other parts. [Figure 2-40]

FIG02-040

Figure 2-40. Limit switches on the landing gear control the gear position lights and
turn off the hydraulic pump when the gear is fully up or down.

ELECTRIC LANDING GEAR

In electrically-powered landing gear systems, a reversible electric motor is
attached directly to a gearbox. Mechanical linkages connect each landing
gear leg to the gearbox. When the gear selector switch is placed in either the
up or down position, the electric motor drives the landing gear up or down.
When the gear is fully extended or retracted, a limit switch on the gearbox
disconnects the power. [Figure 2-41]
 FIG02-041

Figure 2-41. An electric landing gear system uses an electric motor to drive the gear
up or down. Limit switches stop the motor when the gear reaches its travel limits.

GEAR POSITION LIGHTS

Lights are commonly used to indicate the position of the landing gear. Most
airplanes have four lights — three green and one red. Three green lights
indicate that all three landing gear are in the down and locked position. The
red light illuminates when the gear is in transit or is unsafe for landing.
Consequently, when the landing gear is cycled up or down, the red light
remains on until the gear is either up and locked or down and locked. [Figure
2-42].

FIG02-042

Figure 2-42. A convex mirror on the engine nacelle can help you to verify the
position of the landing gear.
If a green light fails to light after you extend the gear, try to determine the
position of the gear by other means. You could try swapping bulbs with one
that is known to be good. Regardless of the corrective action you take, your
first priority is to fly the airplane. There have been unfortunate accidents
caused by pilots trying to correct a simple fault like a burned out light bulb.
Remember to balance your workload and establish priorities when a
malfunction occurs.

GEAR WARNING HORN

A landing gear warning horn alerts you when the gear is not down and
locked before landing. Typically, the warning horn also sounds if you move
the gear selector switch to the up position when the airplane is on the
ground.
When power is reduced on any engine and the gear is not down and locked, a
switch on the throttle activates the warning horn. Generally, a manifold
pressure near 12 to 14 inches Hg activates the horn. This valuable safety
feature can become annoying during training when you and your instructor
are practicing maneuvers that require reduced power settings, such as flight
at critically slow airspeeds, stalls, and single-engine operations. Some
landing gear systems have buttons you can press to mute the warning horn.
In other aircraft, you have to pull the warning horn’s circuit breaker to
silence the horn. Be sure to restore the system to normal before preparing to
land. [Figure 2-43]
 FIG02-043

Figure 2-43. Always remember to restore the gear warning function if you disable it
to practice low-speed airwork.

SAFETY SWITCHES
Most currently manufactured multi-engine airplanes have a landing gear
safety switch that prevents the landing gear from retracting when the
aircraft is on the ground. The safety switch, commonly referred to as a squat
switch, is usually located on one of the main landing gear struts. [Figure 2-
44]
 FIG02-044

Figure 2-44. This safety switch opens when there is weight on the landing gear,
preventing power from retracting the gear. The switch closes when the airplane is
airborne.

EMERGENCY LANDING GEAR EXTENSION

If the normal power source for the landing gear fails, use the emergency gear
extension feature. The method for emergency extension depends on the type
of landing gear system on your airplane. Hydraulic and electrohydraulic
systems usually have a hand pump so that you can provide the hydraulic
pressure that would normally be supplied by the hydraulic pump. The
procedure differs from airplane to airplane, so use the checklist in the POH.
As indicated in Figure 2-33, hydraulic gear systems are sometimes equipped
with storage cylinders pressurized with nitrogen (N2) or carbon dioxide
(CO2) to extend the gear. Use the pressurized gas if hydraulic fluid is
completely lost. When you use this system, high-pressure gas flows from the
storage cylinder to the gear actuating cylinders, forcing the gear to extend.
Only use this type of emergency extension when all other means of lowering
the landing gear have failed, and when the gear can be left down for landing.
In systems that use hydraulic pressure to hold the gear in the up position,
relieving that hydraulic pressure allows gravity to extend the landing gear.
Opening a valve from the cockpit lets the hydraulic fluid flow into the
reservoir and the landing gear to free-fall. You might need to rock the
airplane from side to side to help the gear lock into place. In some systems, a
leak or a malfunctioning valve could allow the landing gear to extend
accidentally. If the gear free-falls as a result of a malfunction, don’t try to
raise it. Instead, land at the nearest suitable airport and have the system
repaired.
Landing gear systems that normally use an electric motor and mechanical
linkages to move the gear incorporate a mechanical hand crank for
emergency extension. The crank is often located under or beside the pilot
seat. When the hand crank is moved out of the stowed position, it engages
with the gearbox to allow extension by manual cranking. This process might
require 50 to 55 revolutions of the hand crank.
For your own safety, follow the manufacturer’s checklist and be sure all items
are completed in the proper order. For example, some manufacturers require
you to place the gear selector switch in the OFF position before using the
hand crank. Unless you do, the electric motor could start when you are
cranking. The hand crank could injure you if the motor starts when you are
holding the handle. [Figure 2-45]
 FIG02-045

Figure 2-45. The method for extending the gear in an emergency depends on the
type of system.
When you check out in any new airplane, practice extending the gear with
the emergency extension system to become familiar with its operation. Study
the POH and follow the manufacturer’s checklist carefully to avoid getting
hurt or damaging the landing gear system. [Figure 2-46]

FIG02-046

Figure 2-46. A malfunction in the retracting system might not prevent you from
extending the gear.

ICE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Many airplanes have deice and anti-ice equipment to reduce the risks of
structural icing. Anti-ice equipment prevents the formation of ice, and deice
equipment removes the ice after it has formed. Aircraft components that
need ice protection include leading edges of wing and tail surfaces, pitot and
static source openings, fuel tank vents, stall warning sensors, windshields,
and propeller blades. In addition, engines might require alternate sources of
intake air or ice-protected inlets. Ice detection lighting can help you
determine the extent of structural icing when flying at night.
The smaller the airfoil, the more likely it is to accumulate ice. Propellers
usually start to gather ice before tail surfaces, and tail surfaces before wings.
Icing of the horizontal tail surfaces can be especially dangerous, because a
tail stall can cause the airplane to pitch down suddenly as you reduce speed
on final approach.
Even if your airplane has ice-protection systems, it might not be certified to
fly in icing conditions. Check the FAA-approved flight manual (AFM) to find
out if your airplane is certified to operate in icing conditions. Even in a well-
equipped airplane, icing can pose significant hazards. Whenever you
encounter icing conditions in flight, you should seek an alternate altitude or
route. The main value of an ice control system is that it provides you with
more time to escape from icing conditions.

PROPELLER ANTI-ICE SYSTEMS

Propellers can be protected from icing by using liquids or electric heating
elements. Liquid systems apply small amounts of alcohol or glycol-based
deice fluid to the propeller blades near the hubs. Centrifugal force causes the
fluid to flow along the blade to prevent ice formation. Some systems have
grooved rubber boots near the hub to help direct the flow of fluid. You
operate this system by setting a switch to adjust the liquid flow rate. Because
the operating time is limited by the supply of fluid, these systems are less
common than electric heating systems. [Figure 2-47]
 FIG02-047

Figure 2-47. Liquid anti-ice systems have small nozzles that point to the root of each
propeller blade. Grooves in the rubber boot on the blade help direct the flow of liquid
along the leading edge of the blade.
An electric propeller anti-ice system has rubber boots attached to the inboard
portions of each blade with wires imbedded in them to carry electric current
for heating. During your preflight inspection, turn on the system and check
the operation by lightly touching each heated section of the propeller blades.
Allow enough time for each heating element to completely cycle on and off.
In flight, monitor the propeller ammeter. Between cycles, the ammeter
briefly fluctuates, but should stabilize in the normal operating range during
each heating period.
In severe icing, chunks of ice can be flung from the propeller blades with
considerable force. If they hit the fuselage, they can cause structural damage.
Some airplanes have thicker skin in areas where ice from the propellers
might hit the fuselage. [Figure 2-48]
 FIG02-048

Figure 2-48. Airplanes with propeller ice protection often have reinforced skin panels
to protect the fuselage from ice flung from the propellers.

WING AND TAIL SURFACE DEICE SYSTEMS

For surface deice, many light twin airplanes have pneumatically inflated
rubber boots to remove ice from wing and tail surfaces. These inflatable
deice boots are attached to the leading edges of the wings, horizontal
stabilizer, and vertical stabilizer. When you turn the system on, air from the
engine-driven pneumatic pumps inflates the boots to break the ice, and the
slipstream airflow blows it away. After each inflation cycle, the pumps apply
suction to deflate the boots and hold them tight to the contour of the airfoil
surface [Figure 2-49]
 FIG02-049

Figure 2-49. As ice accumulates, it conforms to the shape of the wing. When the
chambers within the pneumatic deicer boots inflate with air, they press outward from
the surface and cause the ice to break off.
The inflation cycle alternates between the protected surfaces to reduce load
on the pneumatic pumps and to keep the ice accumulations symmetrical on
each side of the aircraft. Controls typically let you select either a single cycle
or an automatic operation. Because the system is designed to eliminate ice
after it has formed, some manufacturers recommend that you allow
approximately 1/4 to 3/4 inch of ice to build up before inflating the boots,
while others recommend using the boots at the first sign of icing. If the icing
conditions are not heavy enough to require automatic cycling, they suggest
manually selecting the single-cycle.
The phenomenon known as ice-bridging has been the subject of NASA
research. Pilots have reported that in situations when they inflate the boots
before sufficient ice has accumulated, the soft, thin ice is merely pushed away
from the surface and refreezes in a hard shell just outside the reach of the
boots. This renders the boots useless, and ice continues to build up on the
outside of the shell as the boots inflate and deflate inside it. NASA research
finds that ice-bridging does not occur on airplanes with modern deicer boots,
and the FAA recommends that you set the system to automatic cycling at the
first sign of icing. However, some manufacturers require that you wait for at
least 1/4 inch of ice to accumulate before using the boots. [Figure 2-50]

FIG02-050

Figure 2-50. Ice-bridging describes a situation where ice forms a shell outside the
reach of the inflated deicer boots.
The pumps that inflate the boots also drive the gyroscopic flight instruments.
Leaks in the boots or their associated plumbing can affect operation of
vacuum-driven instruments. Some systems have a gauge for the deice boot
system, and in others you can infer proper deice system operation by
watching the suction gauge for the flight instruments. Check the deice system
before flight by activating the boots and monitoring the instrument air
gauges for proper indications. You might see fluctuations as the boots inflate
and deflate, but the instrument air pressure should stay in the normal
operating range.
Some airplanes have annunciator lights to indicate proper boot operation.
When the deice boots fully inflate with sufficient pressure, a green indicator
light briefly comes on. As the boots deflate, the light goes out. If the light
does not illuminate during operation, the boots are not receiving enough
pneumatic pressure to effectively inflate them, and you must immediately
escape the icing conditions.
Another method of protecting wings from ice is by using anti-ice or deice
fluid. The system is known as TKS or “weeping wings.” In this system, pumps
drive small amounts of anti-ice fluid through small openings in the leading
edges of the airfoils. The openings are extremely small, usually .0025 inch
(.0635 mm) in diameter. Each square inch of leading edge has several
hundred openings. A wide variety of aircraft use this system, from light
piston singles to larger corporate jets. [Figure 2-51]

FIG02-051

Figure 2-51. Fluid anti-icing systems pump liquid through tiny holes in the leading
edge to prevent ice from forming.
WINDSHIELD ANTI-ICE SYSTEMS
In icing conditions, you can lose your forward vision due to ice on the
windshield. To be certified to fly in known icing conditions, aircraft must
have a windshield anti-ice system. Most smaller multi-engine aircraft use
either electric heating elements or alcohol.
Electrically heated windshield systems have heating element wires or
conductive materials laminated into the windshield or in a piece of
transparent material that is bonded to the windshield. Some aircraft have a
panel of heated glass mounted on the outside of the windshield to provide
enough ice protection to let you see through a portion of the windshield. To
prevent overheating, turn on electric windshield heating systems only during
flight. If you leave the heat on for too long on the ground, the windshield can
become hazed or delaminated. Also, when the windshield anti-ice system is
on, it can cause extreme magnetic compass errors. [Figure 2-52]

FIG02-052

Figure 2-52. If ice obscures the rest of the windshield, this electrically heated panel
in front of the pilot’s windshield can provide an ice-free window.
An alcohol anti-ice system typically consists of a reservoir, pump, and
discharge nozzles. When turned on, the pump delivers a constant flow of
alcohol to the base of the windshield. The slipstream airflow causes the
alcohol to flow upward, adequately coating the windshield to prevent ice
accumulations and maintain visibility. You control the system by adjusting a
dial to select the lowest alcohol flow rate that prevents ice.

AUXILIARY ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Pitot tubes, static ports, stall indicator vanes, fuel vents, and other
equipment might be electrically heated to provide ice protection. Check these
items before flight by turning them on and physically checking to see if they
get warm. Lightly touch the component with a rag or moistened finger. Use
caution, because some anti-ice systems can burn your skin.

CABIN ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

During flight at high altitudes, the safety and comfort of airplane occupants
depends on systems that control the cabin environment. Cabin heating and
air conditioning systems provide comfort and protection from extreme cold,
and oxygen and pressurization systems keep pilots and passengers alive at
high altitude.

CABIN HEATING
Most piston-powered multi-engine airplanes heat their cabins with one of
two systems. The first type uses a simple heat exchanger mounted around
each engine exhaust manifold, like the cabin heater on a single-engine
airplane. However, on a light twin, much of the heat is lost as the heated air
is ducted through the wing to the cabin. For this reason, many light twins use
a separate combustion heater that burns fuel from the airplane fuel
system. Combustion heaters provide hotter air, but consume fuel and can
add weight. [Figure 2-53]
 FIG02-053

Figure 2-53. Exhaust pipes from the engine cylinders (black) go through the heater
shroud (tan) to heat clean air from outside the airplane.
The combustion heater can be located in the nose compartment or behind
the aft baggage compartment of the airplane. The system has its own fuel
pump, as well as an integral ignition system to support combustion.
Fresh air enters through air scoops on the fuselage and is routed to the
heater. There are typically two inlets; one for combustion air, and another for
ventilating air, which is warmed and distributed in the cabin. Fuel from the
aircraft fuel system mixes with combustion air and burns within the
combustion chamber, which is surrounded by a shroud that forms a passage
for the ventilating air. Air flows from outside the airplane, through the heater
shroud, and if the combustion chamber does not leak, only clean, heated air
enters the cabin. The heater is designed so that the ventilating air is at higher
pressure than the combustion air as a safety measure to prevent combustion
products from mixing with the ventilating air. [Figure 2-54]

FIG02-054

Figure 2-54. A combustion heater system burns aircraft fuel to heat the cabin.
In flight, ram air provides sufficient airflow for the heater, but when the
airplane is on the ground, airflow usually has to be increased by electric
blowers within each inlet duct. On some airplanes, you may use the
ventilating air blower on the ground to supply fresh, unheated air to the
cabin for cooling.
As a safety feature, most combustion heater systems have a thermal overheat
switch that shuts off the heater if it gets too hot. The switch turns on an
annunciator light inside the cockpit to tell you that the heater has overheated
and has been shut down. After this light comes on, it is usually impossible to
reset the heater in flight. Maintenance personnel must correct the fault on
the ground after landing.

OXYGEN SYSTEMS
Aircraft oxygen systems differ in both their operation and their purpose.
When you fly an unpressurized airplane at high altitudes, you and your
passengers are required to breathe oxygen. The oxygen systems in most
pressurized airplanes are for emergency use.
In a continuous-flow oxygen system, oxygen flows continuously from
the tank to the user’s oxygen mask. Some systems have manual or automatic
controls to vary the flow of oxygen at different altitudes. Because of their
relatively low cost and simplicity, they are primarily installed on
reciprocating-engine airplanes, but they are also installed for passenger use
in some turboprops and jets. Continuous-flow systems can provide adequate
oxygen up to an altitude of 25,000 feet. [Figure 2-55]
 FIG02-055

Figure 2-55. Some continuous flow systems have manual controls to reduce
unecessary oxygen flow.
Diluter-demand or pressure-demand oxygen systems use the oxygen supply
more efficiently by providing oxygen flow only when the user is inhaling—
extending the duration of the oxygen supply. The oxygen masks and
regulators in these systems enable flight at higher altitudes than those of a
continuous-flow system. These systems are often installed in pressurized
airplanes for emergency use if the cabin loses pressure. [Figure 2-56]
 FIG02-056

Figure 2-56. Pressurized airplanes often have a diluter-demand or pressure-

demand oxygen system to provide emergency oxygen if the cabin loses pressure.
Diluter-demand oxygen systems reduce waste by delivering oxygen only
when the user makes an effort to inhale. To save even more oxygen, the
system dilutes the oxygen in the mask with cabin air according to the cabin
altitude. At cabin altitudes above 32,000 feet, the user receives 100 percent
oxygen. At lower altitudes, the user receives oxygen mixed with cabin air.
Below 8,000 feet, the system provides 100 percent cabin air with no oxygen
added.
Above 40,000 feet, even breathing 100 percent oxygen is not enough to
provide adequate oxygen saturation in your blood. At higher altitudes, a pilot
in an unpressurized airplane must use a pressure-demand oxygen
system, which forces oxygen into their lungs at pressure greater than
atmospheric pressure. Similar to a diluter-demand system, a demand valve
senses when you start to exhale and closes to stop oxygen from flowing to the
mask. The difference is that unless you are exhaling, the system forces
pressurized oxygen into your lungs. You need special training to learn the
proper breathing technique for using a pressure-demand system.
Initially developed for high-performance homebuilt aircraft, the pulse-
demand oxygen system operates by detecting when the user begins to
inhale and providing a measured amount of oxygen during each breath. They
are typically portable systems with battery-operated electronic controls, but
the FAA has also approved built-in systems for individual aircraft.
These systems waste less oxygen than other systems, reducing the amount of
oxygen needed by as much as 85 percent. In addition to stopping the flow of
oxygen between breaths, they limit the amount of oxygen delivered in each
breath, rather than allowing oxygen to flow throughout the inhalation. Most
systems have a barometric sensor in the control unit that adjusts the amount
of oxygen delivered during each breath, increasing the volume of each
oxygen pulse as cabin pressure altitude increases.
Like all oxygen systems, pulse-demand systems must be used in strict
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Fatal accidents can occur
when pulse-demand components are misused.

OXYGEN STORAGE
In aircraft systems, oxygen is usually stored in metal cylinders or generated
by burning stored chemicals. When you have an oxygen cylinder refilled, use
only aviator’s breathing oxygen. Other types of oxygen might contain
moisture that could freeze in the lines and valves at high altitude, rendering
the oxygen system inoperative.
Oxygen generating systems burn chemicals to produce oxygen. These
systems were once widely used on airliners to provide emergency oxygen for
passengers in case of cabin depressurization, but are being replaced with
newer systems. Some are still installed in both transport and general aviation
airplanes. These systems cannot be tested for operation. After the system is
activated, it continues producing oxygen until the chemicals are fully
consumed. When this occurs, the oxygen generator must be replaced.

CABIN PRESSURIZATION SYSTEMS

The cabin pressurization systems on many cabin-class twin-engine
airplanes use compressed air from the turbochargers. Compression heats the
air in the turbocharger, so the air flows through a heat exchanger to cool it
before it enters the cabin. Outside air cools the heat exchanger. To regulate
the temperature, the cabin temperature controls mix the hot air with cool air
and it flows through the cabin heat and defroster outlets. [Figure 2-57] Some
systems use hot compressed air from the turbocharger, instead of a
combustion heater, to heat the cabin in cold weather or at high altitudes.

FIG02-057

Figure 2-57. Air that is compressed by the turbocharger becomses heated and must
normally be cooled by an intercooler before it is sent to the cabin.
Cabin pressurization control systems are usually one of two types. A basic
system, often controlled by a single switch, automatically begins
pressurization at a preset altitude. Manufacturers choose their preset level,
but 8,000 feet is typical. As the aircraft climbs through 8,000 feet, the
pressurization system begins closing an outflow valve. With compressed
air entering the cabin and the exiting airflow restricted by the outflow valve,
the cabin pressure increases above the outside pressure to maintain an
8,000-foot cabin altitude as the aircraft climbs. The maximum altitude at
which the airplane can maintain a preset cabin altitude depends on the
strength of the pressurized part of the cabin. For most light twins, the
maximum differential pressure between the cabin air and the outside air is in
the 3.35 psi to 4.5 psi range—meaning the maximum altitude at which the
cabin is strong enough to maintain an 8,000-foot cabin altitude is between
18,000 feet and 22,000 feet. When the pressure reaches the maximum
differential pressure, the outflow valve maintains the maximum pressure
differential and the cabin pressure altitude begins to climb.
The second type of system allows you to set the altitude at which
pressurization begins. This system uses a pressurization controller. With
a controllable system, pressurization begins at the altitude you select on the
controller. You generally set the controller about 1,000 feet above the field
elevation of either the departure airport or the arrival airport, whichever is
higher, so that the aircraft is not pressurized when on the ground. [Figure 2-
58]
 FIG02-058

Figure 2-58. Cockpit indicators and controls are more complex in airplanes with a
pressurization controller.
A pressurization warning system alerts you when the cabin altitude
exceeds a preset level, typically 12,500 feet. If the warning comes on when
you are operating at high altitude, turn on the oxygen system and put on a
mask as you begin a descent to a lower altitude.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
Flight simulators and flight training devices are used in training for
abnormal procedures, allowing pilots to practice handling situations that
would be dangerous or impossible to simulate in flight.
Both engines have the same types of accessories, providing redundancy in
case a malfunction occurs with either engine or one of its components.
 Engine operating procedures differ depending on whether the engines are
equipped with fuel injection or carburetors.
Uneven turbocharger boost pressure during takeoff can make directional
control difficult, requiring you to use assertive rudder pressure.
Augmentor tubes and cowl flaps increase the amount of airflow through
the engine cowlings, improving cooling.
Engine-driven accessories provide the primary source of electric,
pneumatic, and hydraulic power to operate the aircraft systems.
Paralleling units distribute the electrical load equally between the power
generating systems on multi-engine airplanes.
To keep from depleting the battery when an engine or electrical
generating source fails, reduce the load on the electrical system.
Pneumatic systems provide air power for flight instruments and other
systems such as wing deice boots.
Hydraulic systems are typically used for landing gear retraction and
braking systems, but might also be used to power the flight controls, flaps,
nose wheel steering, and other components on multi-engine airplanes.
The propeller systems used on most multi-engine airplanes are constant-
speed, controllable-pitch, full-feathering designs.
Feathering eliminates the drag of a windmilling propeller and stops
rotation of a damaged engine.
On multi-engine airplanes, oil pressure to the propeller hub decreases
blade pitch, and a loss of oil pressure moves the blades toward a feathered
blade angle to reduce drag.
Propeller synchronizers automatically match rpm between engines that
are set to approximately the same speed.
Propeller synchrophasers adjust the relative blade positions of the
propellers to reduce vibration and noise in the cabin.
Small twin-engine airplanes use either 12- or 24-volt direct current
electrical systems. The 24-volt systems are more efficient than 12 volt
systems because they lose less power through the wiring.
 You can only check the pre-charge pressure on hydraulic accumulators
when the pumps are not operating.
Fuel systems of multi-engine airplanes include crossfeed lines so that
each engine can use fuel from tanks on the opposite side of the airplane.
Cross feeding enables you to laterally balance the fuel load and increase
range after an engine fails.
Landing gear retraction systems typically use electric or hydraulic power,
or a combination of both.
Reducing either throttle on a twin-engine airplane activates the landing
gear warning horn unless the gear is down and locked.
Ice protection systems provide deice or anti-ice control to the wing and
tail surfaces, windshield, stall warning sensor, pitot, and static
components.
Combustion heaters provide cabin heating on many twin-engine
airplanes, because too much heat is lost when ducting exhaust-heated air
to the cabin.
Air from the turbocharger compressors is used for cabin pressurization
and sometimes for cabin heating.
Cabin pressurization control systems are usually one of two types—basic
systems that maintain a preset pressure altitude, or controllable systems
that allow a pilot to select the pressure altitude to be maintained inside the
cabin.

KEY TERMS
Alternate Air Source
Augmentor Tubes
Tach-Generator
Annunciator Lights
Aerodynamic Twisting Force
Counterweights
Governor
Pitch Stops
Governing Range
Detuning
Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)
Propeller Synchronizer Systems
Synchrophaser
Governor Check
Unfeathering Accumulators
Pneumatic Pump
Engine-Driven Hydraulic Pump
Hydraulic Actuator
Hydraulic Accumulator
Crossfeed Valves
Hydraulic Power Pack
Landing Gear Warning Horn
Landing Gear Safety Switch
Surface Deice
Inflatable Deice Boots
Windshield Anti-Ice
Combustion Heater
Continuous-Flow Oxygen System
Diluter-Demand Oxygen System
Pressure-Demand Oxygen System
Pulse-Demand Oxygen System
Cabin Pressurization
Outflow Valve
Pressurization Controller
Pressurization Warning System
QUESTIONS
1. What action could you take to restore induction airflow to fuel-injected
engines if you encounter induction system icing that begins cutting off
airflow into the engines?
A.Move the carburetor heat controls to the ON position.
B.Move the alternate air controls for the engines to the ON position.
C.Close the cowl flaps fully on both engines to warm the air sufficiently in the
nacelles to melt the ice.
2.You are applying takeoff power in a twin-engine airplane equipped with
turbochargers. The left engine waste gate sticks in the open position.
What is likely to occur when you advance both throttles to full power?
A.The left engine fails because no induction air can flow to the engine.
B.The airplane yaws toward the left side of the runway because the right engine
develops more power than the left engine.
C.The airplane yaws toward the right side of the runway because the left engine
develops more power than the right engine.
3.What is the purpose of augmentor tubes around the exhaust pipes of a
reciprocating airplane engine?
A.To increase the temperature of outside air that is used to heat the cabin.
B.To increase engine power at higher altitudes.
C.To improve cooling airflow through the engine cowling.
4.True/False. The purposes of the paralleling feature in a multi-engine
airplane’s electrical system are to distribute the electrical system demands
equally between the power sources, to isolate a failed power source, and to
transfer the electrical load to the operating system.
5. On a multi-engine airplane equipped with conventional constant-speed,
variable-pitch, full-feathering propellers, which direction does increasing
the oil pressure in the propeller hubs cause the blades to move?
A.Toward low-pitch, high-rpm
B.Toward high-pitch, low-rpm
C.Toward low-pitch, low-rpm
6.What is the main advantage of feathering the propeller on an inoperative
engine?
A.Feathering prevents the propeller governors from increasing the blade pitch of
the propeller on the operating engine.
 B.Feathering improves the chances of restarting the engine by reducing the load
on the starter motor when it is used to rotate the engine.
C.Feathering reduces drag and might reduce engine damage by stopping the
rotation of the engine.
7. When a constant-speed, variable-pitch, full-feathering propeller is in the
governing range, what happens to the propeller rpm and blade pitch if the
aircraft pitches down with no change to the engine controls?
A.The engine rpm remains constant, and the blade pitch decreases.
B.The engine rpm increases, and the blade pitch will remain unchanged.
C.The engine rpm remains constant, and the blade pitch increases.
8.True/False. During takeoff, you may use a propeller synchronizer to
balance the rpm between the engines.
9.True/False. A governor check before takeoff must be accomplished with
the propeller in the governing rpm range.
10.When you shut down an idling engine on a twin-engine airplane equipped
with constant-speed, variable-pitch, full-feathering propellers, what pitch
angle will the propeller blades be in when the engine stops rotating?
11. True/False. If an unfeathering accumulator fails to move the propeller out
of the feather position when trying to restart an engine, the engine must
remain shut down for the duration of the flight.
12. Briefly describe the actions you should take after securing an electrical
power generating system that has failed on a twin-engine airplane.
13. True/False. Pneumatic pressure used to inflate deice boots is usually
obtained from discharge air from a turbocharger compressor.
14.True/False. When using external power to start a multi-engine airplane,
you should start the engine located nearest to the external power
receptacle first.
15. What provision on a multi-engine fuel system allows you to laterally
balance the fuel load?
16.True/False. The landing gear warning horn does not sound during flight if
the gear is up and only one throttle is reduced to idle.
17. What are four common methods that aircraft manufacturers provide to
perform a landing gear emergency extension?
18.How can you determine if the propeller anti-ice systems are operating
properly on a multi-engine airplane while in flight?
19.True/False. The range of an aircraft is reduced when the cabin
combustion heater is used.
20.True/False. A continuous-flow oxygen system provides oxygen to the
mask under positive pressure for flight above 25,000 feet.
21. What component is used to regulate the amount of air that exits the
aircraft cabin during flight in a pressurized airplane?
22.What actions should you take if the cabin altitude warning comes on?
SECTION B
Calculating Weight and Balance
It’s not a question of where he grips it. It’s a simple question of weight
ratios. A five-ounce bird could not carry a one-pound coconut.
—Monty Python and the Holy Grail

A
n abandoned slice of pizza lying on a patio table is snatched up by a
seagull, carried a few feet and dropped to the ground. Seconds later,
another gull grabs the now slightly smaller slice and carries it
skyward, only to have it fall from his beak.
Why don’t these gulls simply carry their feast off to a secluded spot and enjoy
their dinner? Chances are, that’s exactly what they’re trying to do, but can’t,
because of one thing— weight. Like a bird, an airplane can carry only a
limited amount of weight. Exceed that limit, and the aircraft, whether man-
made or avian, does not fly. When you rent a light twin for a weekend, you
might be tempted to load every seat with people, fill the baggage
compartments with luggage, and top off the fuel tanks; but if you did this, the
airplane would probably be too heavy to fly. [Figure 2-59]
 FIG02-059

Figure 2-59. Birds can simply release the load they are carrying if it is too heavy, an
option you typically do not have in an airplane.

MORE ENGINES, MORE OPTIONS

When you learned to fly single-engine airplanes, you discovered that the
weight and the center of gravity (CG) location are critical to aerodynamic
stability and control. As you advance to airplanes that have larger fuel
capacities as well as baggage compartments in the nose and engine nacelles,
you have more loading options, but you also need to exercise additional care
when calculating weight and balance. You naturally want to take advantage
of the capabilities that two or more engines can provide, but you must also
consider how weight and balance affect performance and controllability if an
engine fails. When loaded within limits, the airplane is stable and
controllable throughout the flight envelope, under normal operating
conditions. Conversely, flying an improperly loaded airplane compromises
both safety and performance.

HOW EMPTY IS EMPTY?

Most weight and balance computations start with the weight and CG location
for the empty airplane. You are likely to see several different terms to
describe the empty airplane, and the subtle differences in their meanings can
be confusing. Empty weight, licensed empty weight, standard empty weight,
and basic empty weight might appear in your POH or on the manufacturer’s
original weight and balance documents.
Since 1976, most manufacturers use the terms “standard empty weight” and
“basic empty weight.” Basic empty weight is standard empty weight plus
optional equipment. Standard empty weight is the weight of the standard
airplane, full hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full oil. Optional equipment
includes the weight of all equipment installed beyond standard.
Prior to 1976, standard empty weight did not necessarily include the weight
of full oil. Because so many of these airplanes are still in regular use, be sure
that you understand the weight and balance terms for each airplane you fly.
Does the standard empty weight include full oil, or do you need to add the
weight and moment of the oil? [Figure 2-60]

FIG02-060
Figure 2-60. In 1975, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA)
adopted a standardized format and terminology for POHs. Before then,
manufacturers might use different terms and their definitions varied. Currently the
majority of the piston twins in the United States were made before manufacturers
adopted the GAMA standards.

USE THE RIGHT WORDS

An airplane’s useful load is the difference between the basic empty weight
and the maximum ramp weight or maximum takeoff weight. It includes
usable fuel, the occupants of the airplane, and any baggage or cargo. The
term payload usually refers to that part of the useful load that a commercial
operator could charge to carry, such as mail, cargo, or passengers. The crew
and fuel are generally not considered part of the payload. In general aviation,
all occupants of an airplane are usually included in the payload.
You learned about usable fuel and unusable fuel early in your flight training,
Unusable fuel is the small amount of fuel in the tanks that cannot be used
safely in flight. Usable fuel is the amount of fuel in the tanks that you have
available for flight planning.
The engineers designed the landing gear and the airplane structure to carry a
specific amount of weight. Exceeding the maximum weight could damage the
structure. The maximum ramp weight is the maximum allowed for
ground operations like taxiing. Takeoffs and landings impose more stresses
on the landing gear and airplane structure than taxiing, so the POH might
list a maximum takeoff weight and a maximum landing weight. The
maximum takeoff weight is usually just a little less than the maximum
ramp weight. The difference allows for the weight of fuel used in startup,
taxiing to the runway, and runup checks. Although the difference usually is
not much in light twin airplane, it might be thousands of pounds for a
transport-category airplane. The maximum landing weight is
significantly lower than the maximum takeoff weight. Landing at a higher
weight could cause structural damage. In practice, it means that if you take
off at the maximum takeoff weight, you should burn off a certain amount of
fuel to reduce the weight before landing. If you make an overweight landing,
tell maintenance personnel so they can perform any special inspections
required by the manufacturer.
MAXIMUM ZERO-FUEL WEIGHT
Multi-engine airplanes typically have a maximum zero-fuel weight,
which essentially establishes the maximum weight that can be carried in the
fuselage. The wings of an airplane can support only a limited load before
structural damage or failure occurs. In smaller airplanes, this load is simply
the maximum weight of the airplane multiplied by the maximum flight load
factor. In larger airplanes, the distribution of the load along the wingspan is
often critically important, and you need to limit the weight of passengers and
baggage even when the airplane is below its maximum takeoff weight. In
airplanes that have a maximum zero-fuel weight, the structure is designed to
support a specific amount of the useful load in the fuselage, and the rest as
fuel. The weight of fuel in the wings safely spreads the additional load
spanwise to the outer wing panels. If too much weight is concentrated in the
fuselage, flight loads from maneuvering or turbulence could cause structural
damage or failure. [Figure 2-61]

FIG02-061
Figure 2-61. Complying with the maximum zero-fuel weight maintains a safe
distribution of loads on the wings.
The maximum zero-fuel weight is simply the maximum weight of the
airplane without any usable fuel. To check your loading, compare the actual
zero-fuel weight with the maximum zero-fuel weight. You can determine the
actual zero-fuel weight by subtracting the weight of the usable fuel that is on
board the airplane from the total weight. You are within the limit if the zero-
fuel weight is less than the maximum zero-fuel weight. If the actual zero-fuel
weight is greater than the maximum zero-fuel weight, you must remove
occupants, cargo, or baggage to lighten the load. [Figure 2-62]

FIG02-062

Figure 2-62. Exceeding maximum zero-fuel weight can have serious consequences.
MANEUVERING SPEED
You must know the airplane’s weight to properly use performance charts,
and to accurately calculate maneuvering speed (VA). Maneuvering speed
is the speed at which you can use full, abrupt control movements without
causing structural damage to the airframe—and it varies with weight. The
manufacturer typically provides you with the maneuvering speed at
maximum weight, but you can calculate the maneuvering speed for lighter
weights. [Figure 2-63]
 FIG02-063

Figure 2-63. Using a formula based on VA at maximum weight, actual airplane

weight, and maximum weight, you can determine weight-specific maneuvering
speeds (VA2).

Aeronautical Engineering and Bumblebees

When engineers design an aircraft, they make an estimate of the
weight of the craft early in the process. If the initial estimate is too light,
the finished product will be too heavy, resulting in an underpowered
aircraft with poor performance traits. If this first estimate is too heavy, the
aircraft will most likely have oversized airfoils, and again performance
will suffer. For the majority of light airplanes, the ratio of useful load to
gross weight is typically between 1:3 and 1:2.
MISSION FLEXIBILITY
The higher expense of operating a multi-engine airplane often buys a greater
degree of flexibility. Mission flexibility means that you have the choice of
carrying more passengers if you reduce the fuel load, or making a much
longer flight with full fuel tanks and less payload. Very few light-twin
airplanes are designed to fly with a full cabin and full fuel tanks, so you must
balance your needs with the capabilities of the airplane and with your flying
skills. Flying for a living can compel you to make difficult decisions and
adjust your plans for unforeseen challenges on short notice. Often, the choice
is not yours alone. For example, your employer might dictate the number of
people that need to go on a particular trip, and you might have to recalculate
weight and balance and performance figures at the last minute to
accommodate additional passengers and their baggage, add another stop for
fuel, or possibly plan an entirely new flight to a different destination. Your
employer, customers, and passengers might not understand the limitations
of the airplane, the airport, or the weather, but they do expect you provide a
safe and comfortable flight. [Figure 2-64]
 FIG02-064

Figure 2-64. You might wait to have the airplane fueled until just prior to departure,
in case your payload changes at the last minute.

CENTER OF GRAVITY
Multi-engine airplanes offer interesting features like optional seating
arrangements and new places for baggage, such as nose compartments and
wing lockers. Unless you get into the habit of calculating the location of the
CG in your preflight planning, the flexibility and options can lead to
inadvertently loading the airplane with the CG outside limits. You can also
use these features as valuable tools to help manage CG issues. [Figure 2-65]

FIG02-065

Figure 2-65. Although having several choices of where to place people and
baggage can make weight and balance calculations more complicated, they also
allow you more flexibility in loading the airplane.
Even in larger airplanes, pilots must be careful to keep the CG within safe
limits. For example, commuter airline pilots sometimes need to position
passengers in specific seats on lightly loaded flights to keep the CG within
limits. The CG location in transport category airplanes is usually expressed
as the percentage of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), rather than in
inches aft of the reference datum. As you know, the chord is the distance
from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing, and on a tapered wing
this distance varies from root to tip. The mean aerodynamic chord is the
chord drawn through the geometric center of the planform of one wing. It is
a convenient reference for weight and balance, as well as for aerodynamic
purposes. The leading edge mean aerodynamic chord (LEMAC) is 0% MAC,
and the trailing edge mean aerodynamic chord (TEMAC) is 100% MAC. The
CG range typically falls between 15% MAC and 37% MAC. [Figure 2-66]

FIG02-066

Figure 2-66. These terms might not apply to the twin-engine training airplane you
are flying, but you might see them if you fly larger airplanes.

By the Seat of Your Pants

Sometimes the information you receive from flying by the seat of
your pants can be just as useful as the numbers provided by your weight
and balance calculations. The following account from an ASRS report
relates an occurrence just after a routine passenger pick-up at an airport
in the western U.S., where the elevation is around 4,000 feet.
The incident began at [an] airport on [the] lake. I was part of a group of
five similar airplanes there to pick up a group of river rafters. The load I
was given was five men, two of them quite large, and quite a lot of
baggage. There were no scales in the plane so there was no way to
know exactly what the load was. However, it was clear that it came very
close to max weight. I refused some of the bags and put them aboard
another plane. I loaded up the passengers and proceeded to depart.
The takeoff was normal and although I could feel the weight of the
plane, it did climb out normally.
The weather was hot with high winds and turbulence as is usual for this
location. There were also updrafts and downdrafts. On climb-out I flew
into one of these downdrafts and the plane began to sink. I was flying
over the river, which has steep canyon walls. In this downdraft I could
not climb out of the canyon. I knew that eventually the downdraft would
abate and I could climb out, but my passengers were beginning to
panic. Two of them were pilots themselves. The passenger sitting
behind me took the initiative without my orders to open the pilot-side
door and throw out all the bags into the river below, a load of perhaps
150 pounds. I did not resist this move as to do so may have increased
their panic. Eventually the downdraft abated and the plane climbed out
of the canyon and up to a safe altitude, then landed safely.
Feeling the weight of the airplane on takeoff seemed to be the pilot’s first
real indication that there might be a problem. Making your best guess
when you do not know the exact weight of the baggage is sometimes
your only option, other than canceling the flight. When this situation
arises, making a high estimate of the weight is obviously in your best
interest.
The pilot mentions later in the report that he unconsciously relied upon
the judgment of the other two pilots present. Remember that one of your
pilot-in-command responsibilities is to establish an atmosphere of open
communication in the cockpit, and ensure that the suggestions and
concerns of other crewmembers are validated and considered carefully.
While the other pilots were not crewmembers in this case, asking their
opinion prior to departure certainly could have proven beneficial.
FINDING WEIGHT AND CG LOCATION
Manufacturers provide relatively simple and easy methods to help you
determine the total weight and CG location, including the computation,
tabular, and graph methods. You are probably familiar with each of these
processes from your previous flying experience. Multi-engine airplanes use
the same procedures, but usually offer a greater number of loading options.
The additional steps can lead to errors, so work carefully and double-check
your solutions. Be aware of loading concerns that might not be addressed in
the usual weight and balance calculations. For example, unevenly-loaded
wing lockers or tip tanks can degrade lateral stability. [Figures 2-67A and 2-
67B]
 FIG02-067A

Figure 2-67A. Start your weight and balance computation by adding up the weight
you intend to carry and checking it against maximum weight limits.
 FIG02-067B

Figure 2-67B. Determine the CG location and find out if it falls within the CG limits.

CENTER OF GRAVITY LIMITS

As the CG of an airplane moves aft, it moves closer to the center of pressure,
and the amount of tail-down force required to maintain a balanced condition
decreases. Although this provides a slight increase in performance, an aft CG
decreases stability and makes attitude control and stall/spin recovery more
difficult. The airplane is much easier to overcontrol, which could lead to
accidental overstress of the airframe. If the CG is at or behind the center of
pressure, the airplane is unstable. You might be unable to control the
airplane, and it might be impossible to recover from a stall or spin. As the CG
moves forward, the airplane becomes more stable because of the way that the
forces produced by the tail work to restore the trimmed attitude and
airspeed. The additional stability means that the airplane is heavier on the
controls and requires more effort to make attitude changes. The wings must
generate additional lift to compensate for the tail-down force, causing a
slight decrease in airspeed, range, and fuel economy. If the CG is located too
far forward, the elevator might not be able to create sufficient force at low
airspeeds to raise the nose, such as when you need to flare for landing.
In multi-engine airplanes, CG location affects controllability during flight
with an inoperative engine. A forward CG increases the controllability when
flying a twin on one engine, because the rudder is more effective in
counteracting the yawing tendency created by an engine failure when it has a
longer arm through which to act. (This concept is covered in more depth in
Chapter 3, Section B.) If you load your airplane within the CG range,
longitudinal stability and control of the airplane will be adequate in normal
flight conditions. Exceeding the allowable CG limits affects airplane control,
stability, and efficiency. [Figure 2-68]

FIG02-068

Figure 2-68. Just as in single-engine airplanes, it is best to keep the CG located

near the center of the range.

USING THE WEIGHT SHIFT FORMULA

Multi-engine airplanes typically offer more storage areas, including nose
compartments, wing lockers, and perhaps a pod on the belly to carry luggage.
During weight and balance computations, if you find that the weight is
acceptable but the CG location is outside the limits, you can often rearrange
the load to adjust the CG. Although you use the weight shift formula the
same way for both single- and multi-engine airplanes, a multi-engine
airplane might have more locations for passengers or baggage, which can
make the calculations more difficult. Practicing a few sample weight shift
problems will help you to gain confidence in applying this formula. [Figure
2-69]

FIG02-069

Figure 2-69. If the airplane is within weight limitations but out of CG range, use the
weight shift formula to recalculate weight and balance.
 Balancing A Weighty Voyage
When Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager took off on their unrefueled
flight around the world in the Voyager on December 14, 1986, the
airplane weighed 9,694.5 pounds — over 10 times its empty weight. For
comparison, a typical light twin-engine airplane’s ratio of useful load to
gross weight is between 1:3 and 1:2, on average.
Of the total takeoff weight, 75% consisted of fuel. The weight of the fuel
caused the wingtips to drag on the ground during the takeoff roll.
So, how do you manage your workload when you have over 7,000
pounds of fuel on board an aircraft that weighs a mere 939 pounds
empty? You spend the equivalent of 3 days’ time transferring fuel
forward, aft, and laterally between 17 fuel tanks to keep the CG within
limits. Although you will not be spending one-third of your time
transferring fuel on a typical flight, by planning ahead and prioritizing,
you can effectively manage tasks specific to any airplane you might fly in
the future.

CONSIDERABLY MORE WEIGHT

As you advance to larger and more complex aircraft, the loading forms and
weight and balance calculations will likely increase in complexity. Multiple
fuel tanks and cargo compartments, along with possibly hundreds of
passengers instead of four or five, all contribute to the difficulty of the
computations. One benefit of flying these larger airplanes is that, depending
on the company you are flying for, you likely will not have to worry about
completing the weight and balance forms personally. You will simply be
handed the forms prior to departure to verify their accuracy. However, that
does not relieve you of the responsibility of knowing how to complete them.
[Figure 2-70]

FIG02-070

Figure 2-70. An example of a question from the ATP FAA Airmen Knowledge Test
illustrates the complexity of a weight and balance calculation for a transport category
airplane.
Because transport-category airplanes have a relatively large CG range,
control pressures can vary significantly even when the airplane is loaded
within the approved CG envelope. To help compensate, the pitch trim is
adjusted on the ground before takeoff, according to the computed CG
location. With the CG located toward the forward limit, more nose-up trim is
set than when the CG is toward the aft limit. [Figure 2-71]
 FIG02-071

Figure 2-71. The longitudinal trim on most large airplanes is controlled by changing
the angle of the horizontal stabilizer.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
The weight and distribution of items carried in an airplane affects
aerodynamic stability and control, as well as overall performance.
 In a multi-engine airplane, weight affects both single-engine performance
and controllability.
Maneuvering speed (VA) is the speed at which you can use full, abrupt
control movements without overstressing the airframe, and it varies with
weight.
To conduct safe and efficient flights, you need to understand the effects of
various weight and balance conditions. You also need to understand the
terminology and techniques that different manufacturers provide for
weight and balance control.
To determine zero fuel weight, subtract the weight of the usable fuel on
board the aircraft from the total weight. If the zero fuel weight is greater
than maximum zero fuel weight, items other than fuel must be unloaded to
lighten the airplane.
Because very few light-twin airplanes can handle both a full cabin and full
fuel tanks, you must balance your needs with the capabilities of the
airplane and with your flying skills.
When flying bigger airplanes with additional space and greater loading
capabilities, properly calculating the center of gravity becomes a
significant factor in your preflight planning.
The CG location in transport-category airplanes is usually expressed in
terms of the percentage of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), rather than in
inches aft of the reference datum.
To verify that an airplane is loaded within acceptable weight and balance
limits, manufacturers prescribe various methods for determining the total
weight and CG location: the computation, tabular and graph methods.
When the CG of an airplane is located at the aft limit, the amount of tail-
down force required to maintain a balanced condition decreases, because
the CG is located closer to the center of pressure.
An aft CG increases performance slightly, but decreases stability and
makes attitude control and stall/spin recovery more difficult.
If the CG is located too far forward, the elevator might not be able to
create sufficient force at low airspeeds to raise the nose, such as when you
need to flare for landing.
 A forward CG increases the controllability when flying a twin-engine
airplane with one engine inoperative.

KEY TERMS
Basic Empty Weight
Standard Empty Weight
Useful Load
Payload
Unusable Fuel
Usable Fuel
Maximum Ramp Weight
Maximum Takeoff Weight
Maximum Landing Weight
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight
Maneuvering Speed (VA)
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
Weight Shift Formula

QUESTIONS
1. Useful load is the difference between what two weights?
A. Maximum zero-fuel weight and maximum takeoff weight
B. Basic empty weight and maximum zero-fuel weight
C. Basic empty weight and maximum ramp weight
2.An airplane has a maximum ramp weight of 5,175 pounds and a
maximum zero-fuel weight of 4,850 pounds. Why are these weights
different?
3.If the airplane in the previous question is loaded to its maximum ramp
weight, what is the minimum weight of usable fuel it must have on board?
4.Which of the following factors affects the airplane’s maneuvering speed?
A. total weight
B. CG location
 C. power setting
5. What are the effects of loading an airplane so that its CG is near the aft
limit?
A. It is more stable, achieves a better glide ratio, and you might not be able to flare
for landing.
B. It is less stable, achieves slightly better performance, and you might have more
difficulty recovering from stalls and spins.
C. It is more stable, achieves slightly better performance, and has a higher stall
speed.
6.True/False. In transport category aircraft, the center of gravity is usually
expressed in terms of the percentage of mean aerodynamic chord.
7. You are taking two friends to a fly-in barbecue in a light twin. You and the
front seat passenger weigh 320 pounds. The rear seat passenger weighs
140 pounds. You are bringing most of the supplies for the barbecue, and
you divide the 520 pounds of supplies equally between the nose and aft
baggage compartments. With 90 gallons of fuel, what is the CG location?
(Note that the arm for the nose compartment is negative.)

8.Your computations indicate that the CG is too far aft for this weight. Use
the weight shift formula to find how much weight you must move from
the aft baggage compartment to the nose compartment to bring the CG
forward two inches.
SECTION C
Determining Performance
Belief is no substitute for arithmetic. — Henry Spencer

E
ngineers and test pilots go to great lengths to provide you with
accurate information on your airplane’s performance. Understanding
the close relationship between the performance charts and the actual
behavior of the airplane enables you to make more effective use of the
performance available. Performance usually refers to speed, weight-lifting
capability, efficiency, climb rates, range, or endurance. Airplanes are
typically optimized for a particular kind of performance. [Figure 2-72]
 FIG02-072

Figure 2-72. Performance means different things depending on the purpose of the
aircraft.
Multi-engine airplanes can deliver impressive performance, but you must
know the capabilities and limitations unique to each airplane you operate to
ensure flight safety. There are a number of differences between the
performance calculations for multi-engine airplane and the single-engine
airplanes you have been flying. Naturally, the loss of an engine decreases
performance, but by how much? This section will help you understand and
use the performance information in the POH so your expectations of the
airplane are accurate and realistic.

WHAT IS PERFORMANCE?
To better understand the performance differences between single and multi-
engine airplanes, it would be nice if we could take a typical single-engine
airplane and add a second engine. Although an exact comparison is
impossible, there are examples of twin-engine airplanes that are based on
single-engine designs. Figure 2-73 lists some of the performance information
for a popular multi-engine training airplane, the Piper Seminole, along with
similar data for the single-engine Piper Arrow. The airframes of the Seminole
and Arrow are alike in many respects.

FIG02-073

Figure 2-73. What if a second engine were added to a Piper Arrow? Looking at
some of the performance data for the Piper Seminole can give you an idea of the
differences.
Because thrust must equal drag in steady, unaccelerated flight, an increase in
thrust causes an airplane to accelerate until drag again equals thrust. If a
hypothetical airplane has 300 pounds of drag at 150 knots, and we double
the thrust by magically adding a second engine, then the speed will increase
until the drag equals 600 pounds. As you recall from your earlier flight
training, many performance variables are governed by simple geometric
relationships. For example, drag increases as the square of the speed. So, to
see how much the speed would increase with an additional 300 pounds of
thrust, take the square root of 300. The result is 17.3. Thus, doubling the
thrust of this hypothetical airplane in flight increases its speed by 17 knots, if
other factors remain the same.
The physics might be that simple if you could double the thrust of the engine
without changing anything else. However, part of the potential performance
increase is lost because a twin also must carry the weight of an additional
engine and propeller, along with the airframe structure to support them.
Likewise, a twin has the additional parasite drag of the two engine nacelles
on the wings. Because the tail must be able to control the yaw of a failed
engine, the vertical stabilizer and rudder on a twin are usually larger than on
a comparable single-engine airplane, which contributes another small drag
penalty. Because two engines use more fuel, designers generally increase the
fuel capacity to give the airplane a reasonable range. Needless to say, adding
fuel means adding weight. Adding weight increases wing loading, so
engineers often add a couple of feet to the wingspan to create more wing
area. In practice, adding a second engine does not result in a large
performance increase.

POWER REQUIRED
Performance, such as the ability to climb and maintain specific airspeeds,
results from the relationship between power available and power
required at a particular airspeed. More excess horsepower leads to
increased climb performance.

Horse Power
Many of us have used the term “horsepower“ since we were
children without really knowing what it means. Where did it come from?
It dates back to the days of the Industrial Revolution, and one of the
great minds of the 1800’s. As mechanical power began to replace
animals in many applications, people needed to be able to compare
relative amounts of power in understandable terms. So James Watt, the
brilliant engineer who developed the steam engine, came up with a
standard unit for measuring power. Watt found that big Scottish draft
horses could lift 550 pounds about one foot in one second. So the power
of one horse, one horsepower, is the amount of power required to lift 550
pounds one foot per second; 275 pounds two feet in one second; or
1,100 pounds one foot in two seconds. If you multiply 550 foot-pounds of
work by 60 seconds, you get the amount of work the horse can do in a
minute: 33,000 foot-pounds. Some say the big draft horses Watt used
were able to do about 50% more work in a given time than the average
horse, so don‘t expect your saddle pony to be able to generate even one
horsepower.
You might have noticed that James Watt’s own name is also used to
label a unit of power. The wattage of a light bulb tells you how much
power is required to light that bulb. Because horsepower and watts
measure the same thing, you can convert between the two. One
horsepower is about 746 watts, so a thousand watts—one kilowatt—is
1.34 horsepower. In many countries, kilowatts are used to describe the
power of aircraft engines. The popular 180 horsepower Lycoming engine
is known elsewhere as the 135 kW Lycoming. Conversely, one
horsepower can light ten 75-watt incandescent light bulbs.
It is helpful to distinguish between thrust and power to understand multi-
engine climb performance. Thrust is a force that overcomes drag, normally
measured in pounds. When thrust exceeds drag, the airplane accelerates;
when thrust is less than drag, the airplane decelerates. When thrust equals
drag the airplane is in steady flight.
Although thrust is related to power, it differs from power in that thrust is not
speed or time related. Power is the rate at which work is done, so it is tied
directly to speed. It takes more power to do the same amount of work at a
faster rate. If an airplane had the same amount of drag at low speed as at
high speed, it would still take more power to fly at high speed, because the
work of overcoming drag would be done at a faster rate. Power is simply the
rate of work done per unit of time. [Figure 2-74]

FIG02-074

Figure 2-74. Power required differs from thrust required because more power is
required to overcome drag at higher speeds.
In order to climb, an airplane needs additional power beyond the power
required to sustain level flight at a specific airspeed. This additional power is
often referred to as excess horsepower. Because one horsepower—by
definition—lifts 33,000 pounds at a rate of one foot per minute, you could
calculate the theoretical rate of climb at a specific aircraft weight, if you knew
the excess horsepower at the current airspeed. Some simple math shows that
100 excess horsepower would enable a 3,300-pound airplane to climb 1,000
feet per minute.

THE ENGINE-OUT PERFORMANCE PENALTY

Does loss of an engine leave a light twin with performance similar to that of a
comparable single-engine airplane? Not at all! The performance penalty
when an engine quits in a twin is usually severe. For one thing, when a
conventional twin is flying on one engine, the thrust line is not through the
centerline of the airplane. To maintain directional control, you must use the
rudder to deflect air, which takes power. The vertical stabilizer and rudder
become a vertical airfoil generating sideways lift, and with lift comes the
associated induced drag. Also, the parasite drag of the engine nacelles and a
feathered propeller would not be present in a single-engine airplane, and
each of these adds to the drag penalty.
To appreciate how the loss of an engine affects light twin performance,
examine a graph illustrating power-required versus power-available curves
for a light twin airplane. [Figure 2-75] Although this type of graph is not
found in a POH, the graph illustrates an important aerodynamic reality—
with one engine inoperative, a typical light twin airplane loses 85% or more
of its climb capability.
 FIG02-075

Figure 2-75. The relationship between power available and power required shows
how severely performance deteriorates when operating with only one engine.
You do have some control over both the power available and the power
required. You can use the throttle, mixture, and propeller controls to
increase power on the remaining engine, and you can reduce the power
required by reducing drag. Every extra pound of drag costs you a pound of
thrust that could be used to increase performance. In tight situations, a few
pounds of drag might make the difference between gaining or losing altitude.
To decrease drag, retract the landing gear and flaps, feather a windmilling
propeller, and close the cowl flaps on the inoperative engine. In addition, by
banking slightly toward the operating engine, you reduce the drag from the
sideslip that is created when you apply rudder to maintain directional
control. You will learn more about engine-out aerodynamics and procedures
in Chapters 3 and 5.

USING PERFORMANCE DATA

Although you have used performance charts before, they take on additional
significance when you fly a multi-engine airplane. This section does not
address every chart in your POH, but focuses on those that are most likely
new to a single-engine pilot and those of particular significance in multi-
engine operations. Because chart formats vary between manufacturers, this
section includes examples of different types of charts.
One way to gain understanding of the charts, tables, and graphs for your
airplane is to invent a set of conditions for a hypothetical flight and then
work through the charts for every aspect of that flight. Remember that all
the performance charts shown here are samples, and must never
be used for flight planning. Always refer to the performance data in your
airplane’s POH.

THE ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS

What kind of piloting skill is a performance chart based on? FAR 23.45 says:
“These procedures must be able to be executed consistently by pilots of
average skill in atmospheric conditions reasonably expected to be
encountered in service.” You need not have perfect reflexes or thousands of
hours of experience, but if it has been awhile since you have flown or if your
skills have become rusty, you might not be able to attain the performance
quoted in the POH. Be honest in your assessment of your skills, and make
appropriate allowances if they might be below average.
The performance shown in the POH is only reliable for the associated
conditions displayed on the chart. Conversely, you can count on
performance being different if the conditions vary from those stated. Be sure
to consider the initial conditions whenever you refer to a performance chart,
and use all the available adjustments and modifications the manufacturer
provides. You might have to interpolate between values, or better yet, use the
more conservative values, when using tables. [Figure 2-76]
 FIG02-076

Figure 2-76. Do not overlook the fine print on performance charts—to achieve the
takeoff distances on this chart, you must meet the associated conditions listed in
these notes.

V-SPEEDS
When reviewing your POH, you might notice a number of new V-speeds that
apply specifically to multi-engine airplanes. Refer to the following table for
definitions of these V-speeds, as well as a review of the V-speeds you already
learned that apply to both single-engine and multi-engine airplanes. [Figure
2-77]
 FIG02-077

Figure 2-77. Using well-defined terms for aircraft speeds creates a vocabulary for
rapid, precise communication between cockpit crewmembers.
 Charts of the Stars
Take a look at some of the performance charts for two of the
“stars” of the aviation world. The higher the performance, the more the
pilot must rely on flying “by the numbers.” This chart for a McDonnell
Douglas F-18 fighter shows that with an aircraft weight of 36,000 pounds
and an air temperature of 59°, the single-engine rate-of-climb is about
2,800 ft/min. The graph also shows that to obtain this climb rate, the pilot
must use an angle of attack of 5.5° and an airspeed of 170 knots.
The example on this Lear 35 Single-Engine Climb Gradient chart
illustrates that with a temperature of 50° F and an aircraft weight of
15,000 pounds, the airplane will have a negative climb gradient of .2% at
15,000 feet. It would not be able to maintain 15,000 feet on one engine
at this weight and temperature.
APPLYING THE DATA
It’s important not only to calculate the performance, but also to know what it
means in the real world. For example, when computing takeoff distance, you
should have some idea what this distance represents along the runway.
Without knowing what is normal, you would not be able to detect a
deviation. Make a habit of noticing at what point on the runway the airplane
lifts off on every takeoff. Use runway distance markings, count runway lights,
or look for other landmarks, such as taxiway turnoffs or windsocks to help
determine your liftoff point. A headwind or tailwind component shortens or
lengthens your takeoff roll, so learn to correlate particular wind speeds with
your landmarks. It is important to understand the relationship between the
performance data derived from the POH and your airplane’s actual behavior.
[Figure 2-78]

FIG02-078

Figure 2-78. Landmarks along the runway can help you judge whether your
acceleration during takeoff is normal.
Prior to takeoff, you need to determine your airplane’s performance for
situations that you might encounter during your flight, including
emergencies. For example, computing your performance for an engine-
inoperative situation can help you make effective decisions during flight
planning and in flight. Assume you lose an engine while approaching higher
terrain during a flight in the mountains. This is a bad time to learn that your
climb rate under these conditions is a negative number. If you had
determined your performance before your flight, you could have chosen a
different route or cruise altitude, or planned an escape route toward lower
terrain.

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

For single-engine airplanes, you compute takeoff distance and relate it to the
total length of runway available. With multi-engine airplanes, you have more
options if an engine fails. To simplify planning, you normally prepare for the
worst case scenario—failure of the critical engine during takeoff. The
appropriate response to an engine failure depends on when it occurs during
the takeoff, so decide in advance what action to take if you lose an engine
during this critical phase of flight. As you will see, even though the best
choice changes at different points in the takeoff, you can still create and brief
a clear plan for each situation before you begin the takeoff roll.

CAN YOU CLIMB ON ONE ENGINE?

There is an clear relationship between takeoff weight and rate of climb in all
airplanes, but the connection becomes critically important when a light twin
airplane loses an engine during takeoff. If the density altitude is high or the
airplane is heavily loaded, the airplane might not be able to climb at all. You
can see why you must compute climb performance prior to takeoff. [Figure
2-79]
 FIG02-079

Figure 2-79. This chart shows the maximum weight at which you can achieve a
positive rate of climb if losing an engine at liftoff.
Under most conditions, continuing a takeoff in a light twin with a failing
powerplant is a risky gamble at best. The charts can tell you how thin the
performance margins are, but they do not convey how difficult it might be for
you to achieve optimum performance under stress. Many charts base the
stated performance on the propeller being feathered, which it normally
would not be at this time. The drag of a windmilling propeller adds another
significant performance penalty. In light-twin airplanes, it is often better to
risk running off the end of the runway at a slow speed than to continue the
takeoff and risk hitting the ground, perhaps inverted, at high speed. If the
landing gear is still down, it is usually a good idea to discontinue the takeoff.

ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE
Accelerate-stop distance for a light twin airplane is the runway length
required to accelerate the airplane to rotation or liftoff speed (VR or
VLOF), experience an engine failure, and bring the airplane to a complete
stop. [Figure 2-80]

FIG02-080

Figure 2-80. You determine accelerate-stop distance to know whether you can stop
the airplane prior to the end of the runway when aborting a takeoff after an engine
failure at VR or VLOF.

Accelerate-stop distance is affected by density altitude, aircraft weight, and

surface wind.

Density Altitude
● Longer distance is required to accelerate in high density altitude
conditions because the engines produce less power and the propellers are
less efficient.
● A higher groundspeed is required to become airborne in high density
altitude conditions, which increases both the accelerate distance and the
braking distance.
Weight
● Longer distance is required to accelerate a heavy airplane to liftoff speed.
● Longer distance is required to stop a heavy airplane.

Wind
A headwind decreases the accelerate-stop distance and a tailwind increases
it.
Determining the accelerate-stop distance is a critical risk-management
practice. Even though Part 91 light-twin operations do not require your
takeoff runway to be longer than accelerate-stop distance, you should realize
that taking off on a runway that is shorter than this distance means that the
airplane will run off the end of the runway if an engine failure occurs at or
near rotation speed. Your airplane’s POH most likely provides an accelerate-
stop distance chart. [Figure 2-81]

FIG02-081

Figure 2-81. Attaining the calculated accelerate-stop distance depends on acting

immediately to stop the airplane.
FAR Part 23 defines accelerate-stop distance for commuter and transport
category airplanes based on V1. Essentially, if an engine fails prior to V1, the
pilot aborts the takeoff. If the engine fails at or after V1 the pilot continues the
takeoff. Because general aviation light-twin airplanes are not required to
demonstrate engine-inoperative climb capability required of commercial
airplanes, V1 usually does not apply. If an engine fails at any time before
liftoff, the only decision available to pilots of most light-twin airplanes is to
stop the airplane on the remaining runway.

ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE
Commuter and transport category airplanes include accelerate-go
distance charts that provide the distance required to continue a takeoff and
climb to 35 feet above the departure end of the runway following an engine
failure at V1. Because, the crew must continue the takeoff at any speed faster
than V1, the decision to stop the airplane on the runway must be
implemented before reaching V1. [Figure 2-82]

FIG02-082

Figure 2-82. This diagram illustrates accelerate-stop and accelerate-go distances

for commuter or transport-category airplanes. These types of airplanes must
demonstrate the performance to continue climbing after an engine failure at V1.

Chapter 5 Section B addresses specific procedures for engine failure in light

twins during takeoff. In most light twins, continuing a takeoff after an engine
fails at liftoff speed is not a safe option. Although some light twin POHs
contain an accelerate-go distance chart, many of these same POHs also
strongly recommend discontinuing the takeoff if an engine failure occurs at
rotation speed or shortly after liftoff. [Figure 2-83]
 FIG02-083

Figure 2-83. These POH excerpts emphasize the importance of discontinuing the
takeoff if an engine failure occurs.

CLIMB
The power provided by the additional engine in a multi-engine airplane is
most apparent during a climb. Light twins have impressive climb rates with
both engines operating, but dramatically reduced performance if a
powerplant fails. Figures 2-84 and 2-85 show climb performance with two
engines operating and with one engine inoperative. The comparison is
startling—the rate of climb with one engine inoperative is only 11% of the rate
with both engines operating. In this example, an engine failure costs about
89% of the climb performance.
 FIG02-084

Figure 2-84. The climb rate in this example is based on using cruise climb speed
with both engines operating.
 FIG02-085

Figure 2-85. The single-engine climb rate under the same conditions as in Figure 2-
84 shows the dramatic reduction in climb capability when an engine is inoperative.
Some POHs include a chart to determine climb gradient—the altitude
gained per horizontal distance, expressed as a percentage. A headwind
increases the climb gradient, but not as much as a tailwind reduces it. This is
important to remember if high terrain exists in the vicinity of airport. [Figure
2-86]
 FIG02-086

Figure 2-86. Determine the climb gradient when high terrain or obstacles are
located near the takeoff runway.
Consider the risks before taking off from an airport with a density altitude as
high as the single-engine ceiling for your airplane. Under those conditions,
even a well-managed engine failure could leave you without any ability to
climb.

CRUISE FLIGHT
Even though you know a light twin can burn twice as much gas as a single-
engine airplane, you might still be surprised at just how quickly you go
through fuel during your flight. During your preflight planning, decide on a
specific rpm, manifold pressure, and fuel flow to use during the cruise
portion of the trip—and then carefully maintain those settings during flight.
Otherwise, your fuel usage will vary from what you planned. Although these
differences might have seemed minor in your earlier flying, you will soon
discover that small changes in power settings are magnified when you use
fuel at double the rate of a single-engine airplane. If the winds aloft are
different from the forecast winds used to plan your flight, or if ATC assigns a
different altitude, you might want to recheck your fuel situation, think about
your reserves, and revise your power settings as necessary. When using
performance charts and tables, make sure you check whether the fuel
consumption data is for both engines or per engine. [Figure 2-87]
 FIG02-087

Figure 2-87. Performance tables for light-twin airplanes are similar to those for
single-engine airplanes with some differences. In this example, the fuel flow is
expressed in pounds per hour and includes the combined consumption rate for both
engines.

Time, Fuel, and Distance to Climb . . .

and Fly Around the World
Time: 9 days, 3 minutes, 44 seconds
Fuel: 6,796.4 lb / 1,171.8 gal
Distance: 24,986.727 statute miles
Performance calculations for the Voyager flight were complicated to say
the least. In particular, computing the average fuel burn proved
challenging because, as it turned out, a pound of fuel was not always a
 pound of fuel. At the beginning of the flight,
one pound of fuel carried the Voyager about
two miles. Nine days later that same pound of
fuel was enough to fly roughly six miles, due
to the dramatically reduced weight of the
aircraft.
One of your pilot-in-command responsibilities
during the planning phase of any flight is to determine the proper fuel
load for your aircraft. In making this decision, it is important to consider
how additional fuel affects the overall performance of your aircraft. With
more fuel, takeoff and landing distances are somewhat longer, it takes
more time to reach cruising altitude, and overall airspeed suffers slightly.
The ironic part of carrying extra fuel is that the airplane actually burns
more fuel because of the added weight.
While you could compute the required fuel to the pound and add only the
required reserve, this is not your safest option. All things considered,
while you pay a small penalty in both time and fuel, the peace of mind
provided by additional fuel will likely be worth the price.

SINGLE-ENGINE CEILINGS
As with a single-engine airplane, multi-engine airplane climb performance
decreases with altitude. The additional power available on a multi-engine
airplane with both engines operating can produce operating ceilings that are
significantly higher than those of similar single-engine airplanes. As you
recall from your earlier training, all airplanes have an absolute ceiling, a
density altitude beyond which they cannot climb. Multi-engine airplanes
have an absolute ceiling with all engines operating, and a much-lower
absolute ceiling with an engine inoperative, because the ability to climb
depends on excess power. The single-engine absolute ceiling is the
density altitude that the airplane is capable of reaching and maintaining with
the critical engine feathered and the other engine at maximum power. If an
engine fails at any altitude above the single-engine absolute ceiling for the
existing conditions, the airplane drifts down. The rate of driftdown
depends on airspeed, drag, and pilot technique. To minimize the sink rate,
maintain an airspeed that provides the least difference between power
available and power required, because power required already exceeds the
power available. That speed is the best rate of climb, single engine
(VYSE) airspeed. It’s also the speed used to maintain the maximum possible
altitude, particularly in turbulent conditions.
The absolute ceiling is really a theoretical value; the single-engine service
ceiling is the altitude you will most likely determine from performance
charts. It is the maximum density altitude at which the airplane can climb at
50 feet per minute with one engine feathered, and it varies with airplane
weight. [Figure 2-88] A climb of 50 feet per minute is not much—for
practical purposes, the service ceiling is as high as the airplane can go.
Because of turbulence and imperfect piloting technique, it is unlikely that an
airplane can gain any altitude above the service ceiling.
 FIG02-088

Figure 2-88. If an engine fails above the single-engine absolute ceiling, the airplane
drifts down. This ceiling varies with air density and aircraft weight.
Maintaining altitude at the single-engine ceiling means flying precisely at
VYSE for that altitude. An increase or decrease of a couple of knots from VYSE
results in a loss of altitude that could be impossible to regain. Unstable air
worsens the problem, and you could find that even mild turbulence nibbles
away at your altitude.
Single-engine ceilings are an important consideration when planning IFR
flights. If you lost an engine, could you maintain the MEA along your route?
Even on a VFR flight, you should look at the terrain elevation along your
route and compare it to the single-engine ceiling at your aircraft weight.
Aircraft manufacturers normally provide a chart for determining the single-
engine service ceiling. [Figure 2-89]
 FIG02-089

Figure 2-89. The single-engine service ceiling decreases with density altitude and
aircraft weight.
If your POH does not have a single-engine service ceiling chart, you can get
the service ceiling from a single-engine climb performance chart—just find
the altitude and temperature that yield a 50 ft/min climb at your aircraft
weight. [Figure 2-90]

FIG02-090

Figure 2-90. You can determine the single-engine service ceiling by working
backward from a climb-performance chart.

Flight — It’s Only Natural

As human beings, we are so accustomed to plodding along the ground
that the ability to fly might seem unnatural, a rare and wonderful treat
reserved for only a few lucky creatures. But the reality is, most animals
do fly.
Well, sure, there are lots of flying insects; more than 750,000 species, in
fact. But even if you leave out all the insects and count only the warm-
blooded, vertebrate species (birds and mammals), about 4 out of 5 are
flyers! Of the known, living animals, there are roughly 9,000 species of
birds, and about 1,000 species of bats. All the other warm-blooded
species, from aardvarks to zebras, from whales to people, add up to only
3,000 species.
Flying is an energy-efficient way to travel, giving animals that fly many
advantages over those that do not. This ability allows flyers to escape
predators, find food, locate a mate, and minimize territorial disputes.
Likewise, flight enables a group to migrate over longer distances.
So, while you are certainly a rare bird among your fellow human beings
(less than one in every 5,000 humans is a pilot), the ability to fly is the
rule rather than the exception among the other complex creatures.
After losing an engine, you are likely to be distressed and inclined to fixate on
the cause of the failure. Although it is appropriate to follow the checklist to
attempt restart of the engine, it is also important to refocus your attention
after the inoperative engine has been properly secured. Your remaining
powerplant is now critically important to you, so you want to take good care
of it. Do not exceed the continuous power limitations of the operating engine
and pay attention to the temperature. Remember that the remaining engine
uses fuel at a faster rate. Although the fuel consumption of one engine at full
throttle is not as high as cruise consumption with both engines running, you
should take the time to recalculate your range if you must travel very far to
the nearest airport. You are flying at a lower airspeed, and because the
airplane is flying less efficiently, your range might not be as great as you
think.

DESCENT
Larger and faster airplanes require more advanced planning to stay ahead of
the airplane. To arrive at a waypoint at the right altitude at the right time,
you must begin your descent farther from the airport than you would in a
slower airplane. Because of the increased cockpit workload, you want to get
as much done ahead of time as possible. As with the climb and cruise phases
of flight, you should consult the proper performance charts to compute the
time, fuel, and distance needed for your descent. [Figure 2-91]
 FIG02-091

Figure 2-91. Use the descent chart the same as you would use this same chart in a
single-engine airplane POH.
 Performance and Limitations
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to performance and
limitations by explaining the use of charts, tables, and data to determine
performance and the adverse effects of exceeding limitations.
• Compute weight and balance. Determine that the computed weight and
center of gravity are within the airplane’s operating limitations and if the
weight and center of gravity will remain within limits during all phases of
flight.
• Demonstrate use of the appropriate manufacturer’s performance charts,
tables, and data.
• Describe the effects of atmospheric conditions on the airplane’s
performance.

LANDING
The landing distance charts for light twins are just like those for high-
performance singles. To use them, you need to know your approximate
landing weight, outside air temperature, and the winds and pressure altitude
on the runway. Because multi-engine airplanes are typically heavier, speed
control is more important. With greater momentum, the airplane takes
longer to decelerate, both before and after touchdown. In many aircraft, you
base your approach on the aircraft’s landing weight. A few knots of extra
airspeed can use up a lot of runway before the airplane has slowed enough to
touch down.

ENGINE-OUT GO-AROUND
With an engine failure emergency, even if you have done everything right—
planning and flying the best possible approach—you could still encounter
conditions that require a go-around. Even though a go-around with one
engine feathered is possible under certain conditions, it is risky in a light
twin, particularly at high density altitudes. Most of the dangers of engine-out
climbs also apply during a go-around. If you must perform an engine-out go-
around, make the decision early—do not continue descending on final
approach hoping the situation will resolve itself so you can land. The less
altitude you give up, the less you will have to regain. As always, be sure you
know the recommended go-around procedure for your airplane. However,
you should generally consider yourself committed to land if you are on final
approach and have extended the landing gear and flaps.

ENGINE-OUT LANDING DISTANCES

An actual engine failure in flight can be an upsetting experience, and you
might be tempted to land at the nearest airport. However, in this situation, it
can be prudent to fly a few extra minutes to land on a long runway, rather
than land on a nearby runway that is just long enough for your normal
landing distance. You need an extra margin of safety and avoiding a go-
around is a high priority. Even though you should fly as normal an approach
is possible, you might inadvertently fly a higher-than-normal airspeed
because of concerns about maintaining directional control and having the
energy to make it to the runway. In addition, when landing with a propeller
feathered, the airplane does not have the normal drag from two windmilling
propellers, and the reduced drag lengthens your landing roll. The
performance charts for light twin airplanes generally do not address this
factor.

Sometimes the Emergency is Real

From the files of NTSB . . .
Aircraft: Piper PA-23-160
Injuries: 2 Fatal, 1 Serious.
During a multi-engine certification check flight, the left engine was shut
down and feathered. The designated pilot examiner then had the
applicant attempt to restart the engine. The restart was unsuccessful,
and the examiner took control of the aircraft, returning to the originating
airport. The applicant performed the manual gear extension procedures,
but the landing gear position could not be verified down and locked on
final approach. The examiner instructed the applicant to retract the gear,
and executed a go-around; however, the airplane was unable to
maintain altitude. The airplane impacted trees and terrain while
descending during the go-around. A post-impact fire destroyed the
aircraft. . . . The landing gear was found in the retracted position, and the
left propeller was found feathered. Metallurgical examination found areas
of electrical arcing in the part of the starter cable passing through the
wing root. When the left engine starter was energized using a substitute
cable, the starter rotated the engine crankshaft. Density altitude was
calculated at 3,100 feet. The aircraft manufacturer reported a single-
engine aircraft climb capability of negative 7 feet per minute with the
landing gear extended, and 320 ft/min with the gear retracted.
In this tragic accident, a shorted starter cable turned a simulated
emergency into a very real one. While the NTSB found the cause of the
accident to be an attempted go-around with the gear down, witnesses
reported the gear up as the airplane descended, and the gear was found
retracted after the crash.
A single-engine go-around can be very risky, even for an experienced
pilot examiner. Note the difference in climb capability between the gear
down and the clean configurations. Although this airplane was
theoretically capable of performing a single-engine go-around, it
nevertheless descended into the trees. In retrospect, it is easy to
second-guess or criticize this decision after the fact, but given the choice
between landing on possibly unsafe gear or making a single-engine go-
around, what would you have done?

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
A second engine increases the maximum power available, but in many
light twins, most of the extra power merely compensates for the loss of
performance that results from adding the second engine.
Thrust is a force that overcomes drag, normally measured in pounds.
Although thrust is related to power, it differs in that thrust is not speed or
time related. Power is the rate at which work is done, so it is tied directly
to speed. It takes more power to do the same amount of work at a faster
rate.
In order to climb, an airplane needs additional power beyond the power
required to sustain level flight at a specific airspeed.
The airspeed that results in the greatest difference between power
available and power required provides the most excess horsepower and
the maximum rate of climb.
With both engines operating, maximum rate of climb occurs at VY and
with one engine operating it occurs at VYSE.
Performance chart data is based on average pilot skills and is only reliable
when the associated conditions displayed on the chart are met.
It is important to understand the relationship between the performance
data derived from the POH and your airplane’s actual behavior.
Under some loading or density altitude conditions, your airplane might
not be able to achieve a positive rate of climb if an engine is lost during
takeoff. Be sure to look carefully at all the relevant charts, and have a clear
plan in place before starting your takeoff roll.
Accelerate-stop distance for a light-twin airplane is the runway length
required to accelerate the airplane to rotation or liftoff speed (VR or VLOF),
experience an engine failure, and bring the airplane to a complete stop.
In most light twins, continuing a takeoff after an engine fails at liftoff
speed is not a safe option. Although some light twin POHs contain an
accelerate-go distance chart, many of these same POHs strongly
recommend discontinuing the takeoff if an engine failure occurs at
rotation speed or shortly after liftoff.
Climb gradient charts help you determine the amount of altitude gained
per horizontal distance traveled.
During your preflight planning, decide on a specific rpm, manifold
pressure, and fuel flow to use during the cruise portion of the trip—and
then carefully maintain those settings during flight.
If an engine fails when you are above the single-engine absolute ceiling,
the airplane drifts down to that altitude. To slow the altitude loss, fly at
VYSE.
The single-engine service ceiling is the maximum density altitude at
which the airplane can climb at 50 feet per minute with one engine
feathered, and it varies with aircraft weight.
Faster, heavier airplanes require precise speed control during approach
and landing to make accurate touchdowns and stop within the published
landing distances.
 Because a feathered propeller creates less drag, the rollout from an
engine-inoperative landing is longer than for a normal landing.

KEY TERMS
Power Available
Power Required
Thrust
Power
Excess Horsepower
Associated Conditions
Accelerate-Stop Distance
Rotation Speed (VR)
Liftoff Speed (VLOF)
Accelerate-Go Distance
Climb Gradient
Single-Engine Absolute Ceiling
Driftdown
Best Rate of Climb, Single Engine (VYSE) Airspeed
Single-Engine Service Ceiling

QUESTIONS
1. True/False. Power is the rate at which work is done.
2.Select the true statement regarding an engine failure during takeoff.
A.Most POHs recommend continuing the takeoff if an engine fails at liftoff speed.
B.As long as your airplane is not loaded over maximum takeoff weight, you should
be able to continue a climb if an engine fails at VR.
C.In a light twin, continuing a takeoff at liftoff speed is not a safe option because
of the airplane’s limited climb performance with an inoperative engine.
3.Define accelerate-stop distance for a light twin.
4.Suppose you are preparing for a flight from Amarillo, Texas (AMA). The
temperature is 20°C, the field elevation is 3,605 feet, the aircraft weight is
4,975 pounds, and the wind has been averaging 6 knots right down the
runway. Use the accompanying chart to determine the accelerate-stop
distance under these conditions.
A.3,425 feet
B.3,605 feet
C.3,865 feet
5. Using the climb with one engine inoperative chart, compute the single-
engine rate of climb for a takeoff from Salt Lake City Municipal (U42).
The field elevation is 4,603 feet, the temperature is 61°F, and the aircraft
weight is 3,750 pounds.

6.Cruising at a pressure altitude of 11,000 feet, with the power set to 2,400
rpm and a manifold pressure of 32 inches, what true airspeed should be
expected if the air temperature is 7°C? How much fuel is used in 2 hours
and 40 minutes?
7. Given a temperature of 15°C and an aircraft weight of 4,900 pounds, what
is the single-engine service ceiling for this airplane?
8.What airspeed is used to maintain the highest possible altitude after an
engine fails above the single-engine absolute ceiling?
 9.What rate of climb determines the single-engine service ceiling for a twin-
engine airplane?
A.Zero
B.50 feet per minute
C.100 feet per minute
10.How much fuel would be used in a normal descent from 12,000 feet to
pattern altitude at Flagstaff, Arizona (field elevation, 7,014 feet)? Assume
a 1,000-foot traffic pattern. How far from the airport environment should
you begin your descent?
11. True/False. The ground roll is usually shorter when landing with an
engine feathered due to the increased drag of the airplane with an
inoperative engine.
 CHAPTER 3

Discovering
Aerodynamics
SECTION A
Introducing Multi-Engine
Aerodynamics
SECTION B
Mastering Engine-Out
Aerodynamics
SECTION A
Introducing Multi-Engine
Aerodynamics
The important thing in aeroplanes is that they shall be speedy.
—Baron Manfred Von Richthofen

T
he science of aerodynamics does not solely apply to machines which
take to the air, but simply to any vehicle that moves through the air.
Aerodynamics research is fundamental in the design of boats, trains,
automobiles, even the Frisbee. Formula I racecars, for example, are designed
using some of the same aerodynamic principles as airplanes, but for a
completely different purpose—keeping a car firmly attached to the ground,
rather than keeping an airplane in the air. By inverting an airfoil and
mounting it over the rear wheels on a race car, designers provide more
downforce, which supplies more grip to the track, resulting in greater speed.
[Figure 3-1]

FIG03-001

Figure 3-1. Airfoil designs utilized in aircraft have applications beyond the aviation
industry.
An awareness of some new aerodynamic principles will be beneficial to you
as you transition to faster, more advanced aircraft. These advanced topics
might also help you to better understand some basic aerodynamic concepts
with which you are already familiar. For example, researching a subject such
as the boundary layer might enhance your comprehension of how lift is
generated.
With a few exceptions, your current knowledge of aerodynamic principles is
similar to the knowledge you need to fly multi-engine airplanes. The main
differences relate to the fact that you now have two or more sources of thrust,
which can create unique turning tendencies and also affect the airflow over
the wings, due to the engines’ physical locations. [Figure 3-2]

FIG03-002

Figure 3-2. Thrust in twin-engine airplanes is not directed along the centerline, as it
is in single-engine airplanes.
THE BEAUTY OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER
Have you ever noticed that if you have a fine layer of dust on the hood of your
car, regardless of how fast you drive, the dust will never completely blow
away? At the surface of an object, whether the wing of an airplane or the
hood of your car, air particles are slowed to a relative velocity of near zero
due to the viscosity, or stickiness, of the air. Beyond this area, the air
gradually increases in speed until it reaches the velocity of the freestream air
at a given distance from the surface. This layer of air between the surface and
the freestream air is referred to as the boundary layer. [Figure 3-3]

FIG03-003
Figure 3-3. The boundary layer begins just above the surface and ends where the
velocity of the airflow reaches that of the freestream air.
The airflow existing within the boundary layer is either laminar, turbulent, or
a combination of the two. Near the leading edge of a wing, the air flows over
the surface in thin layers, creating a relatively shallow boundary layer, and a
laminar flow pattern is established. As the flow continues back from the
leading edge, friction causes the smooth laminations to begin to break up,
the boundary layer becomes thicker, and the transition to a turbulent flow
pattern occurs. [Figure 3-4]

FIG03-004

Figure 3-4. These velocity profiles can help you visualize the local speed of the
airstream in the boundary layer, and provide a comparison between the laminar and
turbulent airflow.
Proceeding back from the leading edge of an airfoil, pressure decreases with
distance. This favorable pressure gradient (high to low) assists the flow of the
boundary layer. At the point where the local velocity of the air at the surface
is zero, the pressure gradient reverses and an adverse pressure gradient
exists (low to high). As the angle of attack increases, the unfavorable
pressure gradient grows longer, and the airflow begins to separate from the
wing. [Figure 3-5]

FIG03-005

Figure 3-5. The high-velocity airflow of the turbulent boundary layer helps to prevent
the airflow separation which can cause a stall.
To help predict where the smooth, laminar flow begins to transition to a
turbulent flow as air moves over a surface, Osborne Reynolds developed the
Reynolds Number (RN), a dimensionless ratio that relates the viscosity of
a fluid to velocity and distance. Basically, lower RNs indicate an entirely
laminar flow in the boundary layer, while higher RNs are characterized by a
boundary layer that is almost exclusively turbulent. As a prospective multi-
engine pilot, you will not have control over Reynolds Numbers as they relate
to your airplane. However, understanding this concept might be beneficial as
you advance in your aviation career. [Figure 3-6]

FIG03-006

Figure 3-6. Analyzing the effects of the variables in the equation for Reynolds
Numbers is essential to a basic understanding of the subject.
At low RNs, the tendency for a sudden shift from laminar to turbulent flow is
greater than at high RNs. This abrupt change in boundary layer flow patterns
causes more drag than a gradual, controlled transition. By roughing up the
surface, which energizes the boundary layer, the uncertainties of laminar
flow separation are avoided. On aircraft this can be achieved through the use
of vortex generators. On golf balls, dimples provide this function, and on a
tennis ball this is accomplished by way of its fuzzy surface. At the front of an
object, a ball for example, the boundary layer is smooth, and the air slips
over with minimal drag. But farther back, the flow separates from the ball,
creating large amounts of drag. It is relatively easy to separate the laminar
flow, so it breaks away near the widest part of a smooth ball. If the ball has a
rough surface, like the fuzz on a tennis ball, the laminar flow is broken up
near the front of the ball. The turbulence causes the airflow around the ball
to resist separation, so that it sticks to the ball further back along the trailing
side, thus reducing the diameter of the drag-producing wake. [Figure 3-7]
 FIG03-007

Figure 3-7. The fuzz on the surface of tennis balls and vortex generators on the
wings of an airplane create similar effects.

Going Faster on Land, at Sea, and Through the

Air
The markings you see on race cars, sometimes referred to as go-faster
stripes, are normally just for show — they look good and give the
observer the impression of speed, but, they serve no real purpose.
However, the Go-Faster Stripes developed by the Netherlands’
Speedskating team actually do increase skating speed. The stripes are
very simple, and also very effective. So effective, in fact, that the Dutch
claim a gain of 6.2 seconds in a 5,000-meter race.
Another aerodynamic innovation, riblets, were used on the winning
yacht, the Stars and Stripes, in the 1987 America’s Cup race. For a 6-
minute race, about the same time it takes to complete a 5,000-meter
speedskating course, the riblets provided a 3.6 to 7.2 second advantage
over the competition.
So what does all this have to do with aviation? Both Go-Faster Stripes
and riblets are markedly similar to the vortex generators found on the
airfoils of some airplanes. [Figure A] All three items serve the same
purpose – to reduce drag by way of creating surface roughness.
The Go-Faster Stripes are made of silicon, look like a small row of Vs –
VVVVVVVV – and are attached to the skater’s clothing at the head and
legs. [Figure B] They initiate turbulence over the skater’s body and
energize the boundary layer, thereby decreasing drag and increasing
speed.
The riblets used on the Stars and Stripes are in the form of an
experimental tape developed by 3M. The tape has corrugated triangular-
shaped grooves and is attached to the hull of the yacht so the grooves
are aligned with the flow of the water. The riblet tape reduces the
frictional drag in the turbulent boundary layer, which slightly increases
the speed of the yacht. [Figure C]
THE BENEFITS OF INDUCED FLOW
One important way propeller-driven airplanes differ from jet-powered
airplanes is in the function of their powerplants. Propellers impart a small
velocity change to a relatively large amount of air, while a jet engine greatly
increases the velocity of a small amount of air. In single-engine, propeller-
driven airplanes this acceleration of a large parcel of air is not as significant
as it is in multi-engine airplanes. One advantage of wing-mounted engines is
that lift is generated from the slipstream created by the propellers. While this
induced flow does occur with single-engine airplanes, it is not nearly as
significant a factor, due to the location of the engine in relation to the wings.
[Figure 3-8]
 FIG03-008

Figure 3-8. As the air approaches the front of the propeller, the velocity increases
and the pressure decreases. The air leaving the back of the propeller indicates a
further drop in pressure, and an additional increase in velocity.
While induced flow is typically beneficial to you, it’s important to be aware of
its effects during certain flight regimes. A sharp power reduction causes an
instantaneous loss of induced flow, and a corresponding loss of lift. This
could result in a high sink rate or a stall if you reduce the power suddenly
during a slow final approach. Conversely, by adding power rapidly when you
have identified an imminent stall, you can prevent the stall from developing
further. You should not rely solely on induced flow during a stall recovery,
but use the addition of power in conjunction with normal stall recovery
procedures.

THE TENDENCY TO TURN

In your previous experience flying single-engine airplanes, you have been
compensating for asymmetric thrust, or P-factor, by applying right rudder
when climbing, because the descending propeller blade is typically on the
right side of the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. On multi-engine airplanes
employing propellers that turn in the same direction, the descending blade of
the right engine is further from the centerline of the aircraft than the
descending blade of the left engine. An awareness of this concept is critical in
the event of an engine failure, but also during low airspeed, high angle of
attack maneuvers such as during slow flight. Twin-engine airplanes have a
greater left-turning tendency than singles due to the fact that both engines,
rather than just one, are causing the airplane to yaw. [Figure 3-9]

FIG03-009

Figure 3-9. Multi-engine airplanes have a greater tendency to yaw to the left during
climbs or other maneuvers requiring a high angle of attack, due to the additional
engine and propeller.
One way aircraft designers have eliminated some of the left-turning
tendencies in twins is to design airplanes with counterrotating
propellers. In this case, a multi-engine airplane actually has less of a
tendency to turn left than a single-engine airplane because the propellers
turn in opposite directions. [Figure 3-10]

FIG03-010

Figure 3-10. In airplanes with counterrotating propellers, the turning moments due to
asymmetrical thrust and torque are eliminated.

THE NEED FOR SPEED

As you transition to faster and faster aircraft, you will need to understand the
aerodynamic principles associated with high-speed flight. You do not need to
have an in-depth knowledge of these concepts to fly your multi-engine
trainer. However, it might benefit you to be familiar with some of the
aerodynamic terms you might encounter as you progress to more advanced
aircraft in the future.

MACH NUMBER
Airplanes that fly at or near the speed of sound are typically equipped with a
device which measures the airplane’s speed in relation to the speed of sound,
or Mach (named after Austrian physicist Ernst Mach). The Mach indicator
displays a Mach number of 1.0 when the airplane is travelling at the speed
of sound at a specific temperature. When you determine the true airspeed
based on the indicated speed from a conventional airspeed indicator, you
must consider temperature and altitude to make the correction. With a Mach
indicator, these corrections are not necessary because the temperature
determines the speed of sound. [Figure 3-11]

FIG03-011

Figure 3-11. A Mach indicator/airspeed indicator combination is utilized in many

high-speed aircraft.

SONIC FLIGHT
Because each airplane has a unique flow pattern around the fuselage, wings,
and tail section, there are places on the airframe where the air is traveling
slightly faster or slower than the actual flight speed. Due to these small
differences, an aircraft can experience compressibility effects at speeds well
below the speed of sound. Aircraft operate within one of four flight regimes,
depending on their speed: subsonic, transonic, supersonic, or hypersonic.
[Figure 3-12]

FIG03-012

Figure 3-12. The vast majority of general aviation aircraft operate in the subsonic
range.
When an aircraft is flying at relatively slow speeds, the airflow across its
surface exhibits fairly small pressure and density changes. Because the air
can experience pressure changes without noticeable changes in density —
much like water flowing through a pipe — the air is termed incompressible.
However, when flying at high speeds, the air undergoes significant pressure
and density increases. The compressibility effects created by these
changes include the formation of shock and expansion waves that are
generated when the air is forced to travel faster than the speed of sound.
[Figure 3-13]
 FIG03-013

Figure 3-13. As an airplane nears Mach 1, a compression wave forms near the
leading edge of the wing.

Too High, Too Fast, and Too Slow

An airplane’s indicated airspeed decreases with altitude as the
atmosphere becomes less dense. However, with all other factors
remaining, the indicated airspeed at which an airplane stalls is the same,
regardless of altitude. This can be problematic for high-speed, high-
altitude aircraft that are not designed to fly faster than Mach 1. It is
possible for an airplane to be flying at maximum speed while at high
altitude and be only a few knots above the indicated stall speed. In this
situation, slowing down slightly causes the airplane to undergo stall
buffet. Conversely, if the airplane’s speed increases, it encounters Mach
buffet (the control surface flutter that results from high-speed
atmospheric shock waves). In some cases, only a few knots of indicated
airspeed are available in which to fly between states of stall buffet and
Mach buffet. This region is referred to as the coffin corner because slight
airspeed fluctuations can result in a potentially dangerous control
problem.
SWEPT WINGS
Sweepback is an important design feature of high-speed aircraft. This
characteristic enables the airplane to fly at speeds just below the critical
Mach number—the speed at which the wing experiences supersonic airflow.
Although high-speed performance is improved, sweepback degrades
performance at low speeds. A significant part of the air is flowing spanwise
and not contributing to lift, which results in an increase in stall speed and
causes the wingtips to stall first.
To eliminate the problem of sweptback wingtips stalling first, some designers
have experimented with forward-swept wings. This type of planform reduces
the critical Mach number over the wing, and is also highly efficient at fast
speeds. Because the spanwise flow is directed inward, rather than outward,
these airplanes also perform well at slow speeds. [Figure 3-14]
 FIG03-014

Figure 3-14. Most swept-wing designs were developed to delay the onset of
compressible airflow problems, and control the shockwaves that form as an airplane
flies near the speed of sound and beyond.

High-Speed ADM
The Boeing X-51 Waverider scramjet can fly at Mach 5, about
5,600 miles per hour or 93 miles a minute. This type of technology might
be used in the future to transport passengers from New York to London
in less than an hour. A Learjet can cover about 6 miles in one minute,
and a Beechcraft Baron cruises through the sky at just over 3 miles per
minute. [Figure A] Regardless of what you are planning to operate in the
future, the twin-engine airplane you are flying for your training is
probably somewhat faster than the single-engine trainer you flew when
you obtained your private certificate.

One obvious advantage to the greater speed of a multi-engine aircraft is

the decrease in the amount of time it takes you to reach your destination.
However, as a newly-rated multi-engine pilot, having less time to
accomplish all the tasks required of you may not seem to be much of a
benefit. “Falling behind the airplane” is a common problem pilots
encounter when transitioning to faster aircraft. For example, in a single-
engine airplane, slowing down to follow traffic in the pattern is a relatively
simple procedure. Due to faster cruising speeds, slowing to follow traffic
in a twin can prove much more challenging, especially when coupled
with talking to ATC and completing the tasks required for a successful
landing.
Instrument approaches can also increase in difficulty in a multi-engine
airplane. For example, consider the following situation. You are several
thousand feet higher than the altitude required at the initial approach fix
when you are cleared for the approach.Your airspeed is too fast to
extend the landing gear, and ATC requests that you keep your speed up.
Fortunately, there are actions you can take, both before and during a
flight, to help decrease your risk of experiencing work overload. [ Figure
B]
SUMMARY CHECKLIST
At the surface of an object air particles are slowed to a relative velocity of
near zero due to the viscosity of the air. Above this area, the air gradually
increases in speed until it reaches the velocity of the freestream air at a
given distance above the surface. This layer of air between the surface and
the freestream air is referred to as the boundary layer.
Near the leading edge of a wing, the air flows over the surface in thin
layers, creating a relatively shallow boundary layer, and a laminar flow
pattern is established.
As airflow continues back from the leading edge of a wing, friction causes
the smooth laminations of air to begin to break up, the boundary layer
becomes thicker, and the transition to a turbulent flow pattern occurs.
A Reynolds Number (RN) is a dimensionless ratio that relates the
viscosity of a fluid to velocity and distance.
At low RNs, the tendency for a sudden shift from laminar to turbulent
flow is greater than at high RNs.
Induced flow is the lift generated from the slipstream created by the
propellers on airplanes with wing-mounted engines.
Twin-engine airplanes have a greater left-turning tendency than single-
engine airplanes due to the fact that both engines, rather than just one, are
 causing the airplane to yaw.
Airplanes that fly at or near the speed of sound are typically equipped
with a Mach indicator, which measures the airplane’s speed in relation to
the speed of sound, or Mach.
Compressibility, which occurs when flying at high speeds, creates shock
and expansion waves that are generated when the air is forced to travel
faster than the speed of sound.
Swept wings enable an airplane to fly at speeds just below the critical
Mach number—the speed at which the wing experiences supersonic
airflow.

KEY TERMS
Boundary Layer
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Reynolds Number (RN)
Induced Flow
Asymmetric Thrust
P-Factor
Counterrotating Propellers
Mach Number
Compressibility Effects
Sweepback

QUESTIONS
1. True/False. Counterrotating propellers eliminate some of the left-turning
tendencies in twin-engine airplanes.
2.What might cause a high sink rate if you make a rapid power reduction
during a slow final approach?
A.Reduced P-factor
B.Elimination of torque
 C.Reduction of induced airflow
3.True/False. The boundary layer begins at a specific distance from the
surface of an object and ends where the freestream air is encountered.
4.The speed of sound is a function of what variable?
A.Altitude
B.Temperature
C.True airspeed
5. When considering aircraft speed, what are the four flight regimes in which
all aircraft operate?
6.True/False. An aircraft with swept wings typically has a higher critical
Mach number than an aircraft with relatively straight wings.
7. What would a high Reynolds Number (RN) indicate?
A.Laminar airflow
B.Turbulent airflow
C.Maximum velocity airflow
SECTION B
Mastering Engine-Out
Aerodynamics
Everything that can be invented has already been invented.
—Charles H. Duell, Commissioner, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899
Flight by machines heavier than air is unpractical and insignificant, if not
utterly impossible.
—Simon Newcomb, 1902

T
hroughout history, well-meaning individuals have proclaimed that we
have reached the limits of knowledge; the universe holds no more
secrets to discover and humans have exhausted the possibilities of
invention. These notions have proved to be unfounded again and again.
Science boldly marches on with fresh theories, new findings, and innovative
creations thanks to those who continue to question, search for answers, thirst
for knowledge, and persist in being curious enough to explore the world
around them. The discipline of aerodynamics is no exception to this rule.
Through use of the scientific method, aerodynamic principles are continually
tested, new information is gained, and at times, existing ideas are replaced
with concepts that more accurately describe the motion of objects in air.
[Figure 3-15]
 FIG03-015

Figure 3-15. The steps of the scientific method can be used to investigate subjects
ranging from the principles governing the universe to how lift is generated by an
airfoil. The scientific method also provides a foundation for employing critical thinking
about information you encounter every day, and can be used for basic problem
solving.

The Wright Brothers Were Right

Anyone can employ the scientific method to solve a problem or
answer a question. A huge research grant, expensive equipment, and a
team of assistants can definitely aid an individual in making a significant
breakthrough in a field of study. However, some of the most successful
scientific enterprises have had very humble beginnings while some
spectacular failures have been blessed with abundant resources and
extravagant funding.
The Wright Brothers began their pursuit of
manned flight by studying the successes
and failures of their predecessors. It has
been said that the brothers displayed an
unusual ability to judge an idea’s worth
and they had a knack for knowing when to
discard widely held superstitions in the
field. The Wright Brothers took logical
steps to verify their aerodynamic theories. They consistently found
methods to test individual components and subsystems of their aircraft
designs by using kites, gliders, and wind tunnels. Samuel Pierpont
Langley’s misguided attempt at aircraft design is often contrasted with
the Wright Brothers journey to master the skies. Unlike the two brothers,
Langley was highly educated and achieved prominent stature as
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, which provided him with great
credibility. Hence, he was able to secure extensive funding in support of
his efforts to develop an airplane. After achieving some success with
unmanned aerodromes — his Aerodrome No. 6 flew 4,200 feet at about
30 mph on November 28, 1896 — he was able to convince the War
Department to commit $50,000 toward the development of a manned
flying machine. The Smithsonian also readily contributed a similar sum
toward his efforts.
Langley felt it would be safest to fly over water, so he spent almost half
of his funds (which could have been used on experimentation and
testing) constructing a houseboat with a catapult that would launch his
craft. The catapult method required the wood and fabric airplane to
accelerate from a dead stop to 60 miles per hour in only 70 feet. The
stress of this launch was too great for the flimsy craft. During the first
attempt in October of 1903, the front wing was badly damaged. A
witness claimed the plane flew “like a handful of mortar.” Langley failed
to learn from this mishap and attempted a second launch on December
9, 1903. The rear wing and tail completely collapsed and the pilot nearly
drowned before he was rescued from the Potomac River.
The War Department’s final report on the Langley project concluded,
“We are still far from the ultimate goal, and it would seem as if years of
constant work and study by experts, together with the expenditure of
thousands of dollars, would still be necessary before we can hope to
 produce an apparatus of practical utility on these lines.” Despite the
War Department’s pessimistic proclamation, a mere eight days after
Langley’s failure, the ultimate goal was achieved. A sturdy, well-
designed airplane, which cost about $1,000, secured its place in history
at Kitty Hawk.

The aerodynamic principles of engine-out flight are excellent examples of

concepts that have been modified through time, as new information is
discovered through research and testing. In the past, many inaccurate or
misleading ideas regarding engine-out characteristics of airplanes have
circulated within the aviation community. This section explores some of the
experiments that were performed; experiments that helped change the
predominant thought regarding certain engine-out procedures. In addition,
you can use the principles of the scientific method to enhance the way you
consider aerodynamics. For example, as you learn about the different aspects
of engine failure while reading this section, you can pose hypotheses
regarding how certain factors affect the airplane. Think about what actions
you could take as a pilot to counter some of the adverse aerodynamic effects
of an engine-out situation. Then read on to see if your hypotheses prove to be
valid. Exploring the subject of aerodynamics can be challenging and
fascinating if you approach the subject with curiosity and actively participate
in the learning experience.
THE STORY OF AN ENGINE FAILURE
Why do you need to understand the aerodynamics involved with an engine-
out situation in a multi-engine airplane? With an understanding of the
aerodynamics comes the knowledge required to make informed and effective
decisions if you should ever find yourself in this predicament. You can think
of engine-out aerodynamics as a chain of causes and effects. Beginning with
the engine failure, each action you take affects the airplane in a particular
way, which then requires adjustments on your part, until you are able to
operate on one engine to achieve the best performance and controllability.
[Figure 3-16]

FIG03-016

Figure 3-16. You are piloting a light twin with a conventional propeller configuration
(non-counterrotating) at a cruise altitude of 9,500 feet. During your cross-country, a
mechanical problem causes the left engine to fail. What happens to the airplane?

THE AIRPLANE YAWS AND ROLLS

The left engine fails and your airplane begins to both yaw and roll toward the
dead engine. Why? Because lift, thrust, and drag now act on your airplane
asymmetrically. The yawing tendency is produced by the asymmetrical
thrust condition. Several factors contribute to the rolling tendency. First,
the induced flow from the propeller slipstream is lost on the left wing, so
total lift on that wing is decreased, while the induced airflow from the right
engine is still producing additional lift. This lift differential results in a roll
toward the left. In addition, drag, created by the windmilling propeller of the
left engine, also contributes to the roll and yaw toward that engine. Finally,
aerodynamic coupling, which occurs when one force affects another, adds to
the airplane’s rolling tendency—yaw causes the air traveling over the outside
wing (the right wing) to speed up, increasing the lift on that wing and
consequently adding to the roll. [Figure 3-17]

FIG03-017

Figure 3-17. The loss of an engine results in both a yawing and rolling tendency
toward the inoperative engine.

THE IMPACT OF A CRITICAL ENGINE

The term critical engine refers to the engine whose failure most adversely
affects the performance or handling characteristics of your airplane. The
effect of the critical engine is most significant in situations where the
airplane is operating at a low speed with a high power setting. In this high
angle of attack attitude, the descending blade of each propeller is producing
more thrust than the ascending blade. [Figure 3-18]
 FIG03-018

Figure 3-18. The left engine is critical in twins that have engine configurations in
which both propellers turn clockwise.
Airplanes with counterrotating propellers eliminate the critical engine.
The descending propeller blades of both engines are the same distance from
the airplane’s longitudinal axis, therefore, neither engine affects
controllability more than the other and neither engine is considered critical.
Yawing and rolling toward the inoperative engine are still very apparent, but
lack the severity associated with a critical engine failure. [Figure 3-19]
 FIG03-019

Figure 3-19. An airplane equipped with counterrotating propellers does not have a
critical engine.

The Beauty of Asymmetry

If you examine a fine painting or sculpture, you might find that a
lack of symmetry in the composition adds interest to the piece of art and
contributes to its beauty. A good composition works, not because the
elements in the artwork are symmetrical, but because they are balanced.
Artists strive to achieve the perfect balance in their creations.
Although scientists and artists might appear
to have different goals, their pursuits are
actually quite similar in some ways. As
scientists search for order in the universe,
they are engaged in a quest for symmetry.
The building blocks of the universe consist
of fundamental particles that have varied
masses, as well as forces that exhibit very
different strengths compared to one
another. To many physicists, this
asymmetry is disconcerting. Will the search
for a theory that explains everything in the universe eventually reveal
some hidden symmetry? Many hope so. However, as with art, the forces
of nature are balanced to create a glorious composition. Beauty prevails,
even if symmetry proves to be elusive.
Symmetry has always been an important concept in multi-engine flight
as well, so when Burt Rutan combined artistry and scientific principles in
1996 to create his asymmetrical innovation, the Boomerang, it was met
with both enthusiasm and skepticism. The Boomerang is a twin like no
other. The right wing is 57 inches shorter than the left. One engine is
mounted on the fuselage and the other powerplant is secured to the left
boom, 5 feet behind the right. Both are Lycoming TIO-360s with 3-blade,
76 Hartzell variable-pitch props, but the right engine is rated at 210
horsepower while the left produces 200 horsepower. The engines are
positioned so the 2 propellers are separated by only 12 inches. This
close-quarters arrangement shifts the airplane’s center of gravity 5
inches to the left of the fuselage, enabling the Boomerang to fly straight
ahead on a single engine with almost no need for rudder input,
regardless of which engine is inoperative. In addition, the Boomerang
flies at almost any speed within its flight envelope with no yawing or
rolling tendency.
The Boomerang’s asymmetrical design is the key to its desirable flight
characteristics. The placement of the engines and wings balances the
asymmetry normally caused by the left and right propellers rotating in the
same direction. The 5-passenger Boomerang has a range of
approximately 2,100 nautical miles and a cruise speed of 268 miles per
hour — about 400 nautical miles greater and 50 knots faster than a
comparable, traditionally designed twin. Now that’s beauty.
THE CURE FOR YAW AND ROLL
So the left engine is dead and you must stop the yawing and rolling before
your airplane continues its hazardous journey toward inverted flight.
Applying right rudder pressure counteracts the yawing and rolling motion
and you have the airplane under control, as long as you maintain sufficient
airspeed. What does airspeed have to do with this scenario? Obviously you
do not want the airplane to stall, but what other function does airspeed serve
in an engine-out situation? The answer is simple; with speed comes the
rudder authority to counteract the yawing and rolling tendency of the
airplane. Below a certain airspeed, you cannot create enough force with the
rudder to prevent the airplane from continuing its travel toward the
inoperative engine. This airspeed is referred to as minimum control
airspeed (VMC). imply stated, VMC is the lowest speed at which the rudder
control moment can equal the moment of unbalanced thrust. When you are
using full rudder pressure and the airplane still yaws and rolls toward the
dead engine, you have allowed the airspeed to drop below VMC. [Figure 3-20]

FIG03-020

Figure 3-20. You can better understand VMC by examining the relationship of the
forces created by asymmetrical thrust and rudder deflection.

THE NATURE OF VMC

It is important to make the distinction between published VMC and actual
VMC. The published VMC is found in your airplane’s POH and is normally
displayed on the airspeed indicator by a red radial line. Published VMC is
determined under specific criteria outlined in FAR Part 23. However, just as
stall speed changes with flight conditions and airplane configuration, actual
VMC can be much different than the number you see in the POH, when
conditions vary from those found in Part 23. [Figure 3-21]
 FIG03-021

Figure 3-21. FAR 23.149 specifies the criteria under which VMC is established for
each multi-engine airplane certificated under Part 23.
As you continue to explore this section, you will learn more about the
circumstances that cause actual VMC to differ from published VMC. You might
never know exactly what VMC is at the moment you lose an engine. However,
you can ensure that you never operate at a speed below VMC by
understanding how different factors affect minimum control speed.

THE WINDMILLING PROPELLER

Although maintaining directional control is your first priority when an
engine fails, achieving adequate performance to maintain altitude or climb is
your next task. The most effective way to increase your performance is to
eliminate its greatest obstacle: the windmilling propeller. The increase in
equivalent parasite drag created by the windmilling propeller can exceed the
total drag of the rest of the airplane. The disc area of the windmilling
propeller can produce an effective drag coefficient comparable to the drag of
a parachute or of a helicopter’s rotor in autorotation. [Figure 3-22]

FIG03-022

Figure 3-22. The amount of drag produced by the windmilling propeller is similar to
that produced by a helicopter’s rotor in autorotation.

THE FEATHERING FIX

The windmilling propeller has been described as a large barn door blocking
the air in front of it and disturbing the air surrounding it. How can this drag-
producing barricade be removed so air can again pass freely by the airplane?
The rotation of the blades must be stopped and feathering is the method
used to accomplish this task. To feather the propeller you normally place the
propeller control past a detent or turn off the inoperative engine’s master
switch (FADEC system). This positions the propeller blades at such a high
angle that they are streamlined in the direction of flight. The blades then act
as powerful brakes to assist engine friction and compression in stopping the
propeller’s windmilling rotation. A single feathered propeller contributes a
relatively small amount of drag to the airplane’s total drag and feathering can
prevent further detriment to an engine that might have already been
damaged. [Figure 3-23]

FIG03-023

Figure 3-23. Feathering the propeller by increasing the angle of the blades to stop
rotation dramatically reduces the area producing parasite drag.
The drag and resulting yaw caused by the windmilling propeller is so great in
some airplanes that critical loads are placed on the vertical tail when an
engine failure occurs. An automatic feathering system on these airplanes is a
necessity.

THE SIDESLIP
The sequence of events after the engine failure continues. You are now
operating above VMC and you have the airplane under control by applying
rudder pressure. You have eliminated a large amount of drag by feathering
the propeller. All is well, right? Not so fast. As effective as the rudder is in
allowing you to maintain directional control, there are some unintended
consequences to the rudder pressure applied toward the operating engine.
When you use rudder pressure to prevent yaw and roll toward the dead
engine, you inadvertently cause the airplane to slip toward that engine.
[Figure 3-24]
 FIG03-024

Figure 3-24. Barry Schiff, retired TWA captain and noted aviation author, created
this excellent example to help pilots visualize how the sideslip occurs in an engine-
out situation.
This sideslip is difficult to detect from the cockpit. From your perspective,
the wings are level, the ball in the inclinometer is centered, and the airplane
is maintaining a constant heading. So how do you know the sideslip actually
occurs? You can perform an experiment with a yaw string to prove the
existence of the slip. [Figure 3-25]

FIG03-025

Figure 3-25. Use a yaw string to visualize the sideslip after simulating an engine
failure.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE SIDESLIP

At this point you might be thinking, so what if the airplane is in a slip, as long
as it is under control? It’s true that maintaining directional control is initially
your primary focus, but you must then address the adverse effects of the slip
on both the controllability and performance of your airplane. An obvious
disadvantage of the sideslip is the rise in drag that retards your performance.
In the past, you might have intentionally used this characteristic of a slip. For
example, when some missteps in your planning left you exceedingly high on
final approach, the extra drag of a slip enabled you to descend rapidly
without gaining airspeed. What other negative consequences do you think
might result from the slip in an engine-out situation? [Figure 3-26]

FIG03-026

Figure 3-26. In addition to the relative wind striking the fuselage at an angle causing
significant drag, the sideslip creates other problems for a twin with a dead engine.
Consider how these factors might affect actual VMC.

Because sideslipping significantly reduces rudder effectiveness, a higher

airspeed than the published VMC might be necessary to generate sufficient
airflow across the rudder to maintain directional control. Flight tests have
shown that, in some airplanes, the sideslip can increase actual VMC by 20
knots (at times above VYSE) and decrease engine-out climb performance by
several hundred feet per minute. This increase in VMC can put you in a
precarious position during an engine failure. For instance, you might feel
secure maintaining an airspeed higher than the published VMC during takeoff
when suddenly an engine fails and you discover that full rudder pressure is
not preventing the roll and yaw toward the dead engine. When you lower the
nose to increase your airspeed, you find the drag caused by the slip so erodes
your performance you cannot maintain altitude. So what is the solution to
the sideslip dilemma?

THE SIDESLIP REMEDY

You have most likely reached the conclusion that you must take action to
prevent the airplane from sideslipping after an engine failure. Until about
1980, the general belief was that, following an engine failure, the pilot should
fly the airplane at zero bank angle, or wings level, and keep the ball centered
in the inclinometer. After the negative effects of the sideslip were
understood, the prevailing mindset changed. It was discovered that banking
toward the good engine could offset, or zero, the sideslip. By flying in a zero
sideslip attitude, you can regain the controllability and performance lost
when the airplane was slipping. [Figure 3-27]
 FIG03-027

Figure 3-27. How does a bank zero the sideslip? Creating an approximately equal
force in the opposite direction can neutralize the force of the sideslip.
So far so good, but how much bank is appropriate? In the past, 5° of bank
was commonly used to zero the sideslip. One of the reasons 5° was chosen
was the fact that FAR 23.149 mentioned a 5° bank in its requirements for
determining VMC. This caused pilots and instructors to reach the conclusion
that 5° of bank must be the magic number to eliminate the damaging sideslip
and restore controllability and performance.
Upon careful examination, however, it was found that some faulty thinking
led to the assumption that 5° of bank was the most effective choice. First,
Part 23 certification requirements, which are used to determine published
VMC, have nothing to do with achieving maximum performance. So, although
the 5° bank certainly disposed of the sideslip, its effect on the airplane’s
performance was not compared to the effect of other bank angles. In
addition, Part 23 does not require the manufacturer to use a 5° bank; it
simply states that the airplane shall “maintain straight flight at the same
speed with an angle of bank of not more than 5°.” The intent of the FAR is to
impose a limitation on the allowable bank so manufacturers cannot publish a
dangerously low VMC based on the use of a large bank angle.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AT WORK

So what amount of bank should be used to achieve the best performance and
directional control during engine-out flight? Several approaches are used to
determine this; methods that not only reveal the appropriate bank angle, but
also prove the 5° bank is not the best option for most light multi-engine
airplanes.
Researchers have computed the effective bank angle for specific airplanes
and then experimented to verify their results were correct. Wind tunnel trials
and flight tests have yielded outcomes consistent with the mathematical
calculations that resulted in bank angles of less than 5°. To verify the bank
angle that represents zero sideslip in your airplane, perform your own
experiment. By attaching a yaw string and then simulating engine failure,
you can bank until the string aligns with the longitudinal axis of your
airplane. [Figure 3-28]
 FIG03-028

Figure 3-28. Use a yaw string to verify the bank angle that zeros the sideslip for
your airplane.
After you determine the appropriate bank angle for your airplane, you reap
the benefits. Rudder effectiveness improves substantially because the relative
wind is now aligned with the longitudinal axis of the airplane. This increased
rudder capability causes your airplane’s actual VMC to decrease. Performance
improves as well, because you can fly the airplane at a slower, possibly more
efficient, airspeed, and the drag associated with the slip is eliminated. When
the drag decreases, less power is necessary to maintain altitude, so excess
power is available for climb (or reducing sink rate).

CONTROLLABILITY VS. PERFORMANCE

At least three primary factors lead to engine-out accidents. Clearly, loss of
directional control deserves attention during multi-engine training.
However, two other elements play a significant part in generating hazards in
the engine-out environment, especially at low altitude—loss of climb
performance and loss of airspeed leading to a stall/spin situation. All of these
factors are interrelated. For example, in an effort to clear terrain after an
engine failure during takeoff, you could be tempted to increase your pitch
attitude to generate a climb, leading to a decrease in airspeed. This reduction
in airspeed could eventually lead to a stall, or to a loss of directional control if
the airplane’s speed falls below VMC.
Although controllability is an important issue, the degradation of
performance in an engine-out situation also has significant consequences.
A variety of factors affect both controllability and performance with one
engine inoperative, such as the airplane configuration, the flight conditions,
and your actions. In some cases, an element that provides an increase in
controllability, which translates to a decrease in VMC, actually hinders
performance.

Debunking Bank Beliefs

All men by nature desire to know. — Aristotle
The scientific method has long possessed the power to debunk popular
ideas. For example, the concept that time and motion were absolutes
was a widely held belief, which seemed to be unquestionably confirmed
by the success of Sir Isaac Newton’s physical principles. In one of the
most monumental turning points in the history of scientific pursuit, time
and motion would never be the same when Einstein and his theories of
relativity burst on to the scene, destroying the security of Newtonian
physics.
The beauty of the scientific method is that a theory is accepted on the
evidence obtained through observations and/or experiments that anyone
can reproduce. This means the results obtained using the scientific
method are repeatable. Another important characteristic of a scientific
theory is that it must be falsifiable—an experiment or possible discovery
must be possible that could prove the theory untrue.
In 1989, Melville R. Byington Jr., Associate Professor of Aeronautical
Science at Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, published the results
of his experiments, offering evidence to debunk the popular myth that 5°
was the optimum bank angle for zeroing the sideslip and achieving
maximum performance in engine-out operations. To determine the most
effective bank angle, Byington first formulated the hypothesis that the
commonly used 5° bank angle was inappropriate. Then, based on this
hypothesis, he made predictions about the performance and
controllability of light twin-engine airplanes at lesser bank angles.
To test his hypothesis, Byington obtained results from wind tunnel
experiments and performed his own flight trials with several different
makes and models of light twins. He attached a three-foot yaw string to
the nose of each airplane and created a bank indicator by combining a
protractor, plumb bob, and bubble level, which he mounted below the
glare shield. This indicator measured bank angle to 1/2 ° precision or
better. Byington conducted his experiments in smooth air. He used
constant power settings and base altitudes. By measuring altitude
change over two or three minute intervals at a steady airspeed, he
determined rates of climb for each airplane at varying bank angles.
Byington even took into account weight variations that occurred when
fuel was consumed.
Byington’s predictions were confirmed mathematically, and by both wind
tunnel and flight tests. The bank angle to achieve zero sideslip and best
performance was less than 5° in all the airplanes used in the
experiments. Byington not only produced evidence to confirm his
hypothesis, but his actions clearly illustrated how the scientific method is
used to discover something new and change prevailing attitudes.
WEIGHT
In terms of performance, it is beneficial to ensure your airplane is lightly
loaded. However, reduced weight does not translate to a decrease in VMC.
Wind tunnel tests have shown that as weight increases, VMC decreases
slightly. Why? Simple explanations seldom answer these aerodynamic
questions and normally a combination of factors are at work. However, one
explanation is related to the effect of the bank used to zero the sideslip. The
wings of a heavier airplane in stabilized flight generate more lift than those of
a lighter airplane. When you bank toward the operating engine to zero the
sideslip, the horizontal component of lift of a heavy airplane generates more
of a force than that of a light airplane. Therefore, VMC decreases. [Figure 3-
29]
 FIG03-029

Figure 3-29. The angles of bank and sideslip are exaggerated in this example,
showing the effect of increased weight on counteracting the sideslip when bank is
applied toward the operating engine.
Although VMC is lower at maximum weight than at a lesser weight, this does
not mean operating a heavily loaded airplane is safer. The climb performance
penalty on one engine can be severe at a heavy weight, with significant
consequences to flight safety. For example, in a high density altitude
situation, a light twin with full fuel and only one passenger might not be able
to climb after an engine failure. In fact, under these circumstances, you
might have trouble maintaining altitude or even holding a descent rate that
keeps your airplane at or above the glide path on an instrument approach.

CENTER OF GRAVITY
Because an airplane rotates around its center of gravity (CG), moments
are measured using the CG as a reference. An aft CG does not affect the
thrust moment, but does shorten the arm to the center of the rudder’s
horizontal lift. Therefore, in an engine-out situation, a higher airspeed is
necessary to generate the force required to counteract the yaw and roll. This
means that VMC increases with a shift in CG rearward, and decreases with a
CG located farther forward. [Figure 3-30]

FIG03-030

Figure 3-30. The moment produced by the operating engine’s thrust must be
balanced by the moment you create by deflecting the rudder.
The CG also plays a part in another aspect of engine-out controllability.
When the landing gear is extended, the CG is lowered, which provides a
stabilizing influence similar to that of the keel on a boat. This reduces the
effect of the yaw toward the inoperative engine and decreases VMC. However,
extended landing gear, as well as lowered flaps increase drag, therefore
degrading your airplane’s performance in an engine-out situation.

POWER
Another variable is the power output of the operating engine. If power is
decreased, the tendency for the airplane to yaw and roll toward the
inoperative engine is also decreased, lowering VMC. In addition, as altitude
and temperature increase, normally aspirated engines lose efficiency and are
unable to develop 100%-rated sea level power. This power loss also causes
VMC to decrease. However, any power reduction, whether the result of a
throttle setting or high density altitude, degrades airplane climb
performance.
Although actual VMC decreases with an increase in altitude, engine-out stall
speed remains the same for a given weight. Stalling speed and VMC eventually
converge. At a high density altitude, the airplane could reach stall speed
before reaching VMC. [Figure 3-31]

FIG03-031

Figure 3-31. Although actual VMC might be lower at a high altitude than that
published in the POH, you should not attempt to reduce speed below published VMC
with one engine inoperative. A stall on one engine can be extremely dangerous.

YOUR ACTIONS
In addition to the flight conditions and the airplane configuration, your
actions following an engine failure can affect controllability and
performance. For example, by not using the appropriate amount of bank into
the operating engine, you adversely affect both VMC and performance.
Remember, published VMC is predicated on the airplane banking not more
than 5° into the operating engine. If you do not establish an appropriate
bank, actual VMC can be significantly above the speed displayed on your
airspeed indicator. Performance also suffers greatly if you do not bank into
the operating engine.
Turning creates additional induced drag as you increase the angle of attack to
maintain altitude. Consequently, your engine-out climb performance suffers
in a turn. Because of the increased drag and decreased control effectiveness,
it is recommended that you use a maximum bank angle of 15° while
maneuvering on one engine, and then only after you have reached a safe
altitude. [Figure 3-32]

FIG03-032

Figure 3-32. Drag increases rapidly when you bank beyond 15°.
As pilot in command of a multi-engine airplane, you must make decisions
about balancing the need for controllability against your performance
requirements. For example, you are preparing to embark on a one-hour
training flight in a high density altitude situation. You know that your
airplane is unable to maintain altitude following an engine failure with full
fuel under the current conditions. Although a greater weight slightly
decreases VMC, you determine it is prudent to depart with the tanks only half
full to improve your performance if an engine were to fail.

THE END OF THE STORY?

The past is but the beginning of a beginning, and all that is and has been is
but the twilight of the dawn.
—H. G. Wells, The Discovery of the Future, 1901
It is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the
hope of today and reality of tomorrow.
—Robert H. Goddard
In the future, multi-engine aircraft designs only dreamed about today will
become reality. In the creation of innovative flight vehicles, researchers will
undoubtedly attempt to eliminate many of the undesirable aerodynamic
characteristics associated with engine failures. In the process, the dawn of a
new set of aerodynamic principles will be applied to multi-engine flight. By
learning not only the facts and figures associated with today’s multi-engine
airplanes, but also how to critically think about the aerodynamics involved
and by asking questions and searching for answers, you will be well prepared
to face the challenge of mastering the aerodynamics yet to come.

Principles of Flight — Engine Inoperative

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you
explain:
• The meaning of the term “critical engine”.
• The effects of density altitude on the VMC demonstration.
• The effects of airplane weight and center of gravity on control.
• The effects of angle of bank on VMC.
• The relationship of VMC to stall speed.
• The reasons for loss of directional control.
• Indications of loss of directional control.
• The importance of maintaining the proper pitch and bank attitude, and the
proper coordination of controls.
• Loss of directional control recovery procedure.
• Engine failure during takeoff including planning, decisions, and single-engine
operations.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
After an engine failure, yawing toward the inoperative engine is produced
by asymmetrical thrust and rolling is caused by the change in induced
flow, the windmilling propeller drag, and the yaw.
When an airplane is equipped with counterrotating propellers, neither
engine is considered critical.
VMC is the lowest speed at which the rudder control moment can equal the
moment of unbalanced thrust. When you are using full rudder pressure
and the airplane still yaws and rolls toward the dead engine, you have
allowed the airspeed to drop below VMC.
Published VMC is determined under specific criteria outlined in FAR
23.149. You find published VMC in your airplane’s POH and displayed on
the airspeed indicator by a red radial line.
The increase in equivalent parasite drag created by the windmilling
propeller can exceed the total drag of the rest of the airplane.
Feathering the propeller positions the propeller blades at such a high
angle that they are streamlined in the direction of flight. This causes the
blades to act as powerful brakes to assist engine friction and compression
in stopping the windmilling rotation of the propeller.
When you use rudder pressure to prevent yaw and roll toward the dead
engine, you inadvertently cause the airplane to slip toward that engine.
You can perform an experiment with a yaw string to prove the existence
of the sideslip. During a sideslip to the left, the relative wind causes the
yaw string to be displaced to the right.
A sideslip has several undesirable consequences. The relative wind
pushing against the vertical stabilizer adds to the yaw toward the
inoperative engine. The vertical stabilizer blocks some of the relative wind
from reaching the rudder. The airflow that reaches the rudder strikes this
control surface at a small angle.
Flight tests have shown that, in some airplanes, the sideslip can increase
actual VMC by 20 knots (at times above VYSE) and decrease engine-out
climb performance by several hundred feet per minute.
By banking toward the good engine in a zero sideslip attitude, you can
regain the controllability and performance that was lost when the airplane
was slipping.
Wind tunnel trials and flight tests have yielded outcomes consistent with
the mathematical calculations that resulted in bank angles of less than 5°
to achieve maximum engine-out performance.
To verify the bank angle that represents zero sideslip in your airplane,
perform your own experiment. By attaching a yaw string and then
simulating engine failure, you can bank until the string aligns with the
longitudinal axis of your airplane.
A variety of factors affect both controllability and performance with one
engine inoperative, such as the airplane configuration, the flight
conditions, and your actions.
As weight increases, VMC decreases slightly. When you bank toward the
operating engine to zero the sideslip, the horizontal component of lift on a
heavy airplane generates a greater force than that of a light airplane.
VMC increases with a shift in CG rearward and decreases with a CG located
farther forward.
Any power reduction on the operating engine, whether the result of a
throttle setting or high density altitude, has the positive effect of lowering
VMC, and the negative consequence of degrading airplane climb
performance.
Although actual VMC decreases with an increase in altitude, engine-out
stall speed remains the same for a given weight. At a high density altitude,
the airplane could reach stall speed before reaching VMC.
Because of the increased drag and decreased control effectiveness in
turns, it is recommended that you use a maximum bank angle of 15° while
 maneuvering on one engine, and then only after you have reached a safe
altitude.

KEY TERMS
Asymmetrical Thrust
Critical Engine
Counterrotating Propellers
Minimum Control Airspeed (VMC)
Windmilling Propeller
Feathering
Sideslip
Yaw String
Zero Sideslip
Controllability
Performance
Weight
Center of Gravity (CG)
Power

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the forces that cause the airplane to yaw and roll toward the
inoperative engine.
2.What does the term critical engine mean?
3.True/False. The right engine is critical in multi-engine airplanes that have
engine configurations in which both propellers turn clockwise.
4.Define minimum control airspeed (VMC).
5. Select the true statement about VMC.
A.The published VMC for your airplane is always greater than actual VMC.
B.Published VMC is the lowest speed at which you can lose directional control.
 C.Published VMC is only applicable if your airplane configuration and flight
conditions are the same as those stated in FAR 23.149.
6.How can you eliminate the effects of a windmilling propeller?
7. How can you detect an engine-out sideslip when you apply rudder
pressure to maintain directional control with level wings?
A.The sideslip cannot be easily detected without a yaw string.
B.The slip/skid indicator or ball in the inclinometer is deflected toward the
inoperative engine.
C.The airplane does not maintain a constant heading, rather gradually turns
toward the failed engine.
8.Explain four adverse consequences of the sideslip in terms of
performance and controllability.
9.In an engine-out situation, how can the sideslip be eliminated to improve
controllability and performance?
10.True/False. For most light twins, 5° of bank is the most effective angle to
zero the sideslip and achieve best engine-out performance.
11. Which factors lower VMC?
A.A decrease in weight and an aft CG
B.An increase in weight and an aft CG
C.An increase in weight and a forward CG
12. True/False. As altitude increases VMC decreases.
13. What is the recommended bank angle to use when performing turns with
one engine inoperative?
 PART II

Experience the
Adventure
Flyers have a sense of adventures yet to come,
instead of dimly recalling adventures of long ago
as the only moments in which they truly lived.
— Richard Bach, A Gift of Wings
 PART II

O
ne of most exciting aspects of being a pilot is
the anticipation of adventures yet to come.
Every certificate or rating that you aspire to
obtain opens up new opportunities for you as a pilot.
The multi-engine rating is no exception. Your newly-
acquired ability to fly a twin could lead you down the
career path of an airline pilot, or simply to a
mountaintop resort inaccessible to single-engine
aircraft. This exciting journey begins the minute you
initiate your multi-engine flight training. Performing
Maneuvers and Procedures explains how to expertly
perform the procedures and maneuvers necessary to
obtain your multi-engine rating. Insights into
common errors and tips to improve your performance
help you achieve proficiency. Mastering Engine-Out
Operations clearly guides you step-by-step through
engine-out procedures. Then, you explore
maneuvering on one engine and the challenge of
performing instrument operations in a twin. Finally,
practical examples serve to introduce methods to aid
you in making effective decisions.
 CHAPTER 4

Performing Maneuvers
and Procedures
Section A
Normal Operations
Section B
Maneuvers
SECTION A
Normal Operations
The length of debate about a flight maneuver is always inversely
proportional to the complexity of maneuver. Thus, if the flight maneuver is
simple enough, debate approaches infinity.
—Robert Livingston, Flying the Aeronca

T
he prospect of managing two engines and the corresponding
instruments might seem like a daunting task. But can you imagine
what it would be like to be the pilot of a B-52 Stratofortress? [Figure
4-1] The B-52 has eight engines, eight throttles, and eight sets of engine
instruments. It operates at speeds of up to 650 miles per hour and at
altitudes up to 50,000 feet. On top of managing the workload for all eight
engines on the Stratofortress, the crew of the B-52 is also responsible for
running successful strategic bombing and surveillance missions for the
United States Air Force.
 FIG04-001

Figure 4-1. The first production model of the B-52 came out of the factory in 1954,
and it is anticipated that the B-52’s life span will extend to 2045.
Although your job of flying a light twin-engine airplane is not as difficult as
flying the Stratofortress, your workload will increase at least twofold. You
need a firm understanding of the operating procedures and limitations of
your airplane, and must consistently adhere to the pilot’s operating
handbook (POH). Normal operations require efficient piloting skills, as well
as the timely use of checklists. Many of the maneuvers and procedures
covered in this section are similar to those you have previously practiced;
however, several techniques are unique to multi-engine operations.
As you learn how to operate a multi-engine airplane and to control it during
various phases of flight, you will find that it does not look or feel the same as
a single-engine airplane. You typically rely on certain visual cues to perform
a maneuver or procedure. For example, you might use a point on the cowling
or the wingtip as a reference to the horizon to maintain a specific attitude.
Because of the different structural design of a multi-engine airplane, the
same visual references might not be there or look the same as they did in a
single-engine airplane. Your airplane could have taller landing gear, a
sloping nose section, or other differences that appear awkward or unusual at
first. Take time to get acquainted with the airplane and the unique visual
perspectives prior to your initial training flight.
For your multi-engine check ride, the examiner will require you to perform
each maneuver to the tolerances in the multi-engine sections of the private or
commercial pilot practical test standards (PTS). The practical test standards
listed in this book are for commercial pilot applicants with any private pilot
differences included in parenthesis.

USING CHECKLISTS
With additional ratings or certificates, you might fly new aircraft that are
bigger, faster, and more complex. With additional complexity, the use of the
appropriate checklists for aircraft operation is even more essential.
Checklists provide a methodical means of verifying critical airplane
components before, during, and after every flight. As you advance in your
aviation experience, you will see a variety of checklists in various formats.
[Figure 4-2]
 FIG04-002

Figure 4-2. Regardless of the form in which it is displayed, you should use a
checklist for all operations from preflight to parking, especially when transitioning to
a multi-engine airplane.

Operation of Systems
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you exhibit
satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to the operation of systems on
the airplane provided for the flight test by explaining at least three of the
following systems:
• Primary flight controls and trim
• Flaps, leading edge devices, and spoilers
• Powerplant and propeller
• Landing gear
• Fuel, oil, and hydraulic
 • Electrical
• Avionics
• Pitot-static, vacuum/pressure, and associated flight instruments
• Environmental
• Deicing and anti-icing

A checklist must be easy to follow and cover the essential tasks. In light
general aviation aircraft, checklists are either laminated flip-chart style
documents, sections in the POH, or displayed on a glass-cockpit MFD. These
checklists cover each item to be checked and the appropriate action, such as
“Alternate air…OFF.” You can also find aftermarket checklists for general
aviation airplanes, as laminated documents or apps for your tablet computer
or smartphone. Aftermarket checklists are available for different makes and
models of airplane. Some of them include extra items that pilots often add to
their own checklists. However, it is essential that you ensure all required
tasks on the manufacturer’s checklist are covered on any checklist you decide
to use.
Larger aircraft might have unique types of checklists with which you need to
be familiar, such as challenge-and-response checklists, flow-pattern
checklists, and quick-reference handbooks (QRH). A challenge-and-
response checklist, also known as a challenge-do-verify (CDV) checklist,
includes each item that needs to be checked, along with the correct response
or action. Typically, one crewmember reads the checklist item while the
second crewmember performs the appropriate action and gives the correct
response. The first crewmember watches the action and listens to the
response to ensure that the specific checklist item is completed correctly.
Sometimes the checklist procedure can be done by a sequential method,
called a flow check, in order to accomplish listed items in a timely and
efficient manner. When performing a flow check, you move from one part of
the cockpit to another through related instruments and equipment, with
checklist items being completed in a pattern. Electronic checklists are
common in larger aircraft as well, displayed on electronic flight bags (EFBs)
or integrated into the glass cockpit displays of next-generation transport
airplanes. [Figure 4-3]
 FIG04-003

Figure 4-3. Effective checklist use becomes even more important on large airplanes
with complex systems.

PREFLIGHT INSPECTION
Prior to your initial training flight in a multi-engine airplane, review the POH
to familiarize yourself with the airplane and its systems, equipment,
performance data, and V-speeds. At first you might be overwhelmed by the
additional instruments, gauges, and controls compared to those on single-
engine airplanes. Spend time in the airplane on the ground with the POH in
hand to learn the location of equipment and to familiarize yourself with
system operations. This inexpensive time in the cockpit is a great way to
become acquainted with a new airplane. Familiarizing yourself with the
airplane before starting the engines can dramatically increase the
effectiveness of your flight lessons.
During your first preflight inspection, your flight instructor will point out
what’s different on your twin trainer. The airplane might have cowl flaps,
retractable landing gear, and a T-tail that requires a ladder to inspect. If the
airplane has a hydraulic reservoir, you need to know how to check and fill it
to ensure that the landing gear operates properly. The POH often includes
diagrams with the checklists to show the complete preflight procedure.
Preflight preparation includes more than just a thorough visual inspection of
the airplane. You must check the weather, airport conditions, weight and
balance, and airplane performance prior to each flight. With the increased
weight and carrying capacity of a multi-engine airplane, it is extremely
important that you check all performance data. You must know and
understand the V-speeds and performance of your aircraft.

Preflight Inspection
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to preflight inspection.
This shall include which items must be inspected, the reasons for checking
each item, and how to detect possible defects.
• Inspect the airplane with reference to an appropriate checklist.
• Verify that the airplane is in condition for safe flight.

Cockpit Management
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to cockpit management
procedures.
 • Ensure that all loose items in the cockpit and cabin are secured.
• Organize material and equipment in an efficient manner so that they are
readily available.
• Brief occupants on the use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses, doors, and
emergency procedures.

As pilot in command, you are responsible for the safety of every flight, and
you must make decisions regarding inoperative equipment. FAR Part 91.213
describes the requirements for operating with inoperative instruments and
equipment with and without a minimum equipment list. Typically found in
larger airplanes, a minimum equipment list (MEL) contains provisions
for flight with inoperative equipment in a specific airplane identified by the
serial and registration number. The MEL is compiled by an operator, and is
based on a master MEL developed by the FAA for an aircraft type. The MEL
for a specific airplane is approved by the FAA, who then issues a letter of
authorization (LOA). Together, the MEL and LOA constitute a supplemental
type certificate (STC). An STC is issued for a modification that affects the
initial aircraft certification and the MEL affects the aircraft’s original
equipment list.

The Birth of Checklists

A tragic accident in 1935 left two dead and three others

seriously burned. For the Boeing Company, it looked
like the end of the line for the Boeing 299 as the
contract to build almost 200 bomber aircraft for the U.S.
Army was given to the Douglas Aircraft Company in the
wake of the accident. Air Corps officers persuaded the
U.S. Army Air Corps to give the 299 one more chance.
The 299 was supposed to be, by design, an airplane superior to the
others in the race. Under intense scrutiny from the government, twelve
299s were delivered to Langley Field in Virginia, where they were to be
flown in a series of test flights. Any further incidents with the 299 would
end any hope for the airplane to be produced for the military.
The pilots assigned to this seemingly dangerous mission knew that the
airplane had been criticized as one that was too much for any one man
 to fly. The accident in 1935 had actually been the result of an error by a
test pilot, untrained on the 299, who forgot to release the elevator lock,
causing the airplane to stall and crash. As a group, the pilots designed
four checklists, one each for takeoff, flight, before landing, and after
landing, to ensure that every piece of equipment was checked and
nothing forgotten.
In the end, over 12,000 orders were placed for the Boeing 299. The
airplane, better known as the B-17 Flying Fortress, served the United
States during World War II, and emerged from battle a distinguished
bomber. Much of its success was due to the ingenuity of the pilots who
created the checklists for the airplane, enabling safe and efficient
operation of the B-17. Since that time, checklists have been developed
for aircraft around the world and are a part of daily flight operations for
student and airline pilots alike. In fact, if you desire a flight certificate or
rating, the practical test standards require that you complete the
checklists appropriate for each phase of flight.

The MEL delineates the equipment that is allowed to be inoperative based on

the conditions of a particular flight. It also provides for equipment repairs to
be deferred until a later point in time. As pilot in command, you must make
appropriate entries regarding the inoperative equipment in the aircraft
logbooks, including the name of the equipment, identification code, and the
maintenance deferral time allowed. [Figure 4-4]
 FIG04-004

Figure 4-4. If your airplane has an MEL, use it to determine whether you may fly
with inoperative equipment.
If your airplane does not have an MEL, refer to FAR 91.213 for the
requirements you must meet to fly with inoperative equipment. You may
obtain a special flight permit (also known as a ferry permit) if you are moving
an aircraft for maintenance or storage or delivering an aircraft to a buyer. For
routine flights, you must determine if your airplane is airworthy with the
inoperative equipment.
Your airplane might have a kinds of operations equipment list
(KOEL). This list contains all originally installed equipment, and outlines
the equipment that must be operational for different flight conditions. The
requirements for operation of the equipment shown on the list are typically
based on Part 91 regulations. The aircraft manufacturer provides a KOEL in
the POH and the format of the list varies greatly between manufacturers. The
information included is part of the original certification of the airplane. In
addition to the checking the KOEL, you must verify that the inoperative
equipment is not required by the type certificate, regulations, or an
airworthiness directive. [Figure 4-5]
 FIG04-005

Figure 4-5. If you discover inoperative instruments or equipment during your

preflight inspection, follow these steps to determine if your airplane is airworthy
 Airworthiness Requirements
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you exhibit
satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to airworthiness requirements
by:
• Explaining the required instruments and equipment for day and night VFR.
• Explaining the procedures and limitations for determining airworthiness of the
airplane with inoperative instruments and equipment with and without an MEL.
• Explaining the requirements and procedures for obtaining a special flight
permit.
• Locating and explaining airworthiness directives and compliance records.
• Explaining maintenance and inspection requirements.
• Explaining appropriate record keeping.

GROUND OPERATIONS
The engine starting, taxiing, and before-takeoff check for your training
airplane includes procedures that are new to you as you transition to a multi-
engine airplane. Always follow the checklists and procedures as
recommended by the manufacturer for the type of airplane being flown.

Runway Incursion Avoidance

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you exhibit
knowledge of the elements of runway incursion avoidance by:
• Handling the distinct challenges and requirements during taxi operations not
found in other phases of flight operations.
• Exhibiting procedures for appropriate cockpit activities during taxiing including
taxi route planning, briefing the location of hot spots, communicating and
coordinating with ATC.
• Exhibiting procedures for steering, maneuvering, maintaining taxiway, runway
position, and situational awareness.
• Knowing the relevance/importance of hold lines.
• Exhibiting procedures to ensure the pilot maintains strict focus to the
movement of the aircraft and ATC communications, including the elimination of
 all distractive activities (i.e. cell phone, texting, conversations with passengers)
during aircraft taxi, takeoff and climb out to cruise altitude.
• Utilizing procedures for holding the pilot’s workload to a minimum during taxi
operations.
• Utilizing taxi operation planning procedures, such as recording taxi
instructions, reading back taxi clearances, and reviewing taxi routes on the
airport diagram.
• Utilizing procedures to insure that clearance or instructions that are actually
received are adhered to rather than the ones expected to be received.
• Utilizing procedures to maintain/enhance situational awareness when
conducting taxi operations in relation to other aircraft operations in the vicinity
as well as to other vehicles moving on the airport.
• Exhibiting procedures for briefing if a landing rollout to a taxiway exit will place
the pilot in close proximity to another runway which can result in a runway
incursion.
• Conducting appropriate after landing/taxi procedures in the event the aircraft is
on a taxiway that is between parallel runways.
• Knowing specific procedures for operations at an airport with an operating air
traffic control tower, with emphasis on ATC communications and runway
entry/crossing authorizations.
• Utilizing ATC communications and pilot actions before takeoff, before landing,
and after landing at towered and non-towered airports.
• Knowing procedures unique to night operations.
• Knowing operations at non-towered airports.
• Knowing the use of aircraft exterior lighting.
• Knowing the hazards of low-visibility operations.

ENGINE STARTING
On a multi-engine airplane, you start one engine before the other and switch
that engine’s alternator on to assist in starting the other engine. The
manufacturer might specify in the POH which engine to start first.
Otherwise, start the engine that is closest to the battery or as directed by your
flight instructor. Follow the correct checklist; look for cold weather, hot start,
and flooded-engine starting procedures in the POH.
 Engine Starting
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
•Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to recommended engine starting
procedures. This shall include the use of an external power source, and
starting under various atmospheric conditions.
• Explain how to use an external power source, and how to start the engine
under various atmospheric conditions.
• Position the airplane properly considering structures, surface conditions, other
aircraft, and the safety of nearby persons and property.
• Utilize the appropriate checklist for the starting procedure.

After the engines are running, pay attention to the positions of the throttle,
propeller, and mixture control handles. Although the engine controls should
match each other, it is not uncommon for a split to develop between the two
throttle, propeller, and mixture controls.

TAXIING
Compared to a single-engine airplane, you might initially find taxiing a
multi-engine airplane more challenging; you have to add more power to get a
heavy airplane moving and you might find it takes more effort to slow the
airplane down after it is moving. Test the brakes immediately after the
airplane begins to move. If you find any malfunction of the brake system,
shut down the engines and have the brakes checked by a maintenance
technician.
The preferred method of taxiing a multi-engine airplane is to steer with the
nosewheel and assist the turns with differential thrust—increasing the
power on one engine relative to the other engine. Do not use differential
thrust as your primary means of directional control, but instead use it to
decrease the turning radius, and to counteract crosswinds. Increasing thrust
on one engine counteracts crosswinds similar to control deflection. [Figure
4-6]
 FIG04-006

Figure 4-6. You can use differential thrust to assist in turning and to counter
crosswinds when taxiing a multi-engine airplane.

Taxiing
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to safe taxi procedures
at towered and non-towered airports.
• Perform a brake check immediately after the airplane begins moving.
• Position the flight controls properly for the existing wind conditions.
• Control direction and speed without excessive use of brakes.
• Demonstrate proper procedures for steering, maneuvering, maintaining
taxiway, runway position, and situational awareness to avoid runway
incursions.
• Properly position the aircraft relative to hold lines.
• Demonstrate proper procedures to ensure clearances and instructions are
received, recorded, and read back correctly.
• Demonstrate situational awareness and proper taxi procedures when the
aircraft is on a taxiway that is between parallel runways.
• Use a taxi chart during taxi.
 • Comply with airport and taxiway markings, signals, and ATC clearances and
instructions.
• Utilize procedures that eliminate pilot distractions.
• Taxi to avoid other aircraft, vehicles, and hazards.

You can also use differential braking to help steer a light twin during taxi, but
should use the minimum possible braking to avoid excessive wear on the
brakes. Also, you should avoid the combination of braking and thrust to pivot
the airplane around a stationary inboard wheel and landing gear—the
airplane is not designed to take this kind of abuse.

BEFORE-TAKEOFF CHECK
Check each aircraft system using the manufacturer’s checklist during the
before-takeoff check. If you have flown a single-engine airplane, most of
these items are familiar. New items include propeller feather checks and fuel
crossfeed system checks. To check the crossfeed, you normally operate the
engines in crossfeed during a portion of your ground operations as
recommended in the POH. The feather check ensures that each propeller is
working properly and that it can be feathered. Proper feathering is vital to
the performance of the airplane if an engine fails. [Figure 4-7]
 FIG04-007

Figure 4-7. Conduct a feather check to ensure that each propeller is working
correctly and that it can be feathered.

Before-Takeoff Check
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to the before takeoff
check. This shall include the reasons for checking each item and how to detect
malfunctions.
• Position the airplane properly considering other aircraft, and wind and surface
conditions.
• Divide attention inside and outside the cockpit.
• Ensure that the engine temperatures and pressure are suitable for run-up and
takeoff.
 • Accomplish the before takeoff checklist and ensure that the airplane is in safe
operating condition.
• Review takeoff performance airspeeds, takeoff distances, and departure and
emergency procedures.
• Avoid runway incursions and ensure there is no conflict with traffic prior to
taxiing into the takeoff position.

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

Prior to taxiing onto the runway, complete a takeoff briefing. Talk through
the various emergency scenarios that could occur during takeoff, what action
you will take in each situation, and who will take control of the airplane.
Based on the information in the POH, you should know how the airplane
should perform, and what to do if the plane does not perform as expected.
You should know the runway length required for takeoff, and what point on
the runway corresponds to that distance.
After takeoff, it is important to gain altitude as quickly as possible because
altitude is a safety net if an engine fails. During takeoff and climb, fly the
airplane at VY to achieve the best rate of climb. At VY, you are already at or
above VYSE; if an engine fails you can gain the maximum possible altitude
during your climb. Any speed above or below VY reduces your rate of climb. A
normal climb in a multi-engine airplane is at a steeper pitch angle than you
might be accustomed to. However, because altitude is more useful than
excess airspeed if an engine fails, you should maintain that high climb angle
until you are at a safe single-engine maneuvering altitude, and then you can
transition to a lower enroute climb attitude. [Figure 4-8]
 FIG04-008

Figure 4-8. Rotating at the optimal airspeed and maintaining best rate-of-climb
airspeed is important to quickly gain altitude after takeoff.
Prior to entering the runway, complete a thorough takeoff briefing to
review loss-of-engine procedures.
 Align the airplane with the centerline of the runway and bring the airplane
to a complete stop. As you apply power, check the instruments and engine
gauges. Be aware of uneven thrust production from the engines.
Accelerate to VR, rotate, and continue accelerating to VLOF (POH liftoff
speed or VMC +5).
After establishing a positive rate of climb, retract the landing gear.

Retract the gear promptly after establishing a positive rate of climb. This
significantly reduces the drag, which becomes critical if an engine fails. If
an engine failure were to occur after takeoff, your single-engine rate of
climb would be noticeably increased with the gear retracted.

Retract the flaps as specified by the manufacturer.

Adjust the pitch attitude of the airplane to climb at VY.
 After reaching a safe altitude, reduce power, adjust the propellers, and
turn off the fuel pumps individually as specified in the after-takeoff or climb
checklist. Synchronize the propellers to eliminate the pulsating sound.

Turn off the electric fuel pumps one at a time so you can monitor each
engine separately and determine if an engine-driven pump has failed. If
an engine falters, you can quickly turn the electric pump back on.

Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Utilize procedures before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area to ensure
runway incursion avoidance. Verify ATC clearance/no aircraft on final at non-
towered airports before entering the runway, and ensure that the aircraft is on
the correct takeoff runway.
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to a normal and
crosswind takeoff, climb operations, and rejected takeoff procedures.
• Ascertain wind direction with or without visible wind direction indicators.
• Calculate the crosswind component and determining whether it is above your
ability or the aircraft’s capability.
• Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions.
• Clear the area, taxi onto the takeoff surface and align the airplane on the
runway centerline.
• Advance the throttles smoothly to takeoff power.
• Lift off at the recommended airspeed and accelerate to VY.
• Establish a pitch attitude that will maintain VY ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5
knots).
• Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps after a positive rate of climb
is established.
• Maintain takeoff power and VY ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots) to a safe
maneuvering altitude.
• Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the
takeoff and climb.
• Comply with noise abatement procedures.
 • Complete the appropriate checklists.

PROPELLER SYNCHRONIZATION
If the two engines are not turning at exactly the same rpm, the propellers
produce a a distracting pulsating sound. You must perform a propeller
synchronization to eliminate this pulsating. Take care of this as soon as
possible after making your initial power reduction during climb. To
synchronize the propellers:
1. Set the rpm on both engines to the desired (and the same) rpm using the
tachometers.
2. Slowly adjust one propeller control to decrease the sound until the
pulsating stops. If the pulsating noise increases, move the propeller control
in the opposite direction.
When the pulsing sound stops, the propellers are synchronized. You will
observe that the propeller levers are probably not in the exact same position.
This situation occurs because the propeller control cables are rarely the exact
same length. The “split lever” condition is not a problem—just use the
tachometers and engine sounds to adjust the propellers, and do not rely on
the positions of the levers.
You might have to readjust the propellers again when making further power
adjustments, or they might simply drift out of synchronization. Out-of-sync
propellers are not a safety hazard, but they can be distracting. Synchronizing
the propellers creates a more comfortable flight environment for your
passengers, your flight instructor, and yourself.
Some multi-engine airplanes have automatic propeller synchronizer systems.
If your airplane has an automatic system, you typically turn on a switch after
roughly matching the rpm of both engines. Your POH describes how to
operate the system, when it must be turned off, and the appropriate
procedure for a system failure.

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

A short-field takeoff and maximum-performance climb is a
maximum performance maneuver that enables the airplane to take off from a
short runway and clear obstacles at the departure end of the runway. Review
the procedure for a short-field takeoff and climb procedure in the POH, and
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations when performing this type of
takeoff. Maintain precise control over the airspeed during the takeoff, and
never allow the airspeed to deviate above or below the recommended
airspeed.
To prepare for a short-field takeoff, set the flaps as recommended by the
manufacturer and taxi onto the runway, aligning the airplane with the
centerline and using all available runway.

Hold the brakes and apply full power. Release the brakes when the engines
are developing full power. Begin the takeoff roll with the elevator held in a
neutral position.
Apply back pressure to the elevator control and rotate at the recommended
speed. The airplane should lift off at VLOF or at no less than VMC plus 5 knots.
Never allow the airplane to become airborne at an airspeed less than VMC.
Establish a positive rate of climb and accelerate to VX. Retract the landing
gear as soon as a positive rate of climb is established. Maintain VX until
reaching at least 50 feet AGL or until all obstacles in the flight path are
cleared.
After all the obstacles have been cleared, accelerate to VY and retract the
flaps in increments to avoid a sudden loss of lift.
 Establish a cruise climb at the appropriate altitude. Complete the after-
takeoff or climb checklist and set the power for enroute climb.

When adjusting the power on engines with constant-speed propellers,

remember to adjust the controls in the proper sequence. To increase
power, push the mixtures forward, then the propellers, and finally the
throttles. To decrease power, reverse the sequence—pull back the
throttles, then the propellers, and finally, the mixtures.

Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum-Performance

Climb
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Utilize procedures before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area to ensure
runway incursion avoidance. Verify ATC clearance/no aircraft on final at non-
towered airports before entering the runway, and ensure that the aircraft is on
the correct takeoff runway.
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to a short-field takeoff
and maximum performance climb.
• Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions and set the flaps as
recommended.
• Clear the area and taxi into the takeoff position utilizing maximum available
takeoff area and align the airplane on the runway centerline.
• Apply brakes (if appropriate) while advancing the throttles smoothly to takeoff
power.
• Rotate and lift off at the recommended airspeed and accelerate to the
recommended obstacle clearance airspeed, or VX .
• Establish a pitch attitude that will maintain the recommended obstacle
clearance airspeed, or VX , +5/−0 knots, (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots) until the
obstacle is cleared, or until the airplane is 50 feet above the surface.
• After clearing the obstacle, establish the pitch attitude for VY , accelerate to VY
, and maintain VY , ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots), during the climb.
• Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps after clear of any obstacles
or as recommended by manufacturer.
 • Maintain takeoff power and VY ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots) to a safe
maneuvering altitude.
• Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the
takeoff and climb.
• Complete the appropriate checklists.

CRUISE AND DESCENT

The POH contains cruise and descent checklists, performance charts for
specific cruise configurations, and descent charts that provide the fuel, time,
and distance required to descend. Review this information prior to the
departure so you know what to expect of your airplane during cruise and
descent.

CRUISE
After you reach the desired cruise altitude, reconfigure the airplane for
optimum cruise performance. The POH includes a cruise checklist and
information about performance configurations. Adjust the throttles,
propellers, and mixtures according to the desired performance for the
specific altitude and outside air temperature.
Pay attention to your fuel situation during cruise. In many light twins, it is
necessary to trade fuel for payload during preflight preparation and you
might be operating with a tighter reserve than you are accustomed to. In
light twins with only one fuel tank for each engine, the fuel management is
not complicated. Each engine burns fuel from its own tank and there is no
switching tanks during the flight. However, if the airplane has additional
tanks, such as tip tanks or fuselage tanks, the manufacturer might require
that you use the fuel from certain tanks first and complete the flight on other
tanks.

DESCENT
Because of the speed and altitude at which twin-engine airplanes operate,
you must effectively conduct descent planning. The combination of speed
and weight create more momentum than what you have previously
experienced. A stabilized descent doesn’t happen by accident; if you set the
power and trim properly, you will hardly need to touch the controls to
maintain the appropriate descent path. Excessive corrections or control
inputs are a sign that you did not plan the descent properly.
As part of your flight planning, calculate the time, fuel, and distance required
to descend from your cruising altitude to the traffic pattern altitude before
reaching your destination airport. [See Figure 2-93 in Chapter 2] In order to
plan your descent, you need to know your cruise altitude, destination pattern
altitude, descent groundspeed, and descent rate.
Update this information while in flight for changes in altitude, weather, and
winds, and then calculate the distance from your destination to begin your
descent. It is desirable to reach traffic pattern altitude before you reach the
airport, so that you can slow down and join the flow of traffic. Therefore, you
might start your descent a few miles earlier than the calculated distance for
the descent. [Figure 4-9]
 FIG04-009

Figure 4-9. Plan your descent to arrive at traffic pattern altitude before reaching the
airport, and allow that your groundspeed might increase while descending.

Experienced pilots often use rules of thumb to determine where to begin

their descent. Pilots of high-performance pressurized airplanes might
use a 3-to-1 rule. For every 1,000 feet of altitude, they start their descent
3 miles out. If descending 20,000 feet, they would start 60 miles away.
Pilots of non-pressurized airplanes need lower descent rates for
passenger comfort. At 500 ft/min, a light twin descending at 150 knots
(2½ miles/min) could use a 5-to-1 rule. Likewise, a pilot descending at
180 knots (3 miles/min) could use a 6-to-1 rule.
Most GPS systems can help you with descent planning. These systems use
your altitude, groundspeed, and destination altitude to compute a vertical
speed required (VSR), and mark a top of descent (TOD) on your moving
map. Because the GPS bases its calculations on the groundspeed you are
maintaining during cruise, you might have to start your descent before
reaching the system-calculated TOD, or increase your vertical speed to keep
up with your descent profile, if your groundspeed increases in the descent.
[Figure 4-10].
 FIG04-010

Figure 4-10. Many GPS systems, like this Garmin flight deck, automate descent
planning and provide navigation indications to guide your descent.
 Extreme Advance Planning
The Space Shuttle typically began preparation for landing at
557,000 feet MSL—over 100 miles above the Earth’s surface.
At about 260,000 feet, the shuttle entered a complete communications
blackout that lasted until it reached an altitude of 162,000 feet. By the
time the shuttle descended to an altitude of 83,000 feet, it was 53 miles
from the touchdown airport and streaking across the sky at Mach 2.5. It
turned to final at 25,000 feet, and during the descent on final, the shuttle
slowed to about 290 knots as it reached 10,000 feet. At this point, it was
descending at 10,000 feet per minute, and was 7 miles from the runway.
The before-landing checks include putting the gear down and
establishing a shallow 1.5° glide path. The shuttle pilot began the flare
for landing at 80 feet above the ground, reducing the rate of descent to 9
feet per second. The touchdown was at 190 knots, and a chute was
deployed 2,500 feet down the runway to aid in braking.

APPROACH AND LANDING

An approach and landing in a light twin employs the same stabilized
powered approach techniques that you learned in a single-engine airplane.
Establish the appropriate power settings prior to entering the pattern, and fly
a standard traffic pattern. After the power is set, the drag associated with the
flaps and gear slows the airplane to pattern airspeed and allows you to make
the approach with minimal power adjustments. You might have to adjust
your pattern and airspeed for slower traffic in the pattern. Always follow the
recommended procedure and airspeeds outlined in the POH, and remember,
at no time should you allow the airspeed to fall below the critical engine-out
minimum control speed (VMC).

Establish the airspeed recommended by the manufacturer prior to

entering the traffic pattern. This enables you to make a stabilized, power-on
approach to landing with only minor adjustments throughout the approach.
Maintain the recommended airspeeds throughout the entire approach and
landing.

Due to the airplane’s weight and speed, it takes effective planning on

your part to slow the airplane. Also, you might have to give way to other
aircraft in the pattern, requiring you to decrease your speed to
accommodate slower airplanes. This could require flying in a slow flight
configuration in the pattern.
 On the downwind leg, ensure that the before-landing checklist is
completed and extend the gear and initial flaps according to the POH. Make
sure you are using the correct pattern speed and adjust it as necessary for
other traffic in the pattern.

When extending the gear, remember to do a three-green check to

ensure that you do not land with your gear up. Check for three green
lights after initial extension, check it a second time as part of your check
on base, and the third time as part of the “centerline check” on final.

After completing the turn to the base leg, extend the flaps to the
intermediate setting, or as recommended by the manufacturer. Crosscheck
your altitude, airspeed, and rate of descent.

GUMPS is widely used as an acronym for a verbal checklist to verify

important tasks prior to landing. Finish your GUMPS check as you turn
base: Gas — fuel selectors set and fuel pumps on; Undercarriage—
landing gear down and locked; Mixtures — full rich; Propellers — high
rpm; Safety belts — fastened.

On final, add full flaps, or as recommended by the manufacturer. Maintain

the final approach speed and rate of descent, and check that the landing gear
is down and locked (three green lights). Crosscheck your position with your
aim point to ensure landing at the desired position.

You normally correct for crosswind in a multi-engine airplane using a

combination of the crab method and the wing-low method. Your
familiarity and experience with the airplane determines when you
transition to the wing-low sideslip. If you are experienced and skilled with
the airplane, you can get out of the crab just prior to touchdown—
otherwise, give yourself more time to align the airplane axis with the
runway and stabilize the flight path. However, to avoid fuel starvation, do
not exceed manufacturer time limitations for side-slips.
 Prior to touchdown, gently reduce the power to idle, then allow the
airplane to settle onto the runway, using rudder and nosewheel steering to
maintain the centerline. Apply brakes if necessary to slow the airplane.

Decrease the throttles in a consistent, even manner to avoid unwanted

yawing due to uneven thrust. Avoid quick or sudden power reductions.
The loss of induced flow could cause a high sink rate and a hard landing.

Because of the risk of inadvertently retracting the landing gear on the

ground, the FAA advises not to retract the flaps until bringing the
airplane to a halt clear of the active runway, unless you have a clear
operational need to retract the flaps, such as a requirement to apply
maximum braking effort.

Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to a normal and
crosswind approach and landing with emphasis on proper use and
coordination of flight controls.
• Consider the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and select a
suitable touchdown point.
• Establish the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed,
and adjusts pitch attitude and power as required.
• Maintain a stabilized approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence,
not more than 1.3 VSO, ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots), with the wind
gust factor applied.
• Make smooth, timely, and correct control applications during the roundout and
touchdown.
• Touch down smoothly at approximate stalling speed.
• Touch down within the first one-third of the available runway within 200 feet
beyond a specified point, with no drift, and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis
aligned with and over the runway centerline.
• Maintain crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach
and landing sequence.
• Execute a timely go-around decision when the approach cannot be made
within these tolerances.
• Utilize after-landing runway incursion avoidance procedures.
• Complete the appropriate checklists.

Cal l Sign—“Shoe”
Interview with . . .
Captain Scott Schoeman, USMC
F-18 Hornet Pilot
Capt. Schoeman, call sign “Shoe”, is a Marine
Corps pilot who flies an F-18 assigned to a
naval aircraft carrier. As a fighter pilot, he is
required to perform incredibly stressful tasks
under extenuating circumstances with the
utmost precision. His job includes taking off
and landing on a short, moving runway, any
time of the day or night, in calm or rough seas.
Here is what he had to say . . .
On the carrier . . .
The carrier itself is about 1,060 feet long. However, the landing area is
only about 700 feet long, and the four wires (arresting cables) only
cover about 120 feet of the area, with a rollout area of 300 feet after
arrestment [by the cables]. The additional few feet are in front of the
one wire (so we have a little space to pass over the deck without hitting
the ramp). Ideally, the aircraft [tail]hook will pass 14 feet over the ramp
and touch down about 230 feet down the landing area, catching the
[number] three wire.
On the approach and landing . . .
[The] approach angle at touchdown both day and night: 3.5 degrees
under normal weather conditions—no flare—this equates to about an
800 foot per minute descent rate at touchdown. Hornets fly the
approach at about 155 -165 miles per hour depending on the gross
weight [of the airplane], which the pilot calculates while airborne. The
pilot is responsible for dumping fuel if necessary to comply with
appropriate arrestment weights to accommodate weapons load
configurations. We fly with different loadouts nearly every flight, so our
weight is a constant factor. [On the approach, we] continuously
evaluate the fuel state. This is critical because you must know the
maximum fuel state permissible with your configuration, but you must
also know the fuel for an emergency bingo (a situation where a low fuel
state would require landing or being vectored to a refueling tanker) if
available, as well as several different tanker numbers to determine your
priority of airborne tanking (refueling) in relation to other airborne
aircraft.
On the bolter . . .
Missing the cables is called a ‘bolter’ and everyone does it once in a
while. That is why it is procedure to always go to full power at
touchdown in case you miss the wires. ‘Boltering’ with a long landing is
much safer than smacking the front of the ship, so goes the saying,
‘take your bolter like a man’.
On stress . . .
After gaining experience, day carrier landings become fairly fun. But it
is always a hazardous environment. Night landings are extremely
stressful both mentally and physically. In fact, heart rate studies have
shown stress levels on some night landings rivaling that of intense
combat itself.
On rough water landings . . .
Rough water can result in many phenomena—pitch, roll, heave, and
dutch roll—all of which can drastically affect landings. The LSO
(Landing Signal Officer) plays a gigantic role in getting the aircraft
aboard with difficult water states. The goal of the pilot is to fly a
consistent glide slope and approach and time his landing with the ship,
[and] if things get completely out of whack, go around and try again.
Hard landings, lineup issues, and extreme deviations from the glide
slope or lineup are the common challenges that are critical to safe
recovery.
On his job . . .
[Being in the military, serving his country, being a fighter pilot]—It’s the
greatest job in the world.
SHORT-FIELD APPROACH AND LANDING
A short-field approach and landing requires maneuvering your multi-
engine airplane over an obstacle and landing using the shortest possible
length of runway. Not all multi-engine POHs include short-field landing
procedures, and those that do generally specify the same procedure as a
normal landing with a slight reduction in airspeed. If a short-field procedure
is not published, then use the normal approach and landing airspeed—never
operate an airplane contrary to procedures in the POH. A short-field
approach and landing requires utilizing full flaps, flying a stabilized approach
with precise airspeed control, and utilizing a steeper-than-normal descent
angle.

Make sure that the before-landing checklist is completed. Plan ahead to

make a slightly higher approach than normal to ensure that you clear any
obstacles on the approach path.
 Extend flaps as recommended in the POH and establish a constant
airspeed and rate of descent for the final approach.
Maintain a constant power setting until the flare, and then close the
throttles smoothly. Touch down within 100 feet of the landing point, with
little or no float.

Plan your approach to avoid large power reductions after clearing the
obstacle. The sudden loss of induced flow could lead to a high sink rate
and a hard landing.

After you complete the landing, maintain elevator back pressure, apply
brakes as necessary, and retract the flaps as required.

If the runway length permits, leave the wing flaps alone until the airplane
has been stopped clear of the runway. You should retract the flaps
during the landing rollout only if maximum braking effort is needed.
Ensure that you positively identify the flap handle before moving it to
avoid inadvertently retracting the landing gear.

Short-Field Approach and Landing

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to a short-field
approach and landing.
• Consider the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and select the
most suitable touchdown point.
• Establish the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed
and adjust pitch attitude and power as required.
• Maintain a stabilized approach and recommended approach airspeed, or in its
absence, not more than 1.3 VSO, ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots), with
wind gust factor applied.
• Make smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and
touchdown.
• Touch down smoothly at minimum control airspeed.
 • Touch down at or within 100 feet (*Private Pilot — 200 feet) beyond a
specified point, with no side drift, minimum float, and with the air plane’s
longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway centerline.
• Maintain crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach
and landing sequence.
• Execute a timely go-around decision when the approach cannot be made
within these tolerances
• Apply brakes as necessary to stop in the shortest distance consistent with
safety.
• Utilize after-landing runway incursion avoidance procedures
• Complete the appropriate checklists.

GO-AROUND
The go-around procedure, also referred to as a rejected landing, allows
you to break off an approach to land at any time, for any reason. You initiate
a go-around when you believe landing would be unsafe due to wake
turbulence, aircraft on the runway, procedures performed badly, poorly
executed approaches, or any other situation you consider hazardous. You
should make and decisively implement the decision to go around as soon as
you become aware of a hazardous situation.
Your flight instructor will probably have you practice go-arounds at altitude
before you conduct them in a multi-engine airplane in the pattern. At
altitude, you can focus on handling the airplane without the distractions of
the pattern environment and conflicting traffic. Review the go-around
procedures in the POH before practicing the maneuver in the airplane.
Apply full power immediately upon making the decision to go around.
Retract the flaps partially, or as recommended by the manufacturer. Do not
allow the airspeed to fall below VMC or VYSE.

Approach and landing procedures typically call for the mixture and
propeller controls to be full forward. Having the controls in this position
prepares the engines to quickly provide go-around power.

If your light twin does not have counter-rotating propellers, expect to

have to step hard on the right rudder pedal when adding go-around
power.
 Establish a positive rate of climb and retract the landing gear as instructed
in the POH. Trim the airplane to relieve control pressures. It is essential that
you establish a positive rate of climb and reduce drag as quickly as possible.

In order to avoid conflicting traffic during a go-around, turn to the non-

pattern side of the runway and fly parallel to the runway.

After you have cleared all obstacles, retract any remaining flaps and
accelerate to VY. When you reach a safe altitude, reconfigure the airplane for
a cruise climb and complete the appropriate checklists.

Go-Around/Rejected Landing
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to a go-around/rejected
landing with emphasis on factors that contribute to landing conditions that may
require a go-around.
• Make a timely decision to discontinue the approach to landing.
• Apply takeoff power immediately and transition to climb pitch attitude for VY
and maintain VY ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots).
• Retract the flaps as appropriate.
• Retract the landing gear if appropriate after a positive rate of climb is
established.
• Maneuver to the side of the runway to clear and avoid conflicting traffic.
• Maintain takeoff power and VY ±5 knots (*Private Pilot +10/−5 knots) to a safe
maneuvering altitude.
• Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the
climb.
• Complete the appropriate checklists.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
 Using checklists becomes increasingly important as you advance to
airplanes that are more powerful and complex.
You can save expensive multi-engine flight training time by sitting in the
airplane on the ramp and familiarizing yourself with the location of the
controls, switches, and instruments in the multi-engine training airplane
that are new to you.
Determine whether your airplane has an MEL and follow the correct
procedures for determining whether your airplane is airworthy with
inoperative equipment.
If the POH does not specify which engine should be started first, start the
engine closed to the battery first.
Differential thrust is one tool for controlling a multi-engine airplane on
the ground during taxiing and crosswind situations.
Complete a takeoff briefing prior to takeoff in order to review the steps
you would take if an engine were to fail.
After takeoff, retract the landing gear upon verifying a positive rate of
climb.
Synchronizing the propellers reduces unpleasant cabin noise and makes
the flight more comfortable for all persons on board.
When adjusting the power on engines with constant-speed propellers,
adjust the controls in the proper sequence. To increase power, increase
mixtures, then propellers, and finally increase throttles. To decrease
power, reverse the sequence—reduce throttles, then the props, and finally,
the mixtures.
Maintain precise control over your airspeed during both normal and
short-field takeoffs and climbs. Flying at the best rate-of-climb airspeed
helps you gain vital altitude to mitigate the dangers of an engine failure.
Plan your descent from cruise altitude to pattern altitude during your
preflight planning, and update it enroute for changes in altitude and
winds.
You might need to reduce power in the traffic pattern to blend with slower
aircraft.
 Do not retract flaps during the landing rollout on an airplane with
retractable landing gear unless maximum braking effort is required.
Landing gear and flap levers are often in similar locations and you must
positively identify the flap handle before moving it to avoid inadvertent
gear retraction.
Decisively execute a go-around as soon as you are aware of a hazardous
situation.

KEY TERMS
Challenge and Response Checklist
Flow Check
Minimum Equipment List (MEL)
Kinds of Operations Equipment List (KOEL)
Differential Thrust
Takeoff Briefing
Propeller Synchronization
Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum-Performance Climb
Descent Planning
Short-Field Approach and Landing
Go-Around/Rejected Landing

QUESTIONS
1. What FAR states the rules regarding inoperative equipment?
A.FAR 91.61
B.FAR 91.213
C.FAR 91.105
2.Where would you find a kinds of operations equipment list?
3.The V-speed that produces the best rate of climb with both engines
operating is:
A.VX
B.VY
 C.VYSE
4.True/False. When taxiing during a strong crosswind, power can be
increased on the downwind engine to counteract the weathervaning
tendency.
5. What is the purpose of a takeoff briefing?
6.You are cruising at 13,000 feet MSL and planning to descend at 500
ft/min to a traffic pattern altitude of 1,000 feet MSL. How far away should
you begin your descent if the ground speed in the descent will be 150
knots?
7. Select the true statement regarding landing procedures in a multi-engine
airplane.
A.To help expedite your approach and landing, it is recommended that you
remain at cruise speed until turning final.
B.A stabilized approach allows you to maintain the proper glide path to landing
with only minor power adjustments.
C.Retarding the throttle of each engine separately helps you effectively establish
the appropriate power setting for approach and landing.
8.What procedure should you use to reduce noise levels and vibrations
during flight in a multi-engine airplane?
SECTION B
Maneuvers
What is it in fact, this learning to fly? To be precise, it is “to learn NOT to
fly wrong.” To learn to become a pilot is to learn—not to let oneself fly too
slowly. Not to let oneself turn without accelerating. Not to cross the
controls. Not to do this, and not to do that… To pilot is negation.
—Henri Mignet, L’Aviation de L’Amateur; Le Sport de l’Air 1934

D
o you remember the first time you had to parallel park? What about
your first experience on a major freeway? Learning to drive at
different speeds under a variety of circumstances was probably
scary and exciting all at the same time. Some of your driving instruction
covered what not to do—such as actions that would cause you to veer off the
road or hit something. When you first started flying you learned maneuvers
that were designed to teach you some of those same lessons—how to handle
the airplane in a wide range of situations, at various speeds and power
settings, and how to avoid dangerous situations. However, discovering how
to fly an airplane involves a lot more knowledge than understanding how to
stay on the road and avoid a collision. [Figure 4-11]

FIG04-011

Figure 4-11. Just as you did when flying single-engine airplanes, you will learn to
handle multi-engine airplanes at different speeds and in a variety of configurations.
Although many of the maneuvers you will perform in multi-engine airplanes are the
same as those you learned in single-engine airplanes, you will encounter new
challenges.
For your multi-engine check ride, the examiner will require you to perform
each maneuver to the tolerances in the multi-engine sections of the private or
commercial pilot practical test standards (PTS). The practical test standards
listed in this book are for commercial pilot applicants with any private pilot
differences included in parenthesis.
In order to comply with FAA standards, each maneuver, with the exception
of steep turns, must start at an altitude high enough to allow for the
execution and recovery to be completed no lower than 3,000 feet AGL. This
section covers only those normal maneuvers flown with both engines
operative. Engine-out maneuvers are thoroughly discussed in Chapter 5,
Section B.

STEEP TURNS
Practicing steep turns teaches you how to handle the airplane with
smoothness and coordination in a maximum-performance turning situation.
The high bank angle of a steep turn causes the airplane to exhibit an
overbanking tendency. The airplane’s stall speed increases when performing
a steep turn due to the increased load factor imposed on the aircraft
structure. To maintain a well-executed steep turn, frequently cross check
your attitude and altitude with your reference point on the horizon, and trim
to reduce the back pressure. Throughout the maneuver, divide your attention
between the instruments in the cockpit and outside references.
 After clearing the area for traffic, select a cardinal heading and locate a
reference point on the horizon. Note your altitude prior to entering the
maneuver. Slow the airplane to a speed at or below maneuvering speed (VA).

In the past, you might have used a point on the nose, like a rivet or a
hinge line, to correlate with your outside reference point. Because
most multi-engine airplanes have a small nose cone instead of a
center engine cowling, your references appear different than in a
single-engine airplane. The nose cone slopes downward, and so it
looks as if the attitude is always nose low. You need to readjust your
visual reference points outside the airplane to compensate for these
differences.

Roll the airplane into a 50° bank turn, either left or right, while
maintaining an airspeed at or below VA. During the roll-in, slowly increase
back pressure to maintain altitude. As the bank angle increases, the airspeed
decreases, and you might need to add power to maintain altitude. Trim the
airplane as needed.

Due to higher airspeeds and the extra power available when

performing steep turns in a multi-engine airplane, pitch changes can
 result in greater altitude variations than in a single-engine airplane.
Therefore, make smaller corrections to the airplane’s pitch attitude to
maintain altitude.

Maintain your angle of bank and altitude throughout the 360° turn.
Monitor the flight instruments and cross-reference them with your outside
reference. Make small corrections to your pitch and bank before your bank
and altitude have deviated to the point that large corrections are required.

If you lose altitude during a steep turn, do not initially pull back on the
elevator control to correct the situation. Instead, decrease the bank
angle, then add back pressure to regain altitude. After you have
returned to the correct altitude, reestablish the correct bank angle.
Extra back pressure on the elevator while in a steep bank increases
the load factor and only tightens the turn without climbing. The
additional load factor increases the stall speed.

Roll out after completing the 360° turn. Lead the rollout by half the bank
angle, 25 degrees for a 50-degree banked turn, to ensure that you end up on
the correct heading. During the rollout, gradually decrease back pressure on
the yoke.
If required, immediately roll into a second turn in the opposite direction.
At the conclusion of your steep turn(s), complete the rollout on your entry
heading, reduce power to maintain altitude and airspeed, and trim the
airplane to relieve control pressures.

Steep Turns
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to steep turns.
• Establish the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed or if one is not stated, a
safe airspeed not to exceed VA .
• Roll into a coordinated 360° steep turn with at least a 50° bank followed by a
360° steep turn in the opposite direction. (*Private Pilot PTS requires only 45°
bank and a turn in the opposite direction on examiner request.)
 • Divide attention between airplane control and orientation.
• Maintain the entry altitude, ±100 feet, airspeed, ±10 knots, bank, ±5°; and roll
out on the entry heading, ±10°.

SLOW FLIGHT
Maneuvering during slow flight enables you to develop the skill for
flying a multi-engine airplane at slow speeds in various configurations while
maintaining a precise airspeed. Because slow flight is performed at an
airspeed and pitch attitude that is critically close to stall speed, practicing
this maneuver helps you to understand the pitch and airspeed conditions
that affect airplane performance in critical flight situations such as landings
and go-arounds.
Unless your airplane is equipped with counterrotating propellers, you will
likely notice a more prevalent left-turning tendency during slow flight than
you did in single-engine airplanes. Due to a greater left-turning tendency
(from P-factor and torque), you might need to use more right rudder
pressure to keep the airplane straight. You perform slow flight in landing and
cruise configurations, including straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and
descents. Perform the maneuver consistent with the recommendations
contained in the POH and the requirements listed in the PTS.

Initially reducing the power to a setting of 12 to 15 inches of manifold

pressure works for most light twins.

As the airspeed decreases to VLO, extend the landing gear if you are
performing slow flight in the landing configuration. After the airspeed
reaches VFE, lower the flaps in increments.
 Upon reaching your desired airspeed, increase power to maintain altitude
and airspeed. Trim the airplane to relieve control pressures.

It is important to closely monitor engine temperatures, particularly in

high-performance twins, when conducting slow flight. The engines can
overheat quickly, especially when conducting slow flight in the landing
configuration.

Once the airplane is stabilized, perform turns, climbs, and descents as

directed by your instructor or examiner.

Never allow the airspeed to fall below VMC. If an engine failure

occurred below VMC, you could lose directional control of the airplane
and experience a stall/spin situation from which you could not recover.

To return to cruise flight, add full power and retract the flaps gradually.
Retract the landing gear and accelerate to cruise speed.
As you reach your desired airspeed, reduce power to the cruise setting and
trim the airplane. Remember to maintain your heading and altitude within
the tolerances specified in the PTS throughout the maneuver.

Maneuvering During Slow Flight

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to maneuvering during
slow flight.
• Select an entry altitude that will allow the task to be completed no lower than
3,000 feet AGL.
• Establish and maintain an airspeed at which any further increase in angle of
attack, increase in load factor, or reduction in power, would result in an
immediate stall.
• Accomplish coordinated straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents
with landing gear and flap configurations specified by the examiner.
• Divide attention between airplane control and orientation.
 • Maintain the specified altitude ±50 feet, specified heading ±10°, airspeed
+5/−0 knots, and specified angle of bank ±5° (*Private
— altitude ±100 feet, heading ±10°, airspeed +10/−0 knots, angle of bank
±10°)

STALLS
The PTS does not require full stalls using high power settings in a multi-
engine airplane. The high angles of attack necessary to stall the airplane with
a high power setting can result in a loss of directional control. For this
reason, among others, use a reduced, yet uniform, power setting when
practicing stalls. Your flight instructor will help you determine the proper
settings for your airplane. And if your airplane does not have counterrotating
propellers, you need to push hard on the right rudder to overcome left-
turning tendencies when practicing power-on stalls.
It is important to understand the conditions that can lead to a stall, how to
recognize a stall, and how to recover from a stall. When you practice stalls,
use an entry altitude that allows the recovery above 3,000 feet AGL (twice
the height required of a single-engine airplane). Recover at the first sign of
the approaching stall, including buffeting, decreasing control performance,
or the activation of a stall warning system. These systems typically provide a
warning at least 5 knots in advance of the stalling speed.

Private pilots must demonstrate recovery from fully-developed stalls,

unless the POH prohibits them.

On your practical test, you should be prepared to demonstrate stalls in the

takeoff, departure, approach, or landing configurations in straight-and-level
or turning flight. [Figure 4-12]
 FIG04-012

Figure 4-12. You are expected to perform both power-on and power-off stalls in
various configurations.
It is essential that you maintain directional control of the airplane while
practicing stalls. Due to the marginal controllability of a multi-engine
airplane in an engine-inoperative situation, never induce a stall with one
engine inoperative and the other developing power. Avoid asymmetrical
power settings when practicing stalls because this can produce a stall/spin
situation from which the airplane could not recover.

PILOT DISTRACTED ON LANDING, FAILURE

TO MAINTAIN CONTROL
From the Files of the NTSB . . .
Aircraft: Piper PA-23-250
Location: Elyria, Ohio
Injuries: 1 Serious, 1 Minor
Narrative: The pilot reported that he had departed Elyria with 12 to 13
gallons of fuel in each of the outboard tanks and 25 gallons in each of
the inboard tanks. He did not refuel at Carrollton prior to the return flight
to Elyria. Upon his arrival back at the original airport, the pilot entered
the traffic pattern and noticed the manifold pressure on the left engine
was higher than on the right engine. He stated that he was distracted
by sun glare and executed a go-around. After extending out from the
departure end of the runway, the pilot executed a 180-degree turn to
 land on the runway in the opposite direction. The left engine began to
run rough as the pilot aligned the airplane for landing. The pilot reported
that the airplane’s airspeed dropped below VMC as he looked for the
runway. The pilot could not remember anything else prior to impacting
the terrain. Examination of the wreckage revealed the following fuel
quantities: left inboard—no visible fuel, left outboard—1 inch of fuel on
stick placed in right tank, right inboard—2 inches below full, and right
outboard—1 inch below full. The pilot reported he had remained on the
inboard tanks during the entire trip.
In addition to a mismanagement of fuel that led to fuel starvation of one
engine, the NTSB also indicated that the pilot’s failure to maintain control
of the airplane was a causal factor in this accident. This report
demonstrates a chain of human-related errors that contributed to the
accident and provides an excellent example of what not to do. First, the
pilot allowed himself to be distracted by the elevated manifold pressure
and the glare of the sun. Instead of landing immediately, he was forced
to execute a go-around because he did not establish a normal approach
due to the distractions. Then, instead of returning to the traffic pattern
and making a normal go-around, he turned 180° and attempted to land
in the opposite direction. His attention was once again diverted by the
rough running engine, and he allowed the airspeed to decrease below
VMC in close proximity to the ground. Had he concentrated on flying the
airplane and following proper procedures, perhaps he could have
avoided the accident altogether.

POWER-ON STALLS
Power-on stalls simulate stalls during the takeoff and departure phases of
flight, which could occur when placing the airplane in a steep climb to clear
an obstacle. You should practice power-on stalls in straight-ahead climbs
and in climbing turns with the airplane configured for takeoff or departure.
To prevent excessively high pitch attitudes, you often perform power-on
stalls with a reduced power setting rather than using full power.
 After clearing the area, reduce power, begin slowing the airplane to liftoff
speed, and maintain altitude by increasing back pressure on the elevator
control.
At liftoff speed, increase power to the recommended setting and apply
back pressure on the yoke. Maintain a high pitch attitude until the onset of
the stall (buffeting)—private pilot applicants should wait until a fully-
developed stall occurs. Maintain coordination of the rudder and ailerons
throughout the stall maneuver.

The practical test standards specify at least 65% power as a guideline

power setting, but not if it results in a pitch attitude greater than 30
degrees nose up. To avoid an asymmetrical thrust situation, ensure
that you advance the throttles smoothly and that each engine is
developing the same amount of power.

Release back pressure to lower the nose and decrease the angle of attack.
You might need to push the elevator control forward or adjust the trim
configuration if you are trimmed tail-heavy. Apply full power, and level the
wings.
Allow the airplane to accelerate to VX, then increase the pitch attitude to
stop the descent. Begin climbing back to your original altitude.
After a positive rate of climb is established, retract the landing gear, if
extended, and begin retracting of flaps if needed.
 As you regain your initial altitude, level off and readjust the throttle and
propeller controls for cruise flight. Reestablish your heading and trim to
relieve control pressures.

Power-On Stalls
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to power-on stalls.
• Select an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than
3,000 feet AGL.
• Establish the takeoff or departure configuration and set the power to no less
than 65 percent available power.
• Transition smoothly from the takeoff or departure attitude to a pitch attitude
that will induce a stall.
• Maintain a specified heading ±10°, in straight flight and a specified angle of
bank, not to exceed 20° ±10°, in turning flight while inducing the stall.
• Recognize and recover promptly at the “onset” (buffeting) stall condition.
(*Private Pilot — after a fully-developed stall occurs.)
• Retract the flaps to the recommended setting and retract the landing gear, if
retractable, after a positive rate of climb is established.
• Accelerate to VX or VY before the final flap retraction and return to the altitude,
heading, and airspeed specified by the examiner.

POWER-OFF STALLS
The landing phase of flight presents unique safety challenges because of high
workload, close proximity to the ground, and potential for distraction. You
practice power-off stalls to understand how the airplane handles and
reacts to control inputs in the landing configuration so you can immediately
recognize an impending stall. Stalls are more likely to occur with the airplane
in a low-airspeed, high-pitch attitude configuration in preparation for
landing. You conduct power-off stalls in both straight and turning flight to
emulate a realistic traffic pattern scenario.
 After clearing the area for traffic, reduce power and apply back pressure to
maintain altitude. At the appropriate airspeeds, extend landing gear and
flaps, and then establish a normal glide.
Maintain coordinated flight using rudder and ailerons. Maintain back
pressure on the elevator control until the onset of the stall (buffeting)—
private pilot applicants wait until a fully-developed stall occurs.

To avoid gaining altitude, increase the pitch gradually to slow the

airplane at about one knot per second.

Release back pressure to initiate the stall recovery. Lower the nose to the
horizon and add full power. If the stall was made while in a turn, level the
wings. Maintain coordinated flight throughout the recovery procedure.
Adjust the pitch to stop the descent and establish a positive rate of climb.
Retract the flaps slowly, as recommended in the POH.
After you establish a positive rate of climb, retract the gear prior to
reaching VLO.
At the desired altitude, level off and accelerate to a cruise speed. Maintain
your heading and altitude, and trim the airplane to relieve control pressures.
Reestablish the optimum cruise configuration.
 Power-Off Stalls
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to power-off stalls.
• Select an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than
3,000 feet AGL.
• Establish a stabilized descent in the approach or landing configuration, as
specified by the examiner.
• Transition smoothly from the approach or landing attitude to a pitch attitude
that will induce a stall.
• Maintain a specified heading ±10° in straight flight and a specified angle of
bank, not to exceed 20° ±5°, in turning flight while inducing the stall. (*Private
Pilot PTS — angle of bank, not to exceed 20° ±10°)
• Recognize and recover promptly at the “onset” (buffeting) stall condition.
(*Private Pilot PTS — after a fully-developed stall occurs.)
• Retract the flaps to the recommended setting and retract the landing gear if
retractable, after a positive rate of climb is established.
• Accelerate to VX or VY before the final flap retraction and return to the altitude,
heading, and maneuvering airspeed specified by the examiner.

ACCELERATED STALLS
Accelerated stalls occur at a higher-than-normal airspeed when excess
back pressure results in exceeding the critical angle of attack during steep
turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt changes in your flight attitude. The stalls that
occur from these types of maneuvers tend to develop faster than normal
unaccelerated stalls. The objective of practicing accelerated stalls is to learn
how to recognize the flight characteristics that lead to an accelerated stall
and the correct methods of recovery. It is important to recover at the first
indication of the stall. A prolonged stall with excessive airspeed could lead to
a spin. After clearing turns, your instructor will start the demonstration at an
altitude that ensures a safe recovery no lower than 3,000 feet AGL.
 After clearing the area for traffic, establish straight-and-level flight at VA or
less.
Roll into a 45° angle-of-bank level turn while gradually increasing back
pressure to maintain altitude.
After establishing the turn, slowly increase back pressure while
maintaining altitude until the onset of the stall (buffeting) occurs.
Release back pressure to decrease the angle of attack and increase power.
If the turn is not coordinated, one wing can drop suddenly, causing the
airplane to roll in that direction. If this occurs, promptly break the stall, and
return to airplane to wings-level flight using coordinated control pressure
Return to altitude and heading.
Reestablish straight-and-level, coordinated flight.

Accelerated Stalls
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to accelerated (power
on or power off) stalls.
• Select an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than
3,000 feet AGL.
 • Establish a steady flight condition and recommended airspeed established by
the manufacturer, or not more than 1.2 VS.
• Roll smoothly from a wings-level cruise attitude into an angle of bank of
approximately 45° that will induce a stall.
• Maintain coordinated turning flight, increasing elevator back pressure steadily
and firmly to induce the stall.
• Recognize the imminent stall and recover promptly at the “onset” (buffeting)
stall condition.
• Return to a specified altitude, heading, and airspeed.
*This task is not required by the private pilot practical test standards.

SPIN AWARENESS
According to FAR Part 23, a multi-engine airplane must demonstrate
recovery from a stall through the use of normal controls, and recovery must
not produce more than 15° of roll or yaw. Additionally, during the
certification process, stalls must be performed with the critical engine
inoperative, and during the flight test, the airplane may not display any
undue tendency to spin. The airplane must also be safely recovered without
the application of power to the inoperative engine.
Although the airplane should not display adverse or unpredictable
characteristics during stall practice, the manufacturer is not required to
demonstrate spins for certification of multi-engine aircraft. Because spins do
not have to be performed for certification, the manufacturer’s spin recovery
techniques included in the POH are not proven for the airplane, and should
be considered simply their best recommendation. You cannot be certain how
the airplane will react in a spin, or whether it can recover from a spin.
[Figure 4-13]
 FIG04-013

Figure 4-13. Although intentional spins are prohibited in multi-engine airplanes,

manufacturers include spin recovery procedures in the POH to use if the airplane
inadvertently enters a spin.
Although you will not demonstrate spins in a multi-engine airplane, you are
required to exhibit your knowledge of spin awareness. Spin awareness
includes understanding the conditions required for a spin to occur, and the
indications of an incipient spin and a full spin, as well as spin recovery
techniques.

Spin Awareness
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you exhibit
knowledge of the elements related to spin awareness by explaining:
• Aerodynamic factors related to spins.
• Flight situations where unintentional spins can occur.
 • Procedures for recovery from unintentional spins.

EMERGENCY DESCENT
Distress situations such as an in-flight fire or loss of cabin pressure normally
require you to perform an emergency descent. This maneuver enables the
airplane to descend at the fastest possible rate to a safe altitude or an
emergency landing.
You might be startled at how quickly a light twin descends after you extend
the landing gear and push both propeller controls forward with the engines
at idle. You aggressively lower the nose to reach a speed of VNO, or in smooth
air you could go as high as VNE —if in an actual emergency, the airplane does
not have structural damage.
Because the emergency descent employs high airspeeds and very high rates
of descent, you must plan the descent recovery in advance. Level off
gradually to avoid excessive G-loads. Whenever you perform an emergency
descent, use the recommended procedure in the POH, and observe the V-
speed limitations of your airplane.
 After clearing the area for traffic, pull the power to idle, push the propeller
controls to the low pitch/high RPM position, and extend the landing gear
and flaps, as recommended by the POH.
Roll into a descending turn, banking 30° to 45°. A medium-banked turn
increases the rate of descent while maintaining a positive load factor on the
airplane. During the turn, scan for other traffic below and look for a possible
emergency landing area.
Descend at the maximum allowable airspeed. In perfectly smooth air, you
might be able to descend at speeds up to VNE for a clean airplane with no
structural damage. If the air is not perfectly smooth, you must slow below
VNE and if turbulence exists, you must slow to maneuvering speed, VA. If you
have extended the flaps or landing gear, you must also comply with VFE and
VLE as appropriate.
 If you are descending in an actual emergency, and fire or rapid
decompression has damaged the airplane, you might have to use a
lower airspeed to prevent structural failure.

When reaching your target altitude, roll out of the bank, gradually raise
the nose and add power to maintain the desired airspeed. Retract the flaps
and landing gear (as appropriate) and trim to relieve control pressures.

Generally, a 10% lead is sufficient for leveloff. For example, 10% of a

1,500 ft/min descent would require a 150-foot lead for leveloff.

If an actual emergency descent is because of a loss of pressurization, you

do not need to land. Return to cruise by retracting the landing gear and flaps,
adjusting the power to cruise setting, adjusting propellers to cruise RPM, and
enriching the mixture if needed, and trimming to relieve control pressures. If
your distress situation requires a forced landing, turn toward the landing
site, and complete the appropriate checklist.

Emergency Descent
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to an emergency
descent.
• Recognize situations, such as depressurization, cockpit smoke, or fire, that
require an emergency descent.
• Establish the appropriate airspeed and configuration for the emergency
descent.
• Exhibit orientation, division of attention, and proper planning.
• Maintain positive load factors during the descent.
• Maintain appropriate airspeed, +0/–10 knots and level off at specified altitude,
±100 feet.
(*This tolerance not required for Private Pilot)
• Complete appropriate checklists.
 Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to emergency equipment and
survival gear appropriate to the airplane and environment encountered during
flight.
• Identify appropriate equipment that should be onboard the airplane.

Testing the Design

Interview with…
Charles H. Magnuson
Wind Tunnel Model Builder
Charles (“Chuck” to those who know him)
served in the Army Air Corps during World
War II. After the war he became a builder
of wind tunnel models for Northrop and
North American Rockwell and throughout
his career he built models of several of our
modern day aircraft including the Space
Shuttle. His contributions to the future of
the aerospace industry meant that he lived
in a bubble of classified information. Never
able to tell his family the details of his life at work, or what he was doing,
his children to this day do not know the full extent of his career. This is
one of the few times he has talked about the various projects he worked
on that are an integral part of our aviation history. Here is what he had to
say…
On building test models…
Initially, a team of designers would come to the model shop with a
design and from that design, we would begin building a model. The
models we built were typically made from aluminum, steel, or wood. We
used lathes, mills, and other machining equipment to create the models
as they were built from scratch. Usually we would build a slow-speed
model of wood first to initially test the design, and then move on to
higher speed models. I have built models that range in size from a 20-
pound slow speed model, to the B-70 model that was 90 feet long and
weighed 110 tons. I would imagine they still build models like this
today, but with better materials and technology.
On testing the models…
We tested the models in wind tunnels across the United States.
Typically we began testing the design with a slow speed model, record
the performance data of the design, and then increase the speed
design of the model in order to test it at higher speeds. At the end of the
testing phase, we would give the model and the test results back to the
design team so they could work out any problems with the design. I
also helped test specific design aspects of the models. On the B-70,
we extensively tested the engine intake doors that allow air to pass
through the engine nacelle. We were testing, with much success, the
differences between rectangular intake doors and circular intake doors.
On his projects…
I worked on several different projects during my career, including
several classified projects. The Apollo project, Saturn rockets, the
Space Shuttle, and T-38s are among some of the aircraft and
spacecraft I built models for. The shuttle model was approximately a
six-foot model, while the Saturn 5 rocket model was about a quarter-
scale model. The B-70 project was one of the largest models I had the
opportunity to work on, but it never made it to the production phase. I
worked on one contract project for Raytheon, a small wooden glider
type plane, but once the model was completed and shipped to the
company, we never heard what became of their project. I don’t know if
they ever used the design.
On living the classified life…
I could never tell my family what I was doing at work. Everything was
classified.
On his job…
It was exciting; very interesting.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
 You should start maneuvers in a twin-engine airplane at an altitude high
enough so that you can recover no lower than 3,000 feet AGL.
Your outside visual reference used to perform a steep turn in a multi-
engine airplane can appear different than that used in a single-engine
airplane.
If you start losing altitude during a steep turn, do not first pull back on
the yoke. Instead, decrease the bank angle, climb back to your altitude,
and then reestablish the correct bank angle.
Practicing slow flight increases your ability to maintain airspeed and
altitude in straight-and-level, climbing, turning, and descending flight.
Unless your airplane is equipped with counterrotating propellers, you will
likely notice a more prevalent left-turning tendency during slow flight than
you did in single-engine airplanes.
Never intentionally stall a multi-engine airplane with one engine
inoperative.
To prevent excessively high pitch attitudes, you normally execute power-
on stalls at a reduced power setting.
Multi-engine airplanes are not spin tested during the certification
process, and should never be spun intentionally.
Use an emergency descent to descend to a lower altitude at the fastest
possible rate if you experience a distress situation such as an in-flight fire
or loss of cabin pressure.

KEY TERMS
Steep Turns
Maneuvering During Slow Flight
Power-On Stalls
Power-Off Stalls
Accelerated Stalls
Spin Awareness
Emergency Descent
QUESTIONS
1. What is the correct procedure for regaining altitude lost while performing
a steep turn?
2.Select the true statement regarding slow flight.
A.Slow flight should be performed at 1.5 VS1.
B.Slow flight should not be performed at an airspeed below VMC.
C.During slow flight, you experience a strong left-turning tendency in airplanes
with counterrotating propellers.
3.True/False. You should normally use full power when performing power-
on stalls in a multi-engine airplane.
4.True/False. According to FAR Part 23, spins are required to be performed
in multi-engine airplanes for aircraft certification.
5. Which of the following maneuvers may the examiner require you to
perform during your practical test for a multi-engine rating?
A.Slow flight, power-on stalls in turns
B.Power-on stalls, power-off stalls, spins
C.Power-on stalls, power-off stalls, one-engine inoperative stalls
6.What is the purpose of an emergency descent?
 CHAPTER 5

Mastering Engine-Out
Operations
SECTION A
When an Engine Fails
SECTION B
Engine-Out Maneuvers
SECTION C
Operating on Instruments
SECTION A
When an Engine Fails
The real value of a twin engine airplane is that it doubles your chances of
engine failure.
—cliche

I
f you find yourself flying a B-52 Stratofortress in the future, your
chances of an engine failure will increase by a factor of eight over the
single-engine airplanes you are currently flying. Of course, one real
advantage of flying an airplane that has eight powerplants is that in the event
of a failure, you have seven other engines to rely on. In large, multi-engine
airplanes, the thrust generated by the remaining engines when one fails is
normally more than enough to keep the airplane aloft. However, in many
light twins, an engine failure can leave you with insufficient power to
maintain altitude under certain conditions. By following the proper
procedures if an actual engine failure occurs, you dramatically increase your
chances of handling the emergency successfully. [Figure 5-1]
 FIG05-001

Figure 5-1. When a light twin loses one engine, the power loss has a greater
negative impact on performance than when a military or transport-category airplane
loses one engine.
The procedures covered in this section apply to both the simulated engine
failures that you practice during training and to an actual engine failure.
However, because some engine failure procedures are too risky to practice in
flight, it is necessary to simulate some of these procedures. For example, in
an actual engine failure, after you feather a propeller, you continue to
completely shut down the engine, including shutting off the fuel to that
engine. During a simulated engine failure, you will probably only explain
these steps, pointing to the controls without actually moving them. And in
most cases, you do not actually feather a propeller, but pull back the
propeller control to the feather position and the instructor then places that
engine’s controls in a simulated feathered setting.

Other Multi-Engine Aircraft

Casual observers give little thought to the complex task of flying
an airship. Most people think of an airship as an elongated helium
balloon with engines and propellers to push it along, but there is much
more to the systems of these huge aircraft.
Most blimps are multi-engine aircraft. In the event of an engine failure,
the pilot can fly on one engine for quite some time. If all power is lost,
rather than making an immediate emergency landing as would be
necessary in an airplane, the pilot has the option of flying the airship like
a balloon by utilizing two air cells, or ballonets. Once the two air cells
contain about the same amount of air, the airship is in equilibrium and
floats like a balloon.
Obviously, operating a blimp is much different from flying a conventional
airplane. For example, the engines are started inside the hangar, so the
pilot has control when the airship moves outside, into the wind. The
engines must be running and a pilot must be at the controls whenever a
blimp is outside, unless it is tethered and secured to a mooring mast.
The airship is essentially flying whenever it is outdoors, even when it is
on the ground. While the top speed of a blimp is slow by airplane
standards (around 60 knots), its ability to fly slowly and hover make it
ideal for use as a flying billboard, as well as an overhead camera
platform at sporting events.
TAKING ACTION
When an engine fails in a single-engine airplane, even if it is only a partial
power loss, it is usually obvious. Although you might not yet be aware of the
failure’s cause, you must fix the problem or perform an emergency landing.
However, in a multi-engine airplane, an engine problem is not always as
obvious. The cockpit does not become quiet when one engine dies—the most
noticeable symptom is unexpected yawing and rolling. Although you
instinctively apply the necessary rudder and aileron forces to keep the
airplane straight, you need to complete several steps to determine which
engine is faltering. Your multi-engine training teaches you how to identify
the troubled engine and either secure it or diagnose the problem if time
permits. [Figure 5-2]

FIG05-002

Figure 5-2. The yawing and rolling motion of the airplane helps you determine which
engine is inoperative. If an engine is surging, or loses only partial power,
establishing the faulty engine can be challenging.
This section identifies most of the common initial pilot actions for managing
an engine failure, and are likely those you will learn during your multi-engine
training. As PIC, you must consider the circumstances of the failure, such as
the phase of flight, and take the safest action for that situation. You must
memorize the initial steps from the POH and then refer to a checklist to
verify your actions and complete the emergency procedure. If possible,
practice engine failure procedures in a simulator, FTD or ATD. If these
devices are not available, sit in the airplane while it is on the ramp and
practice moving the controls prior to performing the procedures in flight.
The initial actions you take following an engine failure depend upon your
airspeed at the time. Although you should not allow a multi-engine airplane
to become airborne at any speed below VMC, pilots can inadvertently allow
the speed to drop below VMC following an engine failure during climbout. If
this happens, the first steps are to gain control of the airplane before
proceeding with the normal engine-failure procedures. [Figure 5-3]
 FIG05-003

Figure 5-3. If your airspeed drops below VMC with an inoperative engine, your first
action is to prevent or recover from a loss of directional control.

PITCH
After you have applied rudder pressure to maintain directional control
following an engine failure, you should pitch for VYSE (blue-line) to obtain
the best performance for your airplane. Because actual VYSE depends upon
aircraft weight and altitude, you might need to further adjust the airspeed for
best performance after you complete the engine failure checklist. Although
pitching for VYSE sometimes requires pitching up to slow down, you might
have to pitch down to maintain or gain airspeed during initial climb—
especially if your speed is bleeding off toward VMC. [Figure 5-4]

FIG05-004

Figure 5-4. Pitching for the proper airspeed is the first step to take when you lose an
engine in a twin-engine airplane, just as you pitch for best glide speed when
experiencing an engine failure in a single-engine airplane.

POWER
While establishing the proper airspeed, you typically push the mixtures,
propellers, and throttles forward, quickly in that order. Use the maximum
power permitted in the POH, and pay attention to any limits on how long an
engine may operate at full power. Obviously, full power for at least a short
time helps you to climb to clear obstacles and to identify the inoperative
engine. [Figure 5-5]

FIG05-005

Figure 5-5. Be prepared for the yawing and rolling motions when advancing the
controls because only one engine is producing full power.

DRAG
In addition to increasing power, you must quickly reduce drag. If you are
going to keep the airplane flying, retract the flaps and landing gear to
increase performance. During many phases of flight, the flaps and gear might
already be retracted, but you should still ensure that the levers are in the
retracted position. If you have just lifted off and the landing gear is still
down, you might make a better choice by keeping the gear down and landing
straight ahead. In other situations when the landing gear or flaps are
extended when an engine failure occurs, you might determine that leaving
them extended is the best choice. For example, you could increase your risk
of a gear-up landing by retracting the landing gear during an approach to
landing. [Figure 5-6]

FIG05-006

Figure 5-6. Where you position the landing gear and flaps following an engine
failure depends on the phase of flight in which you are operating.

IDENTIFY
Your first indication of an engine failure, either in training or during an
actual failure, is a pronounced yaw and roll toward the inoperative engine.
The direction in which you apply rudder pressure to counteract yaw and
maintain your heading helps you identify the failed engine. The memory
aid, “dead foot, dead engine,” helps. If the airplane yaws to the left, you must
push on the right rudder pedal to keep the airplane straight—your left foot is
“dead,” and the left engine has failed. The “dead engine,” is the engine you
must handle next. [Figure 5-7]

FIG05-007

Figure 5-7. You must identify the inoperative engine before attempting to secure it.

VERIFY
To avoid shutting down the wrong engine, you must verify the inoperative
engine by pulling back the throttle on the engine that you think is dead. If
you pick the correct engine—the one that is actually inoperative—nothing
happens. Your rudder pressure to counteract yaw does not change and the
airplane’s performance stays the same. If you are wrong and pull back the
throttle on the good engine, you immediately notice. The airplane becomes
very quiet, the yaw changes, and you start descending. No problem—just
push the throttle forward again and try the other engine. [Figure 5-8]

FIG05-008

Figure 5-8. You must pull the throttle back on the engine you think is inoperative to
test your identification. If pilots did not occasionally misidentify the inoperative
engine, this step would not be necessary.
When your instructor simulates an engine failure during training by
retarding the throttle, you can easily become careless about verifying the
inoperative engine because you can see the throttle at idle on the engine that
has failed. You should still grab that lever and pull on it to develop the proper
“muscle memory.” If possible, practice engine-out procedures in a simulator
or flight training device, in which you cannot determine the inoperative
engine by simply looking at the throttle quadrant. The simulator also enables
you to actually operate the controls, rather than just pretending to operate
them. [Figure 5-9]
 FIG05-009

Figure 5-9. There are a variety of ways your instructor can choose to simulate an
engine failure during training.

TROUBLESHOOT
You should only troubleshoot the cause of an engine failure if there is
sufficient time and altitude and the airplane is performing adequately. After
takeoff, at low altitudes, in the traffic pattern, or on an approach in IFR
conditions are situations in which it is normally best to immediately proceed
to the next step, feathering the propeller. However, during cruise flight you
might have time to troubleshoot the problem and possibly restart the engine.
If the engine failure is abrupt and occurs without warning, check the control
or equipment you used last as the most likely cause of the failure. For
example, if you just changed the fuel selector valve or adjusted the mixture,
you could have inadvertently starved an engine of fuel. First, confirm that
your recent adjustments did not the cause the failure—try undoing the
adjustments—and then follow the emergency procedures in your airplane’s
POH. [Figure 5-10]
 FIG05-010

Figure 5-10. Because systems vary between aircraft, use the specific
troubleshooting procedures outlined in the POH for your airplane.

FEATHER
Your actions at this point are based on whether you have experienced an
actual engine failure or are practicing engine-out procedures. In most
training situations, your instructor will likely choose to simulate a feathered
propeller rather than actually performing the feathering procedure.

FEATHERING DURING AN ACTUAL ENGINE FAILURE

During an actual emergency, you should quickly identify and verify the
inoperative engine and immediately feather the engine’s propeller in a low
altitude situation, such as during takeoff or if you are unable to determine
the cause of the engine failure. Remember, the high-pitch lock pins mounted
on the propeller hub prevent feathering at low engine speeds, usually below
700 to 800 rpm. Although you must feather the propeller before these lock
pins engage, a windmilling propeller usually maintains sufficient rpm to
provide a reasonable amount of time for feathering. [Figure 5-11]

FIG05-011

Figure 5-11. Feathering procedures vary for different airplanes, but typically involve
these steps.

FEATHERING DURING TRAINING

Because you must actually feather a propeller during your practical test, you
should actually feather the propeller at some point during your training.
However, most of the time your instructor will ask you to pull the propeller
control back as if you were feathering and then your instructor places the
throttle and propeller controls in a position that creates zero thrust to
simulate a feathered propeller. Your POH normally specifies the appropriate
power setting for zero thrust. Discuss your instructor’s exact procedure for
“practice feathering” to ensure no misunderstandings. In addition, your
instructor should announce taking the controls of the simulated feathered
engine—a positive exchange of engine controls. When you do actually
feather the propeller, ensure that you are at a sufficient altitude (at least
3,000 feet AGL) and close enough to the airport to make a successful
approach and landing with an inoperative engine. If you cannot restart the
engine, your simulated engine failure can quickly turn into an actual
emergency. [Figure 5-12]

FIG05-012

Figure 5-12. For most of your practice of inoperative engine procedures, your
instructor will simulate feathering the propeller. However, you should actually feather
a propeller at least once during your training.

RESTARTING THE ENGINE

If your airplane is equipped with unfeathering accumulators, moving the
propeller control back to the cruise position typically brings the propeller out
of feather. If the accumulators fail, or if your airplane does not have them,
you must engage the starter to restart the engine. In either case, after the
propeller begins to move out of the feather position, the airflow starts
turning it, helping with the restart. After the engine starts, keep the power
low until the temperatures are within the normal operating range to avoid
damaging a cold engine with high power settings. [Figure 5-13]

FIG05-013

Figure 5-13. Restarting procedures vary for different airplane makes and models. If
your airplane is not equipped with unfeathering accumulators, the restarting
procedure likely includes some additional steps.

ESTABLISHING A BANK
Establish a bank toward the operating engine to achieve the best
performance and then trim to relieve control pressures. You might have
already established the bank when you initially applied rudder pressure to
maintain directional control. However, it is often difficult to fine-tune the
bank angle to achieve maximum performance and controllability until you
have finished the initial emergency checklist items, such as adjusting the
power and feathering the propeller.
As discussed in Chapter 3 Section B, the amount of bank angle that provides
optimum performance and controllability varies between airplanes. The
most effective bank angle for light twins is typically about 2 to 3 degrees. If
you have not previously determined the appropriate bank angle for your
airplane, you can begin with 5 degrees of bank and gradually decrease the
bank until you reach the angle that provides the best performance.

SECURING THE INOPERATIVE ENGINE

Depending on the phase of flight you are in when the engine fails, you
typically perform the procedures through feathering the propeller quickly
and from memory—pitch, power, drag, identify, verify, troubleshoot (if time
permits), and feather. With the airplane stabilized, now is a good time to run
through the engine failure checklists in your airplane’s POH, to ensure you
have not overlooked anything. After you feather the engine, you can continue
to secure the inoperative engine using the checklist. [Figure 5-14]
 FIG05-014

Figure 5-14. The typical procedure for securing the engine on most light twins
includes, at a minimum, shutting off the fuel and electrical supply for the failed
engine.

MONITORING THE OPERATING ENGINE

If you experience an actual engine failure and shutdown, the combination of
reduced airspeed and additional power demanded from the operating engine
could lead to overheating problems. You should carefully monitor the
operating engine for excessive temperature during the remainder of your
flight. Open the cowl flaps and enrichen the mixture as needed to avoid
overheating. Another consideration is that with the loss of one engine, you
also lose the use of one alternator. You might need to reduce the electrical
load by turning off any unnecessary equipment until you reach a suitable
airport at which to land. Depending on your airplane, several systems can be
affected by an engine failure. Understanding how the systems on your
airplane interrelate can help you manage your light twin with only one
operating engine. [Figure 5-15]

FIG05-015

Figure 5-15. Any number of systems might need attention if one of the engines fails.
In addition, you now need to decide how to continue your flight.
During your training, you restart the simulated failed engine prior to
allowing any associated systems to malfunction. This is another instance in
which simulator training is helpful. Your instructor can create various system
malfunctions, such as an increased temperature on an operating engine, or
disabling the landing gear. Events that could occur in an actual emergency
but that are not practical or safe to demonstrate on a training flight, can
usually be simulated on the ground in a simulator, FTD, or ATD.

Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to systems and equipment
malfunctions appropriate to the airplane provided for the practical test.
• Analyze the situation and take appropriate action for simulated emergencies
appropriate to the airplane provided for the practical test for at least three of
the following—
• Partial or complete power loss
• Engine roughness or overheat
• Carburetor or induction icing
• Loss of oil pressure
• Fuel starvation
• Electrical malfunction
• Vacuum/pressure, and associated flight instruments malfunction
• Pitot/static system malfunction
• Landing gear or flap malfunction
• Inoperative trim
• Inadvertent door or window opening
• Structural icing
• Smoke/fire/engine compartment fire
• Any other emergency appropriate to the airplane
• Follow the appropriate checklist or procedure.

Multi-Engine Airplane, Single-Engine

Takeoff
Aircraft: Cessna 337C Skymaster
Crew and Passengers: 1
Losing an engine in flight is a challenge. Losing an engine on the ground
is typically not even considered an emergency, unless of course you
decide to take off with only one of two engines operating.
A witness, who is also a pilot, told the NTSB that prior to
the flight the pilot was unable to start the aft engine
because of an inoperative starter motor. The witness said
he suggested to the pilot that he delay the flight until a new
starter could be obtained, and offered to fly the pilot to get
a replacement. The witness said the pilot insisted he could
take off, and said he had performed single-engine takeoffs
previously in the airplane.
The witness and pilot chose a predetermined point on the
dry, gravel runway, which would be the abort point if the
airplane were not airborne. The witness said that as the
airplane passed the abort point, the nose wheel was lifting
off the ground. He said the airplane climbed to about 50
feet, the wings rocked slightly, and the airplane passed out of sight
behind a low hill. The airplane was destroyed when it collided with
water shortly after takeoff.
The Cessna 337 POH has no published procedure for taking off with
either engine inoperative. Remember, a twin is more than just a single-
engine airplane with a spare engine. The additional engine increases
both drag and weight. Of course, it also provides more thrust and a slight
increase in speed, which creates more lift; however, with one engine
inoperative, most twins do not achieve the same performance as their
single-engine counterparts. When faced with an in-flight engine failure,
you have options regarding how to handle the emergency and continue
the flight. If the failure occurs on the ground, you really have only one
safe option—have the engine repaired prior to flight.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
The yawing and rolling motion of the airplane helps you determine which
engine is inoperative. If an engine is surging, or loses only partial power,
establishing the faulty engine is more difficult.
Initially following an engine failure, you should pitch for VYSE (blueline) to
obtain the best performance for your airplane.
 While establishing the proper airspeed after an engine failure, you
typically push the mixtures, propellers, and throttles forward, quickly in
that order.
Reducing the amount of drag by retracting the landing gear and/or flaps
helps to increase your airplane’s performance when an engine fails.
The direction in which you apply rudder pressure to maintain your
heading helps you identify the inoperative engine. Use the memory aid,
“dead foot, dead engine.”
When verifying the failed engine, if you select the correct (inoperative)
engine, the airplane’s performance and the amount of rudder pressure
required to counteract the yaw does not change. If you select the wrong
(operating) engine, the yawing tendency and aircraft performance both
decrease.
You should only attempt to troubleshoot the cause of an engine failure if
there is sufficient time and altitude, and the airplane is performing
adequately.
Although you must feather the propeller before the lock pins engage, a
windmilling propeller usually maintains sufficient rpm to provide a
reasonable amount of time for feathering.
After you feather the engine, you can continue to secure the inoperative
engine using the POH checklist.
After you have secured the inoperative engine, you must monitor the
operating engine, attend to any affected systems, and decide how to
continue your flight.

KEY TERMS
Pitch
VYSE (Blue-Line)
Power
Drag
Identify
Verify
 Troubleshoot
Feather
Zero Thrust
Secure the Inoperative Engine
Monitor the Operating Engine

QUESTIONS
1. List the steps you normally take if an engine failure occurs at an airspeed
above VMC in a light multi-engine airplane.
2.True/False. VYSE is typically shown on your airplane’s airspeed indicator
as a red radial line.
3.Describe two benefits of adding power after an engine failure.
4.You retard the throttle of the suspected failed engine. What conditions
indicate you have correctly verified the inoperative engine?
A.Airspeed and altitude decrease. Yawing tendency does not change.
B.Airspeed and altitude remain unchanged. Yawing tendency decreases.
C.Airspeed and altitude remain unchanged. Yawing tendency does not change.
5. State the memory aid you can utilize to identify which engine has failed
on a twin-engine airplane.
6.You should attempt to troubleshoot the cause of an engine failure if the
failure occurs during which phase of flight?
A.Immediately after takeoff
B.In cruise flight at 10,000 feet AGL
C.On an instrument approach in IFR conditions
7. True/False. If you determine you cannot restart the inoperative engine
after failure, you should always feather the propeller to reduce drag.
8.What term refers to the method of simulating a feathered propeller during
a training session?
9.What is an effective method you can use to establish the correct amount
of bank toward the operating engine after an engine failure?
A.Always use 5° of bank for best performance.
 B.Begin with 5° of bank and then gradually increase the bank until you reach the
angle that provides the best performance.
C.Begin with 5° of bank and then gradually decrease the bank until you reach the
angle that provides the best performance.
10.Name at least two actions you might need to take as you continue your
flight after securing the inoperative engine.
SECTION B
Engine-Out Maneuvers
Flying prevails whenever a man and his airplane are put to a test of
maximum performance.
—Richard Bach, A Gift of Wings
Controlling a multi-engine airplane that has an inoperative engine demands
your best performance as a pilot. In addition to skill and practice, these
situations require that you understand the aerodynamics that affect engine-
out operations, that you can recall and calmly perform essential first steps of
emergency procedures, and that you can locate and systematically complete
abnormal-procedures checklists. You must also be able to make effective
decisions and implement them in a timely manner. [Figure 5-16]

FIG05-016

Figure 5-16. Although the POHs for different airplanes contain varying engine-out
procedures, most share a number of basic core procedures.

Principles of Flight — Engine Inoperative

 The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you exhibit
satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to engine inoperative principles
of flight by explaining:
• The meaning of the term “critical engine.”
• The effects of density altitude on the VMC demonstration.
• The effects of airplane weight and center of gravity on control.
• The effects of angle of bank on VMC.
• The relationship of VMC to stall speed.
• The reasons for loss of directional control.
• The indications of loss of directional control.
• The importance of maintaining the proper pitch and bank attitude, and the
proper coordination of controls.
• Loss of directional control recovery procedure.

ENGINE FAILURE DURING TAKEOFF AND

CLIMB
Losing an engine on takeoff or climb is one of the most challenging situations
you could experience as a multi-engine pilot. Although it is unlikely that you
will experience an engine failure during the critical takeoff or initial climb
phases of flight, you still must be prepared for this possibility. You must
understand the performance of your airplane and plan ahead for engine-out
contingencies. By creating, reviewing, and implementing a specific plan of
action, you can successfully manage your airplane and safely resolve an
engine-out situation on takeoff.
If an engine fails during takeoff or the initial climb, the appropriate actions
you must take vary depending on the airplane’s configuration, airspeed, and
performance characteristics, as well as its position on the runway and its
proximity to obstacles. Thoroughly examine the engine failure guidelines in
your airplane’s POH and use the charts in the POH to determine your takeoff
and climb performance. You must know the airplane’s expected performance
in an engine-out situation so that you do not attempt to continue a takeoff
when it is impossible to climb to a safe altitude under the circumstances.
[Figure 5-17]
 FIG05-017

Figure 5-17. Your actions after losing an engine on takeoff or climb are dictated by
your airplane’s performance at its current weight, as well as the local conditions,
such as density altitude, runway length and obstructions.
Before you taxi onto the runway, have a plan of action to use if an engine fails
during the takeoff or climb. Base this plan on procedures and performance
data published in the POH and the conditions at the airport. When planning
the appropriate response to an engine failure, you can think of takeoff and
climb in three phases. [Figure 5-18]
 FIG05-018

Figure 5-18. The actions you should take when an engine fails on a light twin during
takeoff depends on that airplane’s performance and how far you have progressed.
You must be vigilant to detect an engine failure during the takeoff roll. If the
engine fails prior to reaching VMC, you have only one option. Immediately
reduce both throttles to idle and use the rudders, brakes, and steerable nose
wheel to stop straight ahead on the centerline of the runway. Keep your hand
on the throttles and be ready to abort the takeoff if you have any difficulty
keeping the airplane on the runway centerline. The airplane might swerve
out of control and roll off the runway if you do not react quickly to an engine
failure. Exiting the runway in this way is known as a runway excursion.

Engine Failure During Takeoff Before VMC

(Simulated)
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to the procedure used
for engine failure during takeoff prior to reaching VMC.
• Close the throttles smoothly and promptly when the simulated engine failure
occurs.
• Maintain directional control and apply the brakes as necessary.
Even if you are above VMC, stopping a light-twin airplane if the engine fails at
any point before liftoff speed is almost always the best option. As explained
in Chapter 2, Section C, your performance at this point is severely limited,
and it is unlikely that you would be able to configure the airplane for engine-
inoperative flight, accelerate, and then continue to climb in this situation.

If attempting to continue the takeoff, the landing gear could take

several seconds to retract. Because of extra drag during gear
operation, some airplanes can lose airspeed at up to three knots per
second, increasing the risk of your airspeed slipping below VMC.

If the engine fails after liftoff but prior to reaching VXSE, you must quickly
decide upon and implement the best option for the conditions.
● If an engine fails after takeoff with the gear still extended, the paltry
performance you can expect from most light twins requires that you
discontinue the takeoff. Pull both throttles back and land straight ahead.
Maintain control of the airplane and stay on the centerline by using brakes
and rudder. Attempting to retract the gear and continue the flight would
most likely result in a gear-up or gear in-transit landing on the runway.
And you could lose directional control if you pitch up—or fail to pitch
down enough—and inadvertently fall below VMC as you try to force the
airplane to climb when it cannot.

It takes time to recognize the problem, adjust your pitch attitude,

identify and verify the failed engine, and wait for the propeller to
feather. During this time, the airplane decelerates and can settle back
to the runway anyway. The quicker you decide to discontinue the
takeoff, the more runway distance you have remaining to stop the
airplane safely.

● If the engine fails after takeoff with the gear retracted, and you believe you
can gain or maintain enough altitude to clear obstacles near the airport,
then pitch the airplane for the best engine-inoperative speed, normally
VXSE or VYSE, and proceed with the rest of the engine-out checklist.
Determine whether you can maintain enough altitude to safely return to a
 runway at the airport. If the airplane is unable to maintain altitude or
climb, you might have to perform an off-airport forced landing, making
minor course corrections to avoid obstacles.

A typical light twin that loses an engine at liftoff requires more than
7,500 feet of horizontal distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle if the
density altitude is 3,000 feet. At 4,500 feet, the accelerate-go distance
doubles to more than 16,000 feet, if you can climb at all. Think about
your airport. What 50-foot terrain or obstacles are within one mile of
your liftoff point? Within three miles?

If the engine fails during the climbout in a clean configuration, pitch for VXSE,
and after you have cleared any obstacles, accelerate to VYSE. You might have
to lower the nose to gain airspeed. Next, perform the emergency engine-
inoperative procedure—pitch, power, drag, identify, verify, feather, and
establish a bank toward the operating engine for best performance. After
these steps are completed, determine if your airplane’s performance is
sufficient to continue.

Engine Failure After Lift-Off (Simulated)

The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to the procedure used
for engine failure after lift-off.
• Recognize a simulated engine failure promptly, maintain control, and utilize
appropriate emergency procedures.
• Reduce drag and identify and verify the inoperative engine after a simulated
engine failure.
• Simulate feathering the propeller on the inoperative engine. Examiner shall
then establish zero-thrust on the inoperative engine.
• Establish VYSE, or if obstructions are present, establish VXSE or VMC +5 knots,
whichever is greater, until obstructions are cleared, then transition to VYSE.
• Bank toward the operating engine as required for best performance.
• Monitor the operating engine and make adjustments, as necessary.
• Recognize the airplane’s performance capabilities. If a climb is not possible at
VYSE , maintain VYSE and return to the departure airport for landing, or initiate
an approach to the most suitable landing area available.
• Simulate the securing the inoperative engine.
• Maintain heading, ±10°, and airspeed, ±5 knots.
• Complete the appropriate emergency checklist.

Where Would You Go?

Where would you go and what would you do

if you lost an engine on takeoff at Houma
Regional Airport in Houma, Louisiana, and
your performance was inadequate to
continue flying? The Houma airport sits in a
unique region of South Louisiana, an area
teeming with bayous, swamps, and rivers. On
the north side of the airport property lies the
Bayou Terrebonne and the Bayou Little
Caillou. These bayous are relatively narrow,
but filled with water and boats year round.
Within three nautical miles to the west of the airport lies the Intracoastal
Waterway, an inland navigation channel for barges and other large water
vessels transporting cargo. The banks of the Intracoastal Waterway are
home to several ship-building, cargo, and oil companies. The area is
surrounded by moving bridges, and often times, construction cranes.
Approximately eight miles to the south of the airport is Lake Boudreaux,
which is surrounded by bayous and swamps on all sides, extending out
to the Gulf of Mexico.
The Houma Regional Airport is an excellent example of the importance
of being familiar with the airport environment prior to takeoff. A forced
landing in an engine-out situation around the airport would be a difficult
feat. If you were to lose an engine immediately after takeoff, your best
bet would be to land on the airport property if possible. Otherwise, you
would be forced to land on the two-lane road to the north of the airport,
or on a heavily traveled street on the south side of the airport. Your
 options are limited and airports are few and far between. Always
examine the area you are venturing into, especially when flying into, or
out of, an unfamiliar airport. Review the charts, read the airport
description in the A/FD, and if necessary, contact an FBO or flight school
at the airport to ask local pilots about the area they fly into and out of on
a daily basis.

TAKEOFF BRIEFING
During your preflight planning, review the predicted performance of your
airplane and formulate a plan of action for an engine failure in a variety of
situations. Create a takeoff briefing and verbally review it with your flight
instructor, examiner, or copilot. Make a habit of stating the briefing out loud
even when you are flying by yourself. [Figure 5-19]

FIG05-019

Figure 5-19. The takeoff briefing ensures that you have thought about the
appropriate actions to take if an engine fails, including who will take the controls of
the airplane in an emergency.
ENROUTE
The best possible phase of flight to experience an engine loss (if one exists) is
the enroute phase. At this point, you are already at cruise altitude, which
gives you time to complete the engine-out procedures explained in Chapter 5,
Section A. With one engine still operating, you can locate and divert to an
appropriate nearby airport for an emergency landing.
Your ability to maintain altitude on one engine while enroute is based on the
current conditions and the single-engine service ceiling of your airplane.
During your preflight planning, pay attention to the MEA or MOCA along
your route (for an IFR flight) and the minimum terrain elevation (for a VFR
flight). If those altitudes are higher than the single-engine service ceiling of
your airplane, you might consider a different route.
When coping with an engine failure enroute, your main task is
maneuvering with an inoperative engine, and completing the
appropriate checklists. Your skills in handling the airplane, together with
effective aeronautical decision making, can lead to a successful conclusion of
your flight.
Maintain directional control with the rudder and then complete the
emergency checklist. Normally, this includes the initial actions explained in
Section A of this chapter—pitch for VYSE, adjust power, and reduce drag, as
well as identify and verify the failed engine.

Normally during cruise, the landing gear and flaps are already retracted
so the steps to reduce drag are not necessary. However, by stating all
the steps out loud, and then verifying them using the checklist, you can
ensure that nothing is missed.

Troubleshoot to determine the cause of the engine failure, and correct the
problem if possible. The emergency procedures section of your POH includes
checklists to troubleshoot engine problems
If you are unable to restart the inoperative engine, then proceed with the
checklist to secure the engine, which includes essential items such as
feathering the propeller and shutting off or cross feeding fuel. Establish the
appropriate bank angle toward the operative engine to achieve the best
performance and trim to relieve control pressures.

You might have already banked the airplane toward the operative
engine when adjusting the flight controls to maintain directional control
immeditately after the engine failure. After completing the securing-
engine checklist, take the time to fine tune the bank angle to achieve
maximum performance and controllability.

Monitor the remaining engine carefully as you continue to a landing point.

With one engine inoperative, you are flying at a reduced airspeed with an
increased power demand on the operating engine, which can cause
overheating. The inoperative engine might have been driving an alternator,
vacuum pump, and hydraulic pump. Prepare for systems malfunctions
related to the engine loss, discontinue the use of non-essential equipment,
and reduce electrical loads.
Notify ATC of your situation, divert to the nearest suitable airport, and
land as soon as practical.

Maintain situational awareness by knowing your surroundings before

an emergency occurs. This enables you to quickly locate the nearest
usable airport at any point during your flight. Onboard GPS navigation
systems can make this task easier, and ATC can provide vectors to an
airport if you are in radar contact.

As you continue to your intended point of landing, you need to manage

the fuel load. Because you are not burning fuel from one tank, and your other
tank is emptying at a higher-than-normal rate, you will need to cross feed
fuel to keep the airplane in balance. In addition, lightening the wing on the
inoperative engine makes it easier to compensate for the loss of induced lift
and bank away from that engine. Plus, you do not want to risk using all of the
fuel from the operative engine’s tank.
 Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to maneuvering with
one engine inoperative.
• Recognize engine failure and maintain control.
• Set the engine controls, reduce drag, identify and verify the inoperative engine,
and feather the appropriate propeller.
• Establish and maintain a bank toward the operating engine as required for
best performance in straight-and-level flight.
• Follow the prescribed checklists to verify procedures for securing the
inoperative engine.
• Monitor the operating engine and make the necessary adjustments.
• Demonstrate coordinated flight with one engine inoperative (propeller
feathered).
• Restart the inoperative engine using the appropriate restart procedures.
• Maintain altitude ±100 feet or minimum sink as appropriate and heading ±10°.
• Complete the appropriate checklists.
Note: During the practical test you must actually feather the propeller, unless
the manufacturer prohibits it. Feathering must be done at a minimum of 3,000
feet AGL (higher if specified by the manufacturer), and at a location where you
can land at a suitable airport if there is any problem. If you cannot unfeather
the propeller during the practical test, you should treat it as an emergency.
VMC DEMONSTRATION
VMC is the minimum controllable airspeed for a multi-engine airplane with
one engine inoperative. Below this airspeed, insufficient rudder authority is
available to provide directional control due to the decreased amount of
airflow over the control surfaces. You are required to demonstrate an
understanding of VMC, the consequences of operating below VMC, the control
pressures required to maintain control of the airplane, and the procedures to
recover from a loss of directional control.
A VMC demonstration can be extremely hazardous at high density altitudes
if the airplane is allowed to stall with the engines producing asymmetrical
thrust. As altitude and temperature increase, the VMC speed of an airplane
with a normally aspirated engine decreases, but stall speed remains the
same. [See Figure 3-31 in Chapter 3]
As the airplane slows, if it were to stall before reaching VMC, or at the same
time as reaching VMC, the airplane could violently roll and possibly enter an
unrecoverable spin. For this reason, your flight instructor or examiner may
omit the VMC demonstration, or they might limit the travel of the rudder to
simulate loss of directional control at a higher speed than it would actually
occur. If your airplane does begin to stall prior to reaching VMC, promptly
recover by reducing the angle of attack, and establishing your initial entry
airspeed.
Always conduct a VMC demonstration within any limitations published in the
POH. Start the maneuver at an altitude high enough to allow recovery no
lower than 3,000 feet AGL. Prior to performing the VMC demonstration,
discuss the procedure with your flight instructor so that you are prepared for
any situation, such as a stall or loss of directional control during the
maneuver.
 After you clear the area, configure the airplane as follows:
● Landing gear retracted
● Flaps set for takeoff
● Cowl flaps set for takeoff
● Trim set for takeoff
● Propellers set to high rpm
● Power on critical engine reduced to idle
● Power on operating engine set to takeoff or maximum available power
Establish a single-engine climb attitude with the airspeed approximately
10 knots above VSSE.

Establish a bank toward the operating engine as required for best

performance and controllability. Typically, this bank is approximately 2 to 3
degrees. The slip/skid indicator is deflected toward the operative engine.

Prior to performing the VMC demonstration, you should have

determined the appropriate bank for your airplane to zero the sideslip.

Increase the pitch attitude slowly to reduce the airspeed at approximately

one knot per second. At the same time, apply rudder pressure to maintain
directional control until all available rudder is applied.
 Do not perform this maneuver by increasing the pitch attitude to a high
angle with both engines operating and then reducing power on the
critical engine. This technique is hazardous and can result in loss of
airplane control.

Recognize and announce the first indications of a loss of directional

control or a stall. Initiate a recovery by simultaneously reducing sufficient
power on the operating engine and decreasing the angle of attack as
necessary to regain airspeed and directional control with a minimum loss of
altitude. You must recover within 20 degrees of the entry heading.

Do not attempt to recover by increasing the power on the simulated

failed engine.

Accelerate to VXSE or VYSE as appropriate, ±5 knots, to stop the descent and

reestablish straight-and-level flight. Complete the maneuver as directed by
your instructor. This typically entails reapplying power to the simulated
failed engine and resuming a cruise configuration.

VMC Demonstration
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit satisfactory knowledge of the elements related to VMC by explaining
the causes of loss of directional control at airspeeds less than VMC, the factors
affecting VMC, and safe recovery procedures.
• Configure the airplane in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendation, in the absence of the manufacturer’s recommendations,
then at VSSE or VYSE, as appropriate—
a. Landing gear retracted.
b. Flaps set for takeoff.
c. Cowl flaps set for takeoff.
d. Trim set for takeoff.
e. Propellers set for high RPM.
 f. Power on critical engine reduced to idle.
g. Power on operating engine set to takeoff or maximum available power.
• Establish a single-engine climb attitude with the airspeed at approximately 10
knots above VSSE or VYSE, as appropriate.
• Establish a bank toward the operating engine, as required for best
performance and controllability.
• Increase the pitch attitude slowly to reduce the airspeed at approximately 1
knot per second while applying rudder pressure to maintain directional control
until full rudder is applied.
• Recognize indications of loss of directional control, stall warning or buffet.
Note: Airplanes with normally aspirated engines lose power as altitude
increases, resulting in a VMC that is lower than the stall speed at higher
altitudes. It is essential to recover not only at the first indication of loss of
directional control, but at stall warning or buffet.
• Recover promptly by simultaneously reducing power sufficiently on the
operating engine while decreasing the angle of attack as necessary to regain
airspeed and directional control. Recovery should not be attempted by
increasing the power on the simulated failed engine.
• Recover within 20° of the entry heading.
• Advance the power smoothly on the operating engine and accelerate to VXSE
/VYSE, as appropriate, ±5 knots, during the recovery. (*Private Pilot +10/−5
knots)

DRAG DEMONSTRATION
You are required to understand your airplane’s engine-out performance in
several configurations. Your flight instructor will conduct a drag
demonstration to illustrate the adverse effects on performance of extended
flaps, extended landing gear, and a windmilling propeller following an engine
failure. Your instructor might also vary the airspeed above and below VYSE, so
that you can see how induced and parasite drag affect your airplane when
you are not operating at an optimal speed.
You need to understand how drag affects your airplane because each light
twin exhibits different performance characteristics. For example, a particular
light twin might experience:
● 700 ft/min descent with flaps fully extended.
● 400 ft/min descent with landing gear, but no flaps, extended.
● 1,100 ft/min descent with both landing gear and flaps extended.
● 900 ft/min descent as a result of a windmilling propeller.
However, on a different make and model of airplane, the drag from a
windmilling propeller might be greater than the combined flap and gear
drag. Every model of multi-engine airplane is different—therefore, you need
to conduct or observe a drag demonstration to determine your airplane’s
performance.

After clearing the area of other traffic, establish VYSE with the critical
engine (if there is one) at zero thrust.
Vary the airspeed from VYSE to show the effects of airspeed other than blue
line on the climb performance of the airplane. First reduce airspeed and
observe the decrease in the rate of climb, or the rate of descent. Increase the
airspeed above VYSE and observe the same.

To obtain an accurate assessment of your airplane’s performance,

ensure that you maintain each pitch attitude long enough for the
airspeed to stabilize and for the VSI to depict a consistent rate.
Reestablish the airplane at VYSE between changes in airspeed.

Return to VYSE and maintain this airspeed. Demonstrate the extension of

landing gear and the associated drag. Note the performance of the airplane,
and retract the landing gear.
Extend the flaps, still maintaining VYSE. Note the performance of the
airplane with the flaps extended.
With the flaps still down, lower the landing gear while maintaining VYSE.
Note the performance of the airplane with both landing gear and flaps.
Retract the landing gear and flaps.
Windmill the propeller on the inoperative engine. Note the performance
of the airplane with the windmilling propeller. At this point, recover from the
maneuver as directed by your flight instructor.

You can also observe the combined drag of landing gear, flaps, and
windmilling propeller. With the propeller still windmilling, extending the
landing gear and extend the flaps to the takeoff position. This shows
the severe performance loss you would experience if an engine failed
immediately after takeoff.

Drag Demonstration
The multi-engine flight instructor practical test standards require that
instructor applicants demonstrate the effects of various airspeeds and
configurations during engine inoperative performance, commonly referred to as
the drag demonstration. In addition to performing the demonstration, instructor
applicants must:
Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to the effects of various airspeeds
and configurations during engine inoperative performance by describing:
• Selection of proper altitude for the demonstration.
• Proper entry procedure to include pitch attitude, bank attitude, and airspeed.
• Effects on performance of airspeed changes at, above, and below VYSE.
• Effects on performance of various configurations:
• Extension of landing gear
• Extension of wing flaps
• Extension of both landing gear and wing flaps
 • Windmilling of propeller on inoperative engine
• Airspeed control throughout the demonstration.
• Proper control technique and procedures throughout the demonstration.
LANDING
Although approach and landing with an inoperative engine is not much
different than a normal landing, you must plan carefully to avoid a potential
engine-out go-around situation. It is important to follow normal procedures
throughout the landing sequence and comply with the appropriate checklists
in the POH. Follow a standard traffic pattern as closely as possible and
ensure that you are maintaining the proper airspeeds.
If you are facing an actual engine-inoperative landing, do not hesitate to
declare an emergency—this enables ATC to provide you with priority
sequencing to the runway. At an uncontrolled airport, other aircraft alerted
to your situation can clear the area. At a tower-controlled airport, the
controller contacts emergency units, such as the fire department, who will
have equipment ready for any contingency upon your arrival. Because you
might need to be towed to the ramp, ATC also advises ground personnel.
One phenomenon associated with engine-out landings is the decrease in drag
resulting from a feathered engine. This drag reduction can cause your
airplane to float further down the runway than it does with both propellers
windmilling during a normal landing. By considering this factor in your
approach planning, you can avoid overshooting and running off the runway.
Maintain a normal, stabilized approach, at the airspeed indicated in the
POH for landing with one engine inoperative. Typically, you should maintain
an approach speed at VYSE or above until you are over the runway, beginning
the flare for touchdown. Never allow your airspeed to fall below VMC during
the approach.
 Ensure that the before-landing checklist is completed and that you have
complied with all special procedures related to approach and landing with an
inoperative engine. Use of checklists is critical because you can overlook
routine procedures, such as extending the landing gear and fastening safety
belts, in a high-workload emergency situation.

In order to avoid excessive bank angles, lead the turns throughout the
traffic pattern.

Lower the landing gear abeam the touchdown point if the landing is
assured. If you are in doubt of making it to the runway, leave the gear up
until you are positive you can make it. Be prepared for the possibility of
having to extend the gear manually if normal gear operation relies on
systems powered by the inoperative engine.

If you are abeam the touchdown point at normal traffic pattern altitude,
you are most likely in a position to easily reach the runway even with
the drag from the landing gear. Delaying landing gear extension
introduces the risks of forgetting this task, or of difficulty extending the
 gear on short final when a go-around is not a safe option. If you are
concerned about drag, delaying flap extension is a better option.

Set up a stabilized descent and proper airspeed so you can gradually

reduce power on the good engine and maintain a stabilized approach. Large
power adjustments increase your workload and make it difficult to maintain
directional control.

As you reduce power on the operating engine, be prepared to

gradually decrease the rudder pressure you are using to maintain
directional control.

Extend flaps on final only when the landing is assured. Consult your POH
for the maximum flap setting to be used during an engine-inoperative
approach and landing. Maintain your airspeed and do not allow it to fall
below VMC. Be prepared for the required rudder pressure to decrease as you
reduce power on the operating engine.

A normal and stabilized approach is the critical success factor for a

successful landing. A low, slow approach is obviously dangerous.
However, in an engine-inoperative situation in which a go-around is
unlikely to be successful, overshooting the runway by approaching
high or fast is also hazardous.

Smoothly reduce the power on the remaining engine to idle. Be prepared

for float due to the lack of drag on the feathered engine.

Approach and Landing with an Inoperative Engine

(Simulated)
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards* require that you:
• Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to an approach and landing with an
engine inoperative to include engine failure on final approach.
• Recognize an engine failure and take the appropriate action, maintain control,
and utilize the recommended emergency procedures.
• Bank toward the operating engine, as required, for best performance.
• Monitor the operating engine and make adjustments as necessary.
• Maintain the recommended approach airspeed ±5 knots (Private Pilot +10/–5
knots), and landing configuration with a stabilized approach, until landing is
assured.
• Make smooth, timely and correct control applications during roundout and
touchdown.
• Touch down on the first one-third of the available runway, with no drift and the
airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway centerline.
• Maintain crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach
and landing sequence.
• Complete the appropriate checklists.

You Can’t Do That!

Robert A. “Bob” Hoover is a legend in aviation. He stunned
airshow crowds around the world with his spectacular aerial displays. He
was a fighter pilot during World War II who survived 16 months in a
German war camp, and later became a test pilot for various companies,
including North American. Throughout his career as a test pilot, he flew
the F-100, F-86, FJ-2, and the T-28. He piloted the chase plane when
Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier in the X-1.
Mr. Hoover flew his P-51 and Shrike Commander in various airshows
and is still considered one of the best pilots in aviation history. One of is
most impressive demonstrations was his energy management
maneuver, a maneuver that seems to defy everything taught about multi-
engine airplanes. With his twin Shrike, Mr. Hoover made a low pass over
the runway, climbed up and through a course reversal, and then
returned to the runway for landing. His airplane continued to roll to a stop
in front of the announcer’s stand. Amazingly, Mr. Hoover accomplished
the entire maneuver with the engines off. By using the potential and
kinetic energy of the airplane, he flew the airplane dead stick throughout
a seemingly impossible routine.
ENGINE-OUT GO-AROUND
A go-around with one engine inoperative in a light twin is not a good idea
under most conditions. Numerous NTSB reports analyze accidents in which
the pilot attempted an engine-out go-around, only to have it end
catastrophically. This does not mean that a go-around with an inoperative
engine is impossible, but it does suggest you must consider the maneuver
only as a last resort. With most light twins, a go-around is only successful
under the best conditions of weight, altitude, temperature, and obstacles.
Under other conditions, such as high density altitude, a go-around might be
impossible. It is better to perform a controlled off-runway landing than risk
impacting terrain or obstacles because your airplane is unable to climb
during a go-around. [Figure 5-20]
 FIG05-020

Figure 5-20. The ability to successfully complete an engine-out go-around is

influenced by several factors, including the point at which the go-around is started.
Make every effort to establish a stabilized approach to avoid an engine-out
go-around. However, if you are nervous about your approach, making a go-
around decision early can reduce the need to make a precarious climb. Prior
to departing on the flight, compute your airplane’s engine-out climb
performance at your destination. Using this information, you can establish a
Go/No-Go altitude for a go-around prior to your flight. Prior to
descending to the Go/No-Go altitude, if you decide to go around, add full
power, retract the flaps to the takeoff position, retract the landing gear, and
climb at VYSE, or VXSE if there are obstacles in your path. Know and use the
procedures in your POH for an engine-out go-around. However, after the
airplane is on final approach, and the flaps and landing gear are extended,
you should consider yourself committed to land—a go-around is no longer a
viable option.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
The appropriate actions for an engine failure during takeoff and initial
climb vary depending on your airplane’s configuration, airspeed, and
performance characteristics, as well as your position on the runway and in
relation to any obstacles.
You must know your airplane’s expected performance in an engine-out
situation so that you do not attempt to continue a takeoff when it is
impossible to climb to a safe altitude under the circumstances.
Before you taxi onto the runway, have a plan of action to use if an engine
fails during the takeoff and climb. Base this plan on procedures and
performance data published in the POH and the conditions at the airport.
During the takeoff roll, keep your hand on the throttles and be ready to
abort the takeoff if you have any difficulty keeping the airplane on the
runway centerline.
If the engine fails during takeoff prior to reaching VMC, you have only one
option—immediately reduce both throttles to idle and stop straight ahead
on the runway.
If the engine fails at or before liftoff speed, most light twins’ limited
performance requires that you pull both throttles to idle and stop on the
remaining runway.
If the engine fails after liftoff with the gear still extended, limited airplane
performance requires that you discontinue the takeoff. Pull both throttles
back and land straight ahead. Maintain control of the airplane and stay on
the centerline by using brakes and rudder.
If the engine fails after takeoff with the gear retracted, and you believe
you can gain or maintain enough altitude to clear obstacles near the
airport, then pitch the airplane for the best engine-inoperative speed,
normally VXSE or VYSE, and proceed with the rest of the engine-out
checklist.
 If the engine fails during the climbout in a clean configuration, pitch for
VXSE, and after you have cleared any obstacles, accelerate to VYSE. Perform
the emergency engine-inoperative procedure—pitch, power, drag, identify,
verify, feather, and establish a bank toward the operating engine for best
performance.
Create a takeoff briefing that includes a plan of action for an engine
failure in various situations. Verbally review it with your flight instructor,
examiner, or copilot, as well as stating the briefing out loud when you are
flying by yourself.
The ability to maintain altitude on one engine enroute is based on the
current conditions and the single-engine service ceiling for your airplane.
As you continue to your intended point of landing after securing an
engine, you might need to use your airplane’s crossfeed system to manage
the fuel load.
As altitude and temperature increase, the VMC speed of an airplane with a
normally aspirated engine decreases, while the stall speed remains the
same.
If the airplane were to stall at or before reaching VMC, it could violently
roll and possibly enter an unrecoverable spin. For this reason, your
instructor or examiner may omit the VMC demonstration, or they might
limit the travel of the rudder to simulate loss of directional control at a
higher speed than it would actually occur.
During a VMC demonstration, do not attempt to recover from a loss of
directional control by increasing the power on the simulated failed engine.
A drag demonstration exhibits the effects of drag on the airplane due to:
varying the airspeed from VYSE; extending the landing gear, flaps, and gear
and flaps combined; and a windmilling propeller.
Although an engine-out approach and landing is not much different from
a normal approach and landing, you must plan carefully in order to avoid
an engine-out go-around situation.
If you need to conduct an actual engine-out landing, do not hesitate to
declare an emergency.
 In an engine-out landing, the drag reduction from the feathered propeller
can cause your airplane to float further down the runway than it does with
both propellers windmilling during a normal landing.
In an engine-out situation where a go-around might be impossible,
overshooting the runway by approaching high and fast can be hazardous.
Be prepared to gradually decrease the rudder pressure you are using to
maintain directional control as you reduce power on the operating engine.
Based on your airplane’s engine-out climb performance at your
destination, establish a Go/No-Go altitude for an engine-out go-around
prior to your flight.
In an engine-out situation, after the airplane is on final approach, and the
flaps and landing gear are extended, you should consider yourself
committed to land—a go-around is no longer a viable option.

KEY TERMS
Takeoff Briefing
Maneuvering with an Inoperative Engine
VMC Demonstration
Drag Demonstration
Stabilized Approach
Go/No-Go Altitude

QUESTIONS
1. What action should you take if an engine fails on the runway prior to
reaching VMC?
2.Select the true statement regarding the appropriate actions to take after
an engine failure in a light multi-engine airplane at liftoff speed.
A.To avoid swerving off the runway, you should continue the takeoff and
configure the airplane to climb at VYSE.
B.Due to your airplane’s limited performance in this situation, the most
appropriate course of action is to retard both throttles to idle and stop on the
remaining runway.
 C.Typically, your airplane’s performance at this point is sufficient to continue the
takeoff and maintain a rate of climb to easily clear a 50-foot obstacle near the
departure end of most runways.
3.Describe what actions you would take if you experienced an engine failure
immediately after liftoff with the landing gear still extended. How would
these actions differ if the gear were retracted?
4.What is the purpose of a takeoff briefing?
5. True/False. If you experience an engine failure enroute, you should
immediately feather the propeller and then attempt to determine the
cause of the engine problem.
6.What is the appropriate recovery procedure initiated at the first sign of
loss of directional control during a VMC demonstration?
A.Reduce power on the operating engine while pitching up.
B.Reduce power on the operating engine while pitching down.
C.Add power on the simulated failed engine while pitching down.
7. In what airplane configurations are you determining performance during
the drag demonstration?
8.Select the true statement regarding engine-out landings.
A.Executing a stabilized approach can help prevent having to perform a risky
engine-out go-around.
B.There is no need to declare an emergency provided one engine is still operating
normally.
C.As you reduce power on final, be prepared to increase rudder pressure toward
the operative engine to maintain directional control.
9.Explain the concept of a go/no-go altitude when preparing for the
possibility of an engine-out go-around.
SECTION C
Operating on Instruments
What we hope ever to do with ease, we must first learn to do with diligence.
—Samuel Johnson

T
he practical test standards require you to demonstrate instrument
proficiency during the multi-engine practical test. The PTS
requirements include instrument flight with both engines running as
well as with one engine inoperative. While operating on instruments, you are
expected to demonstrate the proper procedures for handling simulated
engine failures in straight-and-level flight and in turns. You also must be
proficient at flying instrument approaches using both engines, or with one
engine inoperative. You are expected to be able to use all the equipment
installed in the airplane, so be sure you are proficient in the operation of all
the navigation systems in your airplane.
For the most part, instrument flying in a multi-engine airplane is the same as
in a single-engine airplane. IFR operations just amplify the differences that
were already present in VFR flying. These include the higher workload due to
more complex systems, the need to plan further ahead because of increased
speed, and the potential for problems resulting from engine failures. These
factors, coupled with the normal challenges of instrument flight, require a
higher level of proficiency. [Figure 5-21]
 FIG05-021

Figure 5-21. Being able to operate a multi-engine airplane under IFR can enhance
safety and add flexibility to your travel plans.
If your instrument flying skills are sharp, you should have little trouble flying
your multi-engine airplane on instruments. The greatest challenge you face is
managing an engine-out situation, so this section concentrates on some of
the specific factors to consider when encountering engine failures in IFR
conditions.

MAINTAINING THE PROPER ATTITUDE

During your multi-engine training in VFR conditions, you learn to recognize
and respond to an engine’s loss of power based on a combination of cues.
Some of these indications are unavailable or unreliable during flight in IFR
conditions. As you would expect, your instruments still provide the most
accurate means of recognizing a nonnormal situation.
Your first indication of a loss of thrust is the need to use additional rudder
pressure to hold your heading, as well as the feeling of increasing wing-
heaviness or a tendency to roll. As an engine loses power, the attitude
indicator and turn coordinator show a turn toward the failing engine. At first,
the engine instruments might not show signs of trouble because the propeller
governor automatically reduces blade pitch to hold rpm, and the windmilling
propeller can keep manifold pressure near normal for awhile. Fuel and oil
pressure can also be normal on an engine that is turning without power. Your
most reliable information comes from control pressures and the flight
instruments.
After you identify the inoperative engine, you must establish the appropriate
bank toward the operating engine and divide your attention between
managing the engine failure and maintaining a good instrument scan and
cross-check. It takes a conscious effort to maintain the correct bank attitude,
but precise aircraft control is essential to achieve maximum performance and
controllability during engine-out operations. [Figure 5-22]
 FIG05-022

Figure 5-22. During straight-and-level flight with an inoperative engine, the

instruments show the required bank and sideslip.
Practicing instrument procedures in a simulator, flight training device
(FTD), or aviation training device (ATD) offers significant advantages.
In addition to the obvious safety factor, a good training device enables you to
actually perform many of the tasks that you can only pretend to do in an
airplane. A training device can reproduce situations that are dangerous or
impossible to simulate in flight, such as an engine failure immediately after
takeoff in IFR conditions.

DEPARTURE
Thorough preparation is the key to safe instrument departure
procedures. In multi-engine airplanes, the higher performance and the
potential for engine failure make it especially important to carefully evaluate
all available information. Use the charts in the POH to determine aircraft
performance, such as accelerate-stop distance and engine-out climb
capability, then consider what associated conditions can exist in an IFR
environment that might modify your calculations. For example, what effect
does a wet runway have on accelerate-stop distance? In IFR conditions, you
might not be able to see the departure path, so it becomes especially
important to use all available sources of flight information to determine the
height of terrain and obstructions off the departure end of the runway. Are
there obstacles that could interfere with your climb if you lose an engine after
takeoff? Could your airplane achieve the climb gradient required to fly a
published departure on one engine?
Although the weather conditions might be better than required for an
instrument departure, you must also consider both your own limitations and
those of your airplane. If an engine quits during climbout, do the current
ceiling, visibility, and runway length permit you to make a controlled landing
straight ahead if necessary? Is your airplane capable of circling to return for
landing, and are the ceiling and visibility such that you would be able to
maintain VFR? Are you comfortable with your own ability to handle the
engine failure and return for a landing in IFR conditions? Before you
advance the throttles for takeoff, you should be confident that you can end
the flight safely if an engine failure occurs at any point during your flight.
[Figure 5-23]
 FIG05-023

Figure 5-23. Before takeoff, you should know your options if an engine were to fail
during any phase of your flight.

ENROUTE
Maintaining situational awareness while enroute is vital for safe flying. As
you plan your flight, be sure to check the MEAs and MOCAs along your route
to see how they compare with the single-engine ceiling for your airplane.
During the flight, use your GPS moving map or Nearest function to stay
aware of possible alternatives before you need them. Monitor the weather
conditions at airports near your route, and familiarize yourself with the types
of instrument approaches available. You can manage an engine failure more
effectively if you know your options while enroute.

Recognize the engine failure promptly. The attitude indicator and turn
indicator will show a turn toward the inoperative engine. If you are in
straight-and-level flight, maintain your heading and adjust your pitch to
obtain the recommended airspeed. If the airplane is below its single-
engine ceiling, maintain your altitude, otherwise maintain the single-
engine best rate-of-climb airspeed (VYSE). If an engine failure occurs
while you are turning to an assigned heading, continue the turn at
standard rate and apply the appropriate pressures to maintain control.
When you practice engine failures during turns, you might initially find it
difficult to identify the inoperative engine and apply the correct control
pressures to continue the turn. For example, if turning left, and the left
engine fails (on the inside of the turn), your turn rate initially increases as
the airplane yaws left. You need to apply right rudder pressure toward
the operating engine to prevent yaw and roll, but too much right rudder
pressure can roll the airplane out of the turn. A failure of the right engine
(on the outside of the turn) is easier to identify, but if you do not apply
enough left rudder pressure, the yawing and rolling toward the dead right
engine also can roll the airplane out of the turn.

Perform the engine failure procedures. Set the engine controls, reduce
drag, identify and verify the inoperative engine. Based on your airplane’s
performance and the flight conditions, determine whether you should try
to restart the inoperative engine or feather the propeller.
If the restart is unsuccessful, follow the appropriate checklist to feather
and secure the dead engine. To minimize drag, establish the appropriate
bank toward the operating engine and use enough rudder pressure to
maintain heading. The slip/skid indicator should be deflected toward the
operative engine, and the turn rate should be zero.
Trim to relieve control pressures and maintain the desired airspeed.
Maintain your instrument scan to stay on course and altitude.

Although you perform initial engine-out procedures from memory, you

must follow up with a written checklist. Confirm the items already
completed, and complete any that remain, such as reducing
unnecessary electrical loads. Get help from another person in the
cockpit, if you can, to read the checklist as you perform the tasks.

Advise ATC—declare an emergency—and tell them of any limitations

caused by the engine-out situation, such as inability to maintain your
assigned altitude or airspeed. Request vectors to the nearest suitable
airport, as well as information about runway lengths, approaches
available, and current weather conditions at airports. If maintaining
altitude is a problem, request vectors toward lower terrain.
 Evaluate your options for safely completing the flight. If you experience
an engine failure in IFR conditions, you need to weigh a number of
factors to determine the most appropriate action. Examine your options
carefully, taking into account the airplane’s performance, the condition of
the remaining engine, the weather, the conditions at nearby airports, the
approach and landing facilities they offer. If you are unable to maintain
altitude on one engine, you must plan your driftdown to avoid obstacles
and proceed to an airport with weather conditions that are well above
approach minimums. Select an airport with a precision approach if
possible. [Figure 5-24]

Engine Failure During Flight (By Reference to

Instruments)
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Know the elements by explaining the procedures used during instrument flight
with one engine inoperative.
• Recognize an engine failure, set the engine controls, reduce drag, identify and
verify the inoperative engine and simulate feathering the appropriate engine’s
propeller.
• Establish and maintain a bank toward the operating engine as required for
best performance in straight-and-level flight.
• Follow the prescribed checklists to verify procedures for securing the
inoperative engine.
• Monitor the operating engine and make the necessary adjustments.
• Demonstrate coordinated flight with one engine inoperative.
• Maintain altitude ±100 feet, or minimum sink as appropriate and heading ±10°,
bank ±5°, and level off from climbs and descents within ± 100 feet.
 FIG05-024

Figure 5-24. Develop a mental picture of the conditions surrounding your route of
flight and consider the advantages and disadvantages of nearby airports if you need
to divert.
After you decide where to land, reduce your workload by planning ahead and
completing as many tasks as possible before beginning the approach.
Anticipate what you will do at each stage of the approach, and think about
how to handle possible problems, such as inability to maintain altitude or
airspeed. Prioritize tasks and think ahead of the airplane.

ENGINE-OUT INSTRUMENT APPROACH

An instrument approach with an inoperative engine in IFR
conditions is a demanding procedure with little tolerance for error. The point
at which you lose an engine influences your actions and your ability to
successfully complete an approach. For example, if an engine fails enroute,
you can stabilize the airplane, preserve altitude, and obtain best possible
performance prior to initiating the approach. You can determine whether
your airplane is capable of maintaining the appropriate altitudes and
airspeed required by the approach procedure, and can declare an emergency
with ATC and receive priority sequencing. But if an engine quits at some
point while performing the approach, your workload is much higher and you
have less time to manage the failure.
Unlike the enroute phase, in which you have more time, you must normally
feather and secure a dead engine immediately if you experience an engine
failure during an instrument approach in IFR conditions. Attempting to
troubleshoot while flying an approach procedure can lead to work overload
and disorientation.
To reduce the risk of error, fly your instrument approach as normally as
possible. For example, if you typically lower the landing gear as you start
your final descent, then also do this with an inoperative engine unless poor
airplane performance makes it difficult to remain on the glide path. Wait to
extend flaps until a safe landing is assured. In addition, you might delay
trimming to relieve rudder pressure because the required rudder pressure to
keep the airplane straight changes as you reduce power during the approach.
Perform a precision approach if possible. The accurate course and glide
slope, stabilized descent, and lower minimums, increase your chances of
success. [Figure 5-25]
 FIG05-025

Figure 5-25. Be prepared to handle an engine failure at any point during the
approach.

Instrument Approach — One Engine Inoperative

(By Reference to Instruments)
The multi-engine airplane practical test standards require that you:
• Exhibit knowledge of the elements by explaining the procedures used during a
published instrument approach with one engine inoperative.
• Recognize an engine failure, set the engine controls, reduce drag, identify and
verify the inoperative engine, and simulate feathering the appropriate engine’s
propeller.
• Establish and maintain a bank toward the operating engine, as required, for
best performance in straight and level flight.
 • Follow the manufacturer’s prescribed checklists to verify the procedures for
securing the inoperative engine.
• Monitor the operating engine and make the necessary adjustments.
• Request and receive an actual or a simulated ATC clearance for an instrument
approach.
• Follow the actual or a simulated ATC clearance for an instrument approach.
• Maintain altitude within 100 feet, airspeed ±10 knots if within the aircraft’s
capability, and heading ±10°.
• Establish a rate of descent that will ensure arrival at the MDA or DH/DA, with
the airplane in a position from which a descent to a landing on the intended
runway can be made, either straight in or circling as appropriate.
• Allow, while on the final approach segment, no more than three-quarter-scale
deflection of the CDI or glide slope indicator. For RMI or ADF indicators,
remain within 10° of the course.
• Avoid loss of aircraft control, or attempt flight contrary to the engine-
inoperative operating limitations of the aircraft.
• Comply with the published criteria for the aircraft approach category when
circling.
• Complete the landing and other appropriate checklists.

ENGINE-OUT MISSED APPROACH

Performing an engine-out missed approach at the decision altitude or missed
approach point is an unthinkable situation in an underpowered light twin
and you must not allow it to happen. Fly your best instrument approach so
that you are able to land, and do not start an approach unless it has a high
probability of success with the reported weather conditions. It is usually
better to divert to an airport with a ceiling and visibility well above
minimums, rather than risk attempting a missed approach.
Under many conditions, a missed approach on one engine is impossible due
to the reduced performance of your airplane. Prior to flight, calculate your
airplane’s performance under the expected conditions to determine if a climb
at your destination weight and density altitude is feasible. Many missed-
approach procedures require a climb capability of at least 300-500 ft/min,
and often specify a total climb of several thousand feet. The terrain around
the airport might rise too quickly for your engine-out climb rate, or obstacles
could be present that you cannot see in IFR conditions. If the altitude at the
missed approach point is at or above the airplane’s single-engine service
ceiling, you cannot expect to climb at all.
Aside from declaring an emergency, regulations do require you to fly a
missed approach if you reach the missed approach point without the
required visibility to make a safe landing. Apply full power on the good
engine, maintain VYSE or VXSE as appropriate, and reduce drag by retracting
the flaps and landing gear. With the surge of power, yaw forces return, so be
ready to maintain your heading with rudder. After you have established your
climb and are on course for the missed approach fix, call ATC and state your
intentions. As pilot-in-command, you are always the final authority on
matters of safety. You must exercise your best judgment and accept
responsibility for the safe outcome of the flight.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
While operating on instruments during the practical test, you are
expected to demonstrate the proper procedures for handling simulated
engine failures in straight-and-level flight and in turns. You also must be
proficient at making normal instrument approaches using both engines, as
well as approaches with one engine inoperative.
Instrument operations in multi-engine airplanes amplify the differences
between single- and multi-engine aircraft. The aircraft complexity,
increased performance, and possibility of engine failure in multi-engine
airplanes require you to maintain a higher level of proficiency.
Compared to flight with both engines operating, the instrument
indications for straight-and-level flight are different when one engine is
inoperative. If you are correcting properly for the sideslip caused by
rudder application, the attitude indicator normally shows a slight bank
toward the operating engine and the slip/skid indicator is also deflected
toward the operative engine.
A simulator, flight training device, or aviation training device can
simulate scenarios that are dangerous or impossible to practice in flight,
such as an engine failure just after takeoff in IFR conditions.
Use the charts in the POH to determine aircraft performance, such as
accelerate-stop distance and engine-out climb capability, then consider
 what associated conditions can exist in an IFR environment that might
modify your calculations.
Although the weather conditions might be better than those required for
an instrument departure, you must also consider your own limitations and
those of your airplane.
When you practice engine failures during turns, you might initially find it
difficult to identify the inoperative engine and apply the correct control
pressures to continue the turn.
As you plan your flight, be sure to check the MEAs and MOCAs along your
route to see how they compare with the single-engine ceiling for your
airplane.
During the flight, stay aware of the weather conditions at airports near
your route, and familiarize yourself with the types of instrument
approaches available.
Following an engine failure, after the airplane is under control and the
dead engine is secured, inform ATC of your emergency and evaluate your
options for safely completing the flight.
Use all available resources to manage an enroute engine-out situation.
Declare an emergency with ATC and request radar vectors and
information about conditions at nearby airports.
The point at which you lose an engine in part determines your actions and
your ability to successfully complete an engine-out instrument approach.
Unlike in the enroute phase, you must normally feather and secure the
dead engine immediately if an engine fails during an instrument approach
in IFR conditions. Trying to troubleshoot during an approach can lead to
work overload and disorientation.
To reduce the risk of error when flying an engine-out instrument
approach, perform approach procedures as normally as possible.
Under many conditions, a missed approach on one engine is impossible
due to the reduced performance of your airplane.

KEY TERMS
Simulator
 Flight Training Device (FTD)
Aviation Training Device (ATD)
Departure Procedures
Engine Failure in IFR Conditions
Instrument Approach with an Inoperative Engine

QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is the most reliable indication of a failed engine
when flying with reference to instruments?
A.A drop in manifold pressure on the affected engine.
B.A need for increasing rudder pressure to maintain heading, or a turn indicated
by the attitude indicator and turn coordinator.
C.An unexplained gradual loss of altitude, and a heading change of 10° or more
accompanied by a bank toward the operating engine.
2.You have just reported your leveloff at cruise altitude to ATC, and an
engine fails. What are your next actions with regard to communicating
with ATC?
3.You are cruising in instrument conditions and experience an engine
failure. What is your first priority if you are not able to maintain your
assigned altitude?
A.Inform ATC and request a new altitude that you can maintain.
B.Pitch for best single-engine rate of climb (VYSE) while maintaining course.
C.Fly one mile to the right of your assigned course so as not to collide with aircraft
below you on the same course, and squawk 7700.
4.What type of assistance would you request from ATC if you had an engine
failure during the enroute phase of a flight in IFR conditions?
5. You experience an engine failure during the enroute portion of a flight in
IFR conditions. After securing the engine, you evaluate your options for
safely completing the flight. List three of the factors you should consider
in your evaluation.
6.True/False. If an engine fails during an instrument approach, it is best to
feather the propeller immediately after verifying which engine has failed.
7. True/False. To execute an instrument approach on one engine, plan to fly
the final approach segment at VYSE or VMC, whichever is lower.
CHAPTER 6
Applying SRM
Ladies and gentleman, this is your captain speaking. We have a small
problem. All four engines have stopped. We are doing our damnedest to get
them going again. I trust you are not in too much distress.
— Captain Eric Moody, British Airways, after flying through volcanic
ash in a B-747
There’s simply no substitute for experience in terms of aviation safety.
—Chesley Sullenberger

O
n January 15, 2009, US Airways Flight 1549, an Airbus A320,
departed LaGuardia Airport in New York on a scheduled commercial
passenger flight with 155 passengers on board. Six minutes after
takeoff, Captain Chesley Sullenberger ditched the crippled airplane in the
Hudson River after suffering a complete loss of thrust from both engines as
the result of multiple bird strikes. [Figure 6-1]
 FIG06-001

Figure 6-1. Loss of both engines did not daunt the crew of Flight 1549. They used
their decision-making skills to successfully deal with an extraordinary emergency.
Managing this emergency with no loss of life demonstrates outstanding
decision-making abilities. Captain Sullenberger used the decision-making
process and his experience and training, as well as skills in crew
coordination, effective communication, workload management, and
situational awareness, to successfully make decisions about a critical
situation.
An airplane is a machine composed of thousands of parts that are designed
to work together to allow flight. Some airplane features are nonessential,
while others, such as the wings, must be performing correctly to guarantee
flight safety. Most airplanes cannot fly themselves, therefore, the most
critical component of an airplane is its pilot. While an engine is obviously an
important piece of equipment, its failure to operate properly does not
necessarily equal a tragic ending to a flight. On the other hand, your failure
to effectively handle the emergency when an engine quits can place a flight in
jeopardy. Perhaps even more crucial than your competence in handling
abnormal and emergency situations is your ability to effectively manage
everyday flight operations. You must have the SRM skills to prevent minor
problems from escalating into major emergencies and to avoid creating a
poor judgment chain that leads to an accident.

POOR JUDGMENT CHAIN

Typically, a sequence of contributing factors produces an accident, although
at first glance it can appear to have only a single cause. The poor judgment
chain, or error chain, describes this concept of contributing factors in a
human-factors-related accident. Breaking one link in the chain by making a
different decision is typically all that a pilot needs to do to avert a
catastrophic outcome of a sequence of events. [Figure 6-2]
 FIG06-002

Figure 6-2. When you read accident reports and ASRS accounts, consider the
actions that the pilots could have taken to break links in the poor judgment chain and
maintain flight safety.

AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING

With experience, you become more adept at using the ADM process to
make effective choices and reduce the risks associated with each flight. As the
pilot of a multi-engine airplane, you might face unique situations, such as
managing the flight after an engine failure, that you did not have to handle in
single-engine airplanes. [Figure 6-3]
 FIG06-003

Figure 6-3. This scenario involves following the steps in the ADM process to
manage an engine malfunction in IFR weather conditions.
PILOT-IN-COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY
No minimum amount of time is required to obtain a multi-engine rating if
you hold an airplane pilot certificate and no currency requirements exist
other than the three takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days
specified by FAR 61.57. Because of these factors, your pilot-in-command
responsibilities include understanding your limitations and maintaining
proficiency in multi-engine operations. Create a refresher training schedule
with an instructor that includes engine-out procedure practice and ground
sessions to review systems. Ask the CFI to pose system malfunction scenarios
so you can practice troubleshooting equipment problems. In addition, refer
to various online resources and aviation publications, to obtain the latest
safety research.

HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
In order to effectively make and implement a decision, you must recognize
whether you have a hazardous attitude and mitigate its effect. Perform a
self-analysis after each flight. Did you show any signs of a hazardous attitude
even during routine situations? Which hazardous attitude do have the
greatest tendency to exhibit under pressure? Do not hesitate to ask copilots
or instructors of their impression of your actions. In this way, you can be
better prepared to recognize and manage the effects of a hazardous attitude
when you face a critical challenge during a flight. [Figure 6-4]
 FIG06-004

Figure 6-4. You might be displaying a hazardous attitude if you take these types of
actions in similar situations.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication and division of responsibilities are crucial for
making decisions when flying multi-engine airplanes. You might be carrying
more passengers than you did in single-engine airplanes, and due to the
expense and insurance requirements of operating a twin, you might be flying
with other pilots frequently.
If you are flying with another pilot, discuss your experience levels prior to the
flight and agree upon how to safely exchange the flight controls. When
dividing responsibilities, recent time in the specific airplane can be more
important than total flight hours. For example, you might determine that the
pilot who has most recently practiced engine-out procedures in the particular
make and model of airplane is better qualified to take the controls if an
engine fails. Effective communication must continue throughout the flight as
you discuss upcoming procedures and manage any problems that might
arise. In addition, it is critical that both you and your instructor take
responsibility for effective communication during multi-engine training
flights. [Figure 6-5]
 FIG06-005

Figure 6-5. This NTSB report emphasizes the importance of effective

communication during multi-engine training.

Decision Making on Mars

When Curiosity rover touched down on the surface
of Mars on August 6, 2012, it was one more step in
a journey that will lead to the ultimate goal—
sending a crew of astronauts to the red planet. In
addition to investigating Martian climate and
geology and assessing environmental conditions
favorable for microbial life, Curiosity collects
planetary habitability data in preparation for future
human exploration.
 One of the greatest challenges we face in completing a mission to Mars
is not the technology, but the crew. Can a group of astronauts survive a
trip lasting two to three years, existing in total confinement, with no real-
time communication to people on Earth? Factors such as isolation,
reduced sensory stimulation, boredom, regimented work and rest
schedules, the strangeness of the environment, and the awareness of
risk could contribute to mood disturbances, impaired intellectual function,
problems with work, interpersonal conflicts, loss of sleep, apathy,
depression, and withdrawal. Consider how these human factors could
affect critical astronaut decision making.
Elements such as an earth-like habitat design, regular psychological
assessments and counseling, and connections with friends and family
can alleviate some of the problems. More importantly, astronauts must
have extensive training in many of the same skills that are essential to
pilots. Astronauts must be self-aware to recognize when they have an
attitude or problem that could affect the mission. They must be able to
successfully socialize and coordinate with crewmembers, manage
workload, and reduce their own stress. The astronauts selected for this
mission must be unique individuals willing to accept a tremendous
amount of risk and skilled in managing that risk because they will be
making the decisions that will make history.

RISK MANAGEMENT
Although you might not use a written checklist or you might have your own
risk assessment method, 5P checklists provide guidelines on the factors
that you need to consider during flight planning. Create your own or make
copies of the checklists at the end of this chapter to use for your flights. Using
the flight planning scenario introduced in Figure 6-6, you can explore how to
take these steps to use the 5P checklists to manage risk:
 FIG06-006

Figure 6-6. How would you use 5P checklists to manage risk for this scenario?
1. Identify risk factors by answering the question on each checklist.
2. Mitigate risks by modifying your plans if you answer No to any questions.
3. Make a Go or No-Go decision. If you cannot effectively mitigate all of the
risks, make a No-Go decision.

PILOT
When you first consider flying to Chicago, long before the day of the trip, you
look at the 5P Pilot checklist to identify any necessary training and
experience you need to make the flight. If you fly rental aircraft, you might
not have flown a multi-engine airplane recently due to cost and insurance
requirements or you might not have practiced engine failures or emergency
procedures lately. And, if you are a flight instructor, most of the training you
provide is most likely in single-engine airplanes. As you get closer to the day
of the flight and on the day of the flight, use the I’M SAFE part of the Pilot
checklist to verify your fitness for flight. [Figure 6-7]
 FIG06-007

Figure 6-7. Consider your recent experience in multi-engine airplanes and your
fitness for flight as you manage pilot risk.
PASSENGERS
You can gather some information about your passengers well ahead of the
trip date. Ask passengers about their comfort and experience level in small
airplanes and whether they are prone to motion sickness. Prepare them for
possible delays or cancellation of the flight due to weather or other
circumstances. Determine the experience level of any pilot that you are flying
with. On the day of the flight, assess your passengers’ fitness for flight again
—ensure that they are feeling well and verify that they understand what the
flight entails. Ensure your copilot is fit for flight as well. [Figure 6-8]

FIG06-008

Figure 6-8. Distractions from passengers can be a risk but a passenger familiar with
flying or a copilot can also be a valuable resource.

PLANE
A new risk factor that you must address with a multi-engine airplane is
engine-out performance. You must determine engine-out performance for
the flight conditions and then decide whether you are comfortable with the
situation if an engine were to fail. You might have loading options that you
did not have in a single-engine airplane so ensure that not only the weight
but the CG is within limitations. In addition, you might choose to fly at
altitudes that require pressurization or onboard oxygen so ensure that these
systems are working properly. [Figure 6-9]

FIG06-009

Figure 6-9. Weight and balance, engine-out performance, and pressurization and
onboard oxygen systems are some of the risk factors that you must consider for a
multi-engine airplane.

PROGRAMMING
The Programming category is especially critical for IFR flight. As you gain
experience, you might fly an increasing variety of airplanes with different
avionics equipment. If you do not understand how to properly program and
interpret the specific navigation and automation equipment onboard your
airplane, you increase risk. [Figure 6-10]
 FIG06-010

Figure 6-10. To manage risk in the Programming category, verify that you are
proficient in operating the avionics, the databases are current, and all the equipment
is working.

PLAN
As you fly larger and faster multi-engine airplanes, the risks associated with
the plan become more complex. For example, you might be operating at
larger, busier airports in IFR conditions with more demands on your flying
skills. Establishing personal minimums for weather conditions can help you
avoid situations that exceed your abilities or that lead to work overload.
Verify that the weather conditions are above your personal minimums and
that there are no hazards that affect the flight, such as thunderstorms or
icing. Confirm that the runways and instrument approaches that you intend
to use are available and ensure that you have alternate plans to complete
your mission if you choose to cancel or reschedule the flight. [Figure 6-11]
 FIG06-011

Figure 6-11. The Plan category includes identifying the mission’s external
pressures, assessing the weather conditions, and evaluating the airport and route
selection.

USING THE 5P CHECK IN FLIGHT

Although you reached a No-Go decision for the flight on Friday morning, you
repeat the risk management process for a Saturday departure and decide to
proceed on the flight as planned. However, managing risk does not end with
a Go decision; you must continue to assess risk to make effective decisions
during the flight. The risk management process continues as you evaluate the
situation using the 5P check at decision points that correspond to the
phases of flight. [Figure 6-12]
 FIG06-012

Figure 6-12. You must reevaluate each of the 5Ps during the flight to recognize any
changes that have occurred that might increase your risk.

Pilots, Passengers, Planes, and Pressure

Your first experience of flight at high altitudes, where hypoxia is a
significant risk might be at the controls of a multi-engine airplane. Human
beings have a remarkable ability to adapt to their environment. However,
the demands placed on the body as it travels through the wide range of
conditions encountered on earth and in space are often too extreme, and
your airplane must be equipped with supplemental oxygen or a
pressurization system.
TASK MANAGEMENT
Task management involves identifying and using resources, prioritizing
tasks to avoid work overload, and managing distractions. Task management
can be more challenging in a multi-engine airplane than in a single-engine
airplane. For example, you might be more likely to embark on lengthy cross-
country flights in IFR conditions in a twin. The complexity of the flight
coupled with additional airplane systems and equipment requires mastery of
task management to maintain flight safety.

RESOURCE USE
As you continue to gain experience in wider variety of airplanes and flight
environments, your resources increase and you must be proficient in
resource use. A multi-engine airplane has system redundancy, which
provides resources if equipment fails. You might have a kinds of operations
equipment list (KOEL) or minimum equipment list (MEL) that helps you
manage inoperative equipment. As you venture to larger airports, ATC can
provide radar vectors and IFR approach guidance if you experience a
navigation or gyroscope equipment failure, an amended altitude or course
clearance to avoid weather or icing conditions, or assistance in an abnormal
or emergency situation.
Prior to your flight, you can log into the Lockheed Martin Flight Service
(LMFS) Pilot Portal to obtain a weather briefing, airport information, and
NOTAMs. You can file and save favorite flight plans and aircraft data, as well
as link to information such as GPS RAIM data and IFR terminal and enroute
charts. If you register for the free Adverse Conditions Alerting Service
(ACAS), LMFS notifies you when a new adverse condition arises after you
obtain a briefing. Take time to explore all the resources that you have to help
you manage tasks during flight planning and in the air. [Figure 6-13]
 FIG06-013

Figure 6-13. Take action to use new resources available to you as you gain
experience in multi-engine airplanes.
If you pursue a professional pilot career, you will have additional resources
available that are provided by your employer. Dispatchers, ground crew, and
in-house maintenance are valuable resources. You most likely will be part of
a crew and your company’s operations specifications (OpSpecs) will include
standard operating procedures (SOPs) that you must follow in order to
effectively manage workload and maintain situational awareness. Your
airplane might be equipped with a flight management system (FMS), and
you might have an electronic flight bag (EFB) with charts and performance
data and a quick reference handbook (QRH) on board. The QRH contains
extracts from the airplane flight manual or operations manual organized for
quick reference, and usually includes emergency and abnormal procedures.
[Figure 6-14]

FIG06-014

Figure 6-14. This ASRS account illustrates effective resource use during an
abnormal situation in the commercial environment.

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT
To effectively manage your workload, you must plan, prioritize, and sequence
tasks to avoid work overload. Some unique factors apply to workload
management in a multi-engine airplane. Because you operate at higher
altitudes and faster speeds, planning your descent into the airport
environment and setting radio and navigation frequencies well in advance
are essential to help you prepare for the high workload of the terminal area.
Use the autopilot or a copilot to reduce your workload as you are preparing
for an IFR arrival or approach. In addition, you must know how to efficiently
use checklists to configure the airplane and perform procedures. [Figure 6-
15]
 FIG06-015

Figure 6-15. Use an efficient method to follow checklists based on the type of
procedure.
When flying a lengthy trip or operating in IFR conditions, ask an experienced
pilot to accompany you. When everything proceeds according to plan, a
copilot is a luxury. In emergency situations, however, a copilot can be a
necessity. For example, consider flying an approach in IFR conditions after
an engine failure forces you to divert to an unfamiliar airport. The workload
in this situation might be too much for one pilot to manage successfully.
When you are task saturated, you lose awareness of inputs from various
sources so you make decisions based on incomplete information, and the
possibility of error increases. With all the different systems that you must
operate and the many procedures to perform in the IFR environment, you
can become overloaded on even routine flights. [Figure 6-16]
 FIG06-016

Figure 6-16. This ASRS account illustrates how even a commercial crew can
become task saturated trying to manage airplane systems while performing IFR
procedures.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Maintaining situational awareness means that at any time during the
flight, you can accurately state the current and future status of the flight,
including weather, terrain, traffic, ATC situation, fuel status, and airplane
status. Moving maps, satellite weather, TAWS, and ADS-B displays together
with the 5Ps can help you maintain a complete and accurate awareness of the
current situation and predict changes that might occur.
In addition to routine-flight operating and monitoring of equipment and
systems on a multi-engine airplane, you must be prepared to maintain
situational awareness in emergency situations. For example, if you have to
perform an emergency descent due to loss of pressurization, you must
perform the emergency procedure while keeping track of the airplane’s
attitude and position as you descend. In an engine-out situation, staying
aware of terrain, MEAs, runway lengths, and flight conditions is critical.
Prior to every departure, prepare yourself by dividing your flight into phases.
Then, review what actions to take if an engine failure were to occur during
each of these phases based on your flight plan.[Figure 6-17]

FIG06-017

Figure 6-17. Different engine-out procedures apply, depending on the flight

conditions and the performance characteristics of the airplane.
CREW COORDINATION
If you fly frequently with other pilots or are pursuing a piloting career, skills
in crew coordination are essential for maintaining situational awareness.
Although flying with another pilot can reduce workload and enhance flight
safety, it also can lead to misunderstandings with serious problems. If it is
not clear who will be performing certain tasks, you could overlook a critical
item or become confused regarding who is controlling the aircraft.
To effectively coordinate tasks with a crewmember, follow checklists using
the challenge-response method and perform taxi, departure, and approach
briefings. Verify out loud when you change headings and altitudes, select
new courses on navigation equipment, and enter radio frequencies. In
addition, use the sterile cockpit rule, which prohibits crewmember
performance of nonessential duties or activities while the aircraft is involved
in taxi, takeoff, landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000 feet
MSL, except for cruise flight.

RUNWAY INCURSION AVOIDANCE

In addition to keeping track of your status while in flight, you must maintain
situational awareness during ground operations. As you continue to expand
your horizons and operate at unfamiliar airports, you must take action to
avoid a runway incursion. Plan for the airport surface movement portion
of the flight just as you plan for other phases of flight. Prior to taxi, review
the current airport diagram and check NOTAMs and ATIS for runway and
taxiway closures, construction activity, and other airport-specific risks.
Just as you would for an approach procedure, brief taxi operations, including
the taxi route, hold-short positions, crossing runways, and runway incursion
hot spots before taxi on departure and prior to initial descent on arrival.
During taxi, maintain a sterile cockpit and view the airport diagram or low
visibility taxi chart (if applicable). Use a continuous-loop process to actively
monitor and update your progress—know the aircraft’s present location and
mentally calculate the next location on the route that requires increased
attention, such as a turn onto another taxiway, an intersecting runway, or a
hot spot. [Figure 6-18]
 FIG06-018

Figure 6-18. You must maintain situational awareness during ground operations to
decrease your risk of a runway incursion.
Equipment that is available in the cockpit, such as a moving map display or
EFB that shows your airplane’s position on the airport, can help you
maintain situational awareness during taxi. An ADS-B traffic display enables
you to see the positions of other aircraft and ADS-B-equipped ground
vehicles on the surface. [Figure 6-19]
 FIG06-019

Figure 6-19. Using moving map technology, you can see the position of your
airplane on the airport as you taxi.

OBSTACLES TO MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL

AWARENESS
As your flying environment becomes more complex, your risk of losing
situational awareness increases. If you routinely use automation to help
reduce workload or operate at the same airports frequently, you risk
complacency. Even when using the autopilot, you must continue to monitor
the flight instruments, navigation displays, and systems indications— and
always be prepared to fly the airplane manually. If you are a professional
pilot, you follow standard operating procedures (SOPs) dictated by your
company, which aid you in maintaining situational awareness. You can
create and follow your own SOPs, such as takeoff, approach, and before-
landing briefings, maintaining a sterile cockpit during high workload phases
of flight, and using flow checks to configure the airplane and avionics.
Work overload, stress, and distractions can also cause you to lose situational
awareness. If you do not fly a multi-engine airplane often, obtain frequent
refresher training. If you fly under IFR, maintain proficiency in controlling
the airplane in IFR conditions so you can perform other tasks easily and
manage distractions during flight in the IFR environment.
The aviation industry has also recognized fatigue as a significant factor in the
loss of situational awareness. The FAA provides guidelines for aviation
operators to implement fatigue risk management systems (FRMS) to reduce
flight crew performance errors by managing, monitoring, and mitigating the
effects of fatigue on pilot alertness. In addition to a lack of sufficient rest, you
might experience increased fatigue as your workload increases when flying a
multi-engine airplane on long-distance cross-country flights. Mitigate this
risk by taking actions, such as planning rest stops, flying with another pilot,
and using SRM tools to manage tasks. [Figure 6-20]

FIG06-020

Figure 6-20. This ASRS account illustrates the impact of fatigue on maintaining
situational awareness.
CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN
AWARENESS
CFIT risk primarily affects IFR operations, but also can endanger VFR
operations at night or in reduced visibility. As a multi-engine pilot or
professional pilot, you are more likely to fly in environments that increase
the risk of CFIT. Your company’s type of operation, the country in which you
operate, your SOPs, and your company’s safety culture are all factors that
affect your risk of CFIT as a professional pilot. In crewed cockpits, the
presence of a second pilot generally decreases the risk of a CFIT accident.
However, the copilot can also be a distraction unless the crew has been
trained to work well together and is following good crew resource
management (CRM) techniques. [Figure 6-21]
 FIG06-021

Figure 6-21. Consider the factors that caused this crew to lose situational
awareness leading to a CFIT accident.
As a general aviation pilot, you are more at risk of CFIT because you do not
have the resources, company management, and government oversight that a
corporate or commercial operator has. Without detailed SOPs and higher
mandatory safety requirements, you have the responsibility to ensure that
you are well trained, are qualified for the intended flight, meet all regulatory
requirements and follow industry-recommended safety procedures that can
prevent CFIT. As a multi-engine pilot you must be particularly aware of your
airplane’s performance in an engine-out situation. You can take specific
actions during each phase of flight to reduce the risk of CFIT. [Figure 6-22]

FIG06-022

Figure 6-22. Take these actions to reduce the risk of CFIT during departure and
cruise flight.
The final approach and landing phase of flight accounts for approximately 40
percent of CFIT accidents. Maintaining situational awareness and flying a
stabilized approach is critical to preventing CFIT. Proper briefings are also
key to CFIT prevention. Always perform an approach overview and approach
briefing when advised what procedure to expect. If you must fly a
nonprecision approach, brief the procedure as a stabilized approach using a
constant rate of descent. Brief the missed approach procedure with emphasis
on the direction of the initial missed approach turn. In addition to briefings,
there are many actions you can take to reduce the risk of CFIT during
approach and landing. [Figure 6-23]

FIG06-023

Figure 6-23. CFIT prevention actions for the approach and landing phase can be
divided into five categories.
If your airplane is equipped with an autopilot, radar altimeter, or TAWS, you
have more tools available to increase your safety margin when operating
close to terrain and obstacles. However, you must know the limitations of,
and what objects are included in, your database.

AUTOMATION MANAGEMENT
Professional pilots typically hand-fly the airplane for only moments during
takeoffs and landings because computer systems can fly the airplanes more
precisely and efficiently than a human pilot can. As you continue to gain
experience and operate airplanes with more advanced automation and
navigation systems, you will likely find yourself using the autopilot for most
of your flying.
Effective automation management requires training to not only
command, recognize, and monitor the various modes of flight but to gain a
thorough understanding of how the autopilot interacts with other systems.
You also must learn the proper action if the equipment fails or does
something unexpected. And, you must be proficient in “stick and rudder”
skills so you are able to hand-fly the airplane if necessary. You might
transition to airplanes that are equipped with FMS and automation systems
that control both the airplane’s lateral navigation (autoflight) and vertical
navigation and airspeed (autothrust). [Figure 6-24]
 FIG06-024

Figure 6-24. The crew involved in this accident did not properly monitor their
automation and were not proficient at flying the airplane manually.

EQUIPMENT OPERATING LEVELS

To effectively manage your navigation and automation systems, you must
know when it is best to use specific features of the equipment. For example,
programming tasks during an instrument approach could cause you to
become disoriented which, in turn, could snowball into an error chain
leading to an accident. If you are overloaded by entering data into a GPS unit
or setting up the autopilot, it might be safer to stop your programming
attempts and hand-fly the airplane. It does not take much time to set a VOR
receiver for a different ILS, but it might require several steps to change the
ILS selection in an FMS. In the meantime, you must fly, monitor, and
respond to ATC instructions. An understanding of three equipment
operating levels helps you identify when and what equipment to shed if
operating automation and other avionics equipment becomes too
challenging. [Figure 6-25]
 FIG06-025

Figure 6-25. The three equipment operating levels provide a guideline for using
automation and avionics features.

AUTOMATION SURPRISE
An automation surprise can cause you to be momentarily confused about
the state of the automation and, often, you have no immediate idea of what
action to take to correct the situation. For example, when some autopilots are
engaged in NAV (course tracking) mode, changing the HSI navigation source
between GPS and localizer (LOC) or VOR disengages NAV mode. The
autopilot reverts to wings-level lateral mode until you reengage the NAV
mode to track the desired navigation source. An automation surprise
typically occurs in one of two ways:
● A change in the automation system is unexpected or uncommanded and is
either recognized or unrecognized by you, such as an unexpected change
in navigation mode.
● You command a change but the system does something unexpected, such
as failing to capture an altitude.

MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL AWARENESS WHILE

USING AUTOMATION
Use automation only when it enhances your situational awareness. If you do
not understand the equipment in your airplane, automation and flight
management systems become distractions that only diminish your
situational awareness of flight operations. Read and understand the manuals
and supplements for any autoflight system including the autopilot and other
onboard flight management systems. Do not overly rely on the automation,
believing that the equipment can compensate for shortcomings in your
piloting skills. Although your airplane might have sophisticated autopilot
and navigation systems, you must still maintain proficiency in hand-flying
maneuvers and performing procedures to the standards in the PTS.
During flight planning, enter the planned route and legs, including headings
and leg length, on a paper log so you can check your programming. For
instrument approaches, verify that the waypoints are generally logical in
location, in the correct order, and that their orientation to each other is as
found on the approach chart. [Figure 6-26]
 FIG06-026

Figure 6-26. Effectively managing automation is key to maintaining situational

awareness during flight operations.

SUMMARY CHECKLIST
Breaking one link in the poor judgment chain by making a different
decision is typically all you need to do to change the outcome of the
sequence of events leading to an accident or incident.
 Follow the steps in the decision-making process to manage both routine
and emergency situations such as an engine failure: (1) recognize a change,
(2) define the problem, (3) choose a course of action, (4) implement your
decision, (5)monitor the outcome.
It is your responsibility to understand your limitations and maintain
proficiency in multi-engine operations by scheduling refresher training
and reviewing safety research.
In order to effectively make and implement a decision, you must
recognize whether you have a hazardous attitude (anti-authority,
impulsivity, invulnerability, macho, resignation) and mitigate its effect.
If you are flying with another pilot, discuss your experience levels prior to
the flight, and agree upon how divide responsibilities and safely exchange
the flight controls.
You can use 5P checklists to identify and mitigate risk factors during flight
planning to make a Go or No/Go decision.
Use the 5P Pilot checklist to evaluate your training and experience and
verify your fitness for flight.
The 5P Passenger checklist helps you identify risks regarding passenger
comfort and experience level in small airplanes and possible delays or
cancellation of the flight.
5P Plane risk factors that are unique to multi-engine airplanes are engine-
out performance, loading options, and onboard oxygen and pressurization
systems.
The 5P Programming checklist, which is especially critical for IFR flight,
includes assessing risks that involve the avionics airworthiness, operation,
and configuration.
Use the 5P Plan checklist to ensure weather conditions are within your
personal minimums, that the runways and instrument approaches that
you intend to use are available, and that you have alternate plans to
complete your mission if you choose to cancel or reschedule the flight.
You must reevaluate each of the 5Ps at decision points during the flight to
recognize and mitigate any changes that have occurred that might increase
your risk.
 Task management involves identifying and using resources, prioritizing
tasks to avoid work overload, and managing distractions.
System redundancy on a multi-engine airplane provides resources if
equipment fails.
A kinds of operations equipment list (KOEL) or minimum equipment list
(MEL) are resources to help you manage inoperative equipment.
Planning your descent, setting radio and navigation frequencies in
advance, using the autopilot or a copilot to reduce workload, and using
checklists effectively are actions you can take to manage workload.
Maintaining situational awareness means that at any time during the
flight, you must be able to accurately assess the current and future status
of the flight, including weather, terrain, traffic, ATC situation, fuel status,
and aircraft status.
To effectively coordinate tasks with a crewmember, follow checklists
using the challenge-response method, perform briefings Verify out loud
when you change headings and altitudes, select new courses on navigation
equipment, or enter radio frequencies.
The sterile cockpit rule prohibits crewmember performance of
nonessential duties or activities while the aircraft is involved in taxi,
takeoff, landing, and all other flight operations conducted below 10,000
feet MSL, except for cruise flight.
In an engine-out situation, staying aware of terrain, MEAs, runway
lengths, and flight conditions is critical. To prepare yourself to manage
engine failure, divide your flight into phases and review what actions to
take based on the flight environment and airplane performance.
To reduce the risk of a runway incursion, plan for taxi by checking
NOTAMs and ATIS for runway and taxiway closures, construction activity,
and other airport-specific risks and review the current airport diagram.
Brief taxi operations, including the taxi route, hold-short positions,
runways to be crossed, and runway incursion hot spots before taxi on
departure and prior to initial descent on arrival.
Equipment in the cockpit, such as moving map, EFB, and ADS-B traffic
displays can help you maintain situational awareness during taxi
 operations.
To avoid complacency if you engage the autopilot, you must continue to
monitor the flight instruments, navigation displays, and systems
indications and always be prepared to fly the airplane manually.
The FAA provides guidelines for aviation operators to implement fatigue
risk management systems (FRMS) to manage, monitor, and mitigate the
effects of fatigue on flight crew alertness to reduce performance errors.
Your company’s type of operation, the country in which you operate, your
SOPs, and whether your company culture values safety are all factors that
affect your risk of CFIT as a professional pilot.
As a general aviation pilot, you have the responsibility to ensure that you
are well trained, are qualified for the intended flight, meet all regulatory
requirements, and follow industry-recommended safety procedures that
can prevent CFIT.

KEY TERMS
Poor Judgment Chain
Aeronautical Decision Making
ADM Process
Pilot-in-Command Responsibility
Hazardous Attitudes
Effective Communication
5P Checklists
5P Check
Task Management
Resource Use
Workload Management
Situational Awareness
Crew Coordination
Runway Incursion
 Controlled Flight Into Terrain
Automation Management
Automation Surprise

QUESTIONS
1. As you review the following scenario, consider the steps in the ADM
process. What step did you miss?
During a cross-country flight, you notice low clouds ahead along your
route. You obtain an updated weather forecast and determine that
marginal VFR conditions are forecast for your route and destination
airport. You evaluate your options and decide to file an IFR flight plan and
request a clearance. You are IFR current and proficient and intend to fly
the ILS approach at your destination. You do not check the weather
conditions again for the rest of the flight. As you near your destination, but
before being vectored to intercept the localizer for the ILS approach, ATC
advises you of the visibility and it is ¼ mile less than the published
approach minimums.
2.What hazardous attitude is the pilot exhibiting in the following example?
“I don’t need to determine my airplane’s performance on one engine for
this flight. If I lose an engine, I’m out of luck and will just land in a field.”
3.Identify the risks associated with each of the 5Ps for the following flight
scenario.
You are planning a flight in a light twin airplane that you fly quite often.
You completed your multi-engine training in this specific airplane and are
familiar with the autopilot and avionics equipment. You plan to depart at
10:00 a.m. to take two friends with you on a one-hour VFR flight to a
nearby airport for lunch and some sightseeing before returning home later
in the afternoon. One of your friends flies with you frequently. However,
the other friend is nervous about flying.
The day of the flight, you have to answer some emails for work, which
takes longer than you anticipated. You are running late so you skip
breakfast before heading to the airport.
 The field elevation of your departure airport is 5,400 feet MSL and the
high temperature is forecast to be 35°C today. Your weather briefing
includes a forecast for a chance of thunderstorms along your route after
3:00 p.m.
4.List at least three actions you can take to use resources to increasing your
knowledge and skills, explore new ways to obtain flight information, and
know your multi-engine airplane.
5. Explain the three methods of using checklists effectively?
6.What are at least three actions that you can take to maintain situational
awareness during taxi?
7. What are at least two actions that you can take to reduce the risk of CFIT
during initial climb and departure?
8.List at least one action that you can take to reduce the risk of CFIT during
approach and landing for each category: altimeters, safe altitudes, ATC
procedures; flight crew complacency, and approach procedures.
9.How does an automation surprise occur?
10.What are at least two actions you can take to maintain situational
awareness when using avionics displays and automation?

5P CHECKLISTS
Use these 5P checklists to identify and manage risks when you plan flights.
APPENDIX A
Answers
NOTE: There are no questions for Chapter 1 — Exploring the Multi-Engine
Rating.

CHAPTER 2
SECTION A
1. B
2. B
3. C
4. True
5. A
6. C
7. C
8. False
9. True
10.High-pitch
11. False
12. Monitor the electrical load and turn off non-essential equipment to
conserve electrical power.
13. False
14.False
15. Fuel system crossfeed valves
16.False
17. Gravity free fall, hand crank, hydraulic hand pump, and gas pressure
discharge
18.Monitor the propeller anti-ice ammeter to determine that it indicates in
the normal range during each cycle.
19.True
20.False
21. The pressurization system outflow valve
22.Don an oxygen mask, turn on the oxygen system, and descend to a safe
altitude.

SECTION B
1. C
2. If the fuselage carries too much weight, flight loads can cause structural
damage. Limiting the maximum weight without usable fuel ensures that
any additional weight will be fuel, distributing the additional load along
the wings.
3. 325 pounds
4. A
5. B
6. True
7. 39 inches aft of the datum
8. 74.6 pounds

SECTION C
1. True
2. C
3. The distance to accelerate the airplane to rotation or liftoff speed,
experience an engine failure, and bring the airplane to a complete stop.
4. A
5. 40 ft/min
6. 209 knots, 95 gallons of fuel
7. 6,500 feet
8. VYSE, single-engine best rate-of-climb
9. B
10.10 pounds, 14 nautical miles
11. False

CHAPTER 3
SECTION A
1. True
2. C
3. True
4. B
5. Subsonic—Below 0.75 Mach; Transonic—From 0.75 to 1.20 Mach;
Supersonic—From 1.20 to 5.00 Mach; Hypersonic—Above 5.00 Mach
6. True
7. B

SECTION B
1. The yawing tendency is produced by asymmetrical thrust. The airplane
rolls toward the inoperative engine due to the presence of induced flow
over the operative engine’s wing combined with the absence of this
airflow over the failed engine’s wing. The airplane also rolls toward the
dead engine because the yaw causes the air over the working engine’s
wing to travel faster, creating additional lift on that wing. Yaw forces are
also created by the drag of the windmilling propeller on the inoperative
engine.
2. The critical engine is the one whose failure most adversely affects the
performance or handling characteristics of the airplane.
3. False
4. Minimum control airspeed (VMC) is the lowest speed at which the rudder
control moment can equal the moment of unbalanced thrust. If the
airplane yaws and rolls toward the dead engine with full rudder applied,
the airspeed is below VMC.
5. C
6. Stop propeller rotation by feathering the blades.
7. A
8. The sideslip increases drag, retarding performance. In a sideslip, the
relative wind pushes against one side of the vertical stabilizer, increasing
yaw toward the dead engine. Additional rudder pressure is needed to
counteract this increase in yaw. The vertical stabilizer blocks some of the
relative wind from reaching the rudder, reducing the effective area of the
rudder. The airflow strikes the rudder at a small angle, reducing the
rudder’s ability to maintain directional control.
9. Bank the appropriate amount toward the operative engine to zero the
sideslip.
10.False
11. C
12. True
13. 15°

CHAPTER 4
SECTION A
1. B
2. A Kinds of Operations list can be found in the POH for the particular
airplane.
3. B
4. False
5. A takeoff briefing allows you to think through the emergency procedures
for an engine failure during the takeoff and climbout phases of flight
before you leave the ground. By completing a takeoff briefing, you have
already established and reviewed in your mind what actions you are going
to take and where you are going to go in the event of an engine failure.
6. 60 NM
7. B
8. Propeller synchronization

SECTION B
1. Decrease the bank angle, add back pressure to correct for altitude loss,
then reestablish the correct bank angle.
2. B
3. False
4. False
5. A
6. An emergency descent allows the aircraft to descend at the fastest rate of
descent to a safe altitude in the event of an engine fire, loss of cabin
pressure, or other such emergency.

CHAPTER 5
SECTION A
1. Engine failure checklists found in POHs might vary. However, the
following procedures are typically performed after an engine failure.
• Maintain directional control with the rudder.
• Pitch — Obtain VYSE.
• Power — Adjust mixtures, props, and throttles.
• Drag — Raise the gear and flaps (if appropriate).
• Identify — Determine the inoperative engine.
• Verify — Confirm the inoperative engine.
• Troubleshoot (under certain conditions)— Determine the cause of the
failure and address the problem (if possible).
• Feather — Feather the inoperative engine’s propeller.
• Establish a bank toward the operating engine, as necessary, for best
performance.
• Continue to secure the inoperative engine.
• Monitor the operative engine.
2. False
3. At a partial power setting, the yaw created might not be sufficient to
quickly identify and react with rudder pressure to the failed engine, so the
addition of power helps you to identify the inoperative engine. It is
important to have as much power as possible for airplane performance.
4. C
5. “Dead foot, dead engine”
6. B
7. True
8. Zero thrust
9. C
10.While the following are actions suggested in the text, any action that
might help you operate your airplane more effectively in this situation
may be included. If overheating occurs, monitor the operative engine’s
temperature gauges and open the cowl flaps, or enrich the mixture.
Reduce the electrical load, if necessary. Be alert to problems with systems,
such as landing gear, flaps, or deice/anti-ice equipment that may arise.
Transfer fuel to balance the load or to supply the operative engine with
fuel, if necessary. Divert your flight and declare an emergency.

SECTION B
1. Immediately reduce both throttles to idle and use the rudder, brakes, and
steerable nose wheel to stop straight ahead on the centerline of the
runway.
2. B
3. With the gear extended, reduce the throttles and put the aircraft back
onto the runway, maintaining control with the rudder and brakes. If the
gear is already retracted, you might attempt a climbout, depending on the
conditions and the airplane performance. The remaining option is a
landing off the runway.
4. The takeoff briefing reviews the appropriate actions to take in case of
engine failure during takeoff and initial climb. The briefing also specifies
who will take the controls of the airplane in an emergency.
5. False
6. B
7. Drag is demonstrated with the gear extended, the flaps extended, both
gear and flaps extended, and with the propeller windmilling.
8. A
9. Choose a Go/No-Go altitude for a single-engine go-around based on
 aircraft performance and existing conditions. Above this altitude, a go-
around is possible. Below this altitude, a go-around is not advisable and
you are committed to landing.

SECTION C
1. B
2. Advise ATC of your situation—declare an emergency—and inform them of
any limitations caused by the engine-out situation, such as inability to
maintain your assigned altitude or previous airspeed. Request radar
vectors to the nearest suitable airport or use your GPS system’s Nearest
function.
3. B
4. Information about nearby airports, including runway lengths, approaches
available, and current weather conditions; vectors to a suitable airport;
vectors toward lower terrain.
5. Factors for successful completion of flight:
• The airplane’s ability to maintain altitude
• Distance to nearby airports (including those behind you)
• Weather conditions enroute to nearby airports
• High terrain enroute to nearby airports
• Ceilings and visibility at nearby airports
• Approaches available, ease of flying the approaches, runway lengths, and
facilities available at nearby airports
• Condition of the remaining engine
6. True
7. False

CHAPTER 6
1. Monitor the outcome.
2. Resignation
3. The risks associated with each of the 5Ps for the flight scenario are:
• Pilot Risk—You did not eat breakfast prior to the flight and are running
late.
• Passenger Risk—You friend is nervous about flying.
• Plane Risk—Engine-out performance might be limited due to the high
altitude and temperature.
• Programming Risk—No significant factors.
• Plan Risk—The forecast for thunderstorms affects your plan to return in the
afternoon.
4. Examples of actions that you can take to use resources effectively in a
multi-engine airplane include:
Increase Your Knowledge and Skills
• Schedule time with an instructor to practice instrument or night operations
and emergency procedures.
• Receive training for operations above 25,000 MSL.
• Expand your airport repertoire to operate at more high-density airports.
Explore New Ways to Obtain Flight Information
• Use expanded online flight service features.
• Understand how to organize and view electronic charts and obtain
information from an EFB.
Know Your Airplane
• Determine aircraft airworthiness with inoperative equipment using a KOEL
or MEL.
• Learn how to operate unique airplane equipment, such as oxygen and
pressurization systems, deice equipment, and integrated displays.
5. Three methods to use checklists effectively are:
• Flow Check—To perform normal procedures, such as configuring the
airplane and avionics for specific phases of flight.
• Do-List—For tasks that are not time-critical and for abnormal procedures,
such as managing an electrical malfunction.
• Memory Items—Perform critical tasks from memory and then refer to the
checklist to manage an emergency such as an engine failure.
6. Actions that you can take to maintain situational awareness during taxi
are:
• Prior to entering or crossing any runway, scan the full length of the runway
and final approach. If you see a conflicting aircraft, stop taxiing and query
 ATC.
• Before performing checklist procedures, stop the airplane or ensure you are
in a taxiing phase that has no runway incursion risk.
• Be especially vigilant if another aircraft with a similar call sign is on the
same frequency.
• Never stop on a runway to communicate with ATC if you become
disoriented.
• During landing, do not accept last-minute turnoff instructions unless you
are certain that you can safely comply.
• Use caution after landing on a runway that intersects another runway, or
on a runway with an exit taxiway in close proximity to another runway’s
hold short line.
• After landing at a non-towered airport, listen on the CTAF for inbound
aircraft. Scan the full length of your landing runway and that of any
runways you intend to cross, including the final approach and departure
paths.
7. Actions that you can take to reduce the risk of CFIT during initial climb
and departure include:
• Review current charts with clear depictions of hazardous terrain and
minimum safe altitudes.
• Ensure that your airplane performance with both engines operating and
with one engine inoperative can meet any required climb gradients.
• Verify that ATC departure instructions provide adequate terrain clearance
—do not assume that your assigned course and altitude ensures that you
clear the surrounding terrain and obstacles. If ATC gives a clearance that
conflicts with your assessment of terrain criteria, question and, if
necessary, refuse the clearance.
• Brief the takeoff and climb procedure prior to takeoff, including the
outbound course, direction of the first turn, and any departure altitude
crossing restrictions.
• During the takeoff briefing, set all communication and navigation
frequencies and course selectors to eliminate distractions below 1,000 feet
AGL.
• Brief the approach procedure in use at the departure airport in case you
must return to the airport.
8. Actions that you can take to reduce the risk of CFIT during approach and
landing are:
Altimeters
• If flying internationally, know what altimeter units of measurement to use
for the area. Be prepared to convert feet and meters.
• Use altimeter setting crosscheck and readback procedures.
• Operate at higher than minimum altitudes during atmospheric anomalies.
Safe Altitudes
• Brief the charted altitude information, including terrain and obstructions
in the terminal area and fly at or above the safe altitudes.
• Understand terrain clearance limitations for approaches.
• Know TAWS procedures.
ATC Procedures
• Challenge or refuse ATC instructions that you do not understand, that are
questionable, or that conflict with your assessment of your airplane’s
position relative to the terrain.
• Read back clearances and use standard phraseology.
• Operate the autopilot using the mode that facilitates compliance with ATC
instructions, such as an airspeed or altitude restriction.
Flight Crew Complacency
• Know that familiarity can lead to complacency; do not assume that this
flight will be like the last flight.
• Follow SOP and use effective SRM or CRM techniques.
• Be mentally prepared to take the appropriate action at the DA or MAP,
which is either performing the missed approach if you do not have the
runway environment in sight or transitioning to visual references to land.
Approach Procedures
• Use all available approach and runway aids.
• Perform an approach briefing, preferably before top of descent.
• Identify unique gradient and step-down requirements.
• Fly stabilized approaches and perform a missed approach if your aircraft is
not stabilized by 500 feet above the airport elevation in VFR conditions or
1,000 feet above airport elevation in IFR conditions.
• Use the autopilot to fly stabilized approaches and to reduce your workload.
9. An automation surprise typically occurs in one of two ways:
• A change in the automation system is unexpected or uncommanded and is
either recognized or unrecognized by you, such as an unexpected change
in navigation mode.
• You command a change but the system does something unexpected, such
as failing to capture an input altitude.
10.Take these actions to maintain situational awareness when using avionics
and automation.
• Use verbal callouts when you arm the autopilot to change, mode, course, or
altitude.
• Verify all flight plan routing, waypoints and approach fixes.
• Use all onboard navigation equipment, such as VOR indicators to back up
your GPS display and vice versa.
• Stay within your personal limitations for using avionics and autopilot
features.
APPENDIX B
GLOSSARY
ABNORMAL PROCEDURES TRAINING (APT) — The use of simulators or
flight training devices to train pilots to handle abnormal and emergency
procedures. In flight, it is often impossible to effectively simulate faults.
Simulators and FTDs provide a convenient and safe method to train for
procedures such as engine failures, in-flight fires, and other abnormal
situations.
ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE — For commuter and transport category
airplanes, the distance required to continue a takeoff and climb to 35 feet
above the departure end of the runway following an engine failure at V1.
Because, the crew must continue the takeoff at any speed faster than V1, the
decision to stop the airplane on the runway must be implemented before
reaching V1
ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE — For a commuter or transport category
airplane, a computed distance based on critical engine failure or decision
speed (V1) that allows the pilot to bring the airplane to a stop on the
remaining runway.
For a light twin airplane — the runway length required to accelerate the
airplane to rotation or liftoff speed (VR or VLOF), experience an engine
failure, and bring the airplane to a complete stop.
AERODYNAMIC TWISTING FORCE — The force acting on a rotating
propeller that tends to twist the blade angle toward the low-pitch position.
AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING —The systematic approach to the
men-tal process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best
course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
ALTERNATE AIR SOURCE — An air passage that can provide a source of
induction air for the engine in case an air filter or inlet becomes
obstructed.In operation, an alternate air door opens to enable the engine to
draw air from inside the engine cowling. Depending on the airplane, the
door might be automatically activated or manually operated from the
cockpit.
ANTI-ICING — Preventing ice from forming on an aircraft, usually by using
chemicals or heat. Removing ice that has already accumulated on an
aircraft is called deicing.
ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS — The conditions found on performance
charts in the POH. The information on the chart is based on the given
associated conditions. Any other conditions do not provide the same
performance.
ASYMMETRIC THRUST — Uneven thrust created by the ascending and
descending propeller blades. Asymmetric thrust also describes unequal
thrust produced by the engines of a multi-engine airplane, which can cause
the airplane to yaw and roll toward the engine producing less thrust.
AUGMENTOR TUBES — Tubes installed around and aft of the exhaust
stacks to augment engine cooling. The flow of exhaust gasses through the
augmentor creates an airflow that pulls more cooling air through the engine
compartment.
AUTOMATION MANAGEMENT — Recognizing the current and future
status of the avionics, programming and using automation effectively,
maintaining the ability to fly without automation, and promptly deciding to
fly without automation when automation increases workload.
AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN (AMT) — A person certificated by
the FAA to work on aircraft structures and engines. Might also be known as
an A&P (airframe and powerplant) mechanic.
BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT — Standard empty weight plus optional equipment.
BOUNDARY LAYER — The layer of air between the surface of an object,
such as an airfoil, and the free-stream air. At the surface of an object air
particles are slowed to a relative velocity of near zero due to the viscosity of
the air. Beyond this area, the air gradually increases in speed until it reaches
the velocity of the free-stream air at some distance from the surface.
CENTER OF GRAVITY — The single point at which the weight of an airplane
or any object can be considered to be concentrated for weight and balance
computations. At this point, the nose heavy and tail heavy moments are
exactly equal in magnitude. An aircraft suspended from this point would
have no tendency to rotate in either a nose-up or nose-down direction.
CENTERLINE THRUST — Term applied to multi-engine airplanes with their
engines on or near the aircraft centerline, which eliminates asymmetrical
thrust and asymmetrical drag.
CHECKLIST — A list of tasks, actions, or items to be verified or checked in
the course of operating the airplane. An essential tool for safe flying.
CLASS — (1) As used with respect to the certification, ratings, privileges, and
limitations of airmen: a classification of aircraft within a category having
similar operating characteristics (single-engine land, multi-engine land,
single-engine sea, multi-engine sea, gyroplane, helicopter, airship, and free
balloon). (2) As used with respect to certification of aircraft: a broad
grouping of aircraft having similar characteristics of propulsion, flight, or
landing (airplane, rotorcraft, glider, balloon, landplane, and seaplane).
COMBUSTION HEATER — A cabin heater that burns fuel from the airplane
fuel system. Although a combustion heater provides hotter air, it consumes
fuel and can add weight.
CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN (CFIT) — A type of accident where
an aircraft is flown under control into terrain or water with inadequate
awareness by the crew of the impending collision.
CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN AWARENESS — Situational
awareness specifically related to the factors that increase CFIT risks.
COUNTERROTATING ENGINE — An engine designed to rotate
counterclockwise when viewed from behind.
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) — The application of team
management concepts in the flight-deck environment. It was initially
known as cockpit resource management, but as CRM programs evolved to
include cabin crews, maintenance personnel, and others, the phrase “crew
resource management” was adopted.
CRITICAL ENGINE — The engine whose failure would most adversely affect
the performance or handling qualities of a multi-engine aircraft.
CROSSFEED VALVE — Valves that interconnect the fuel system on one side
of a multi-engine airplane to the fuel system on the other side so that an
engine can draw fuel from a tank on the opposite side of the airplane.
DEICING — Removing ice that has already accumulated on an aircraft, in
contrast to anti-icing, which prevents ice from forming on the aircraft.
DEICE BOOTS — flexible, hollow chambers attached to the leading edges of
aircraft surfaces that can be inflated with air to break off ice accumulating
in flight. Air from the engine-driven pneumatic pumps inflates the boots to
break the ice, and the slipstream airflow blows it away. After each inflation
cycle, the pumps apply suction to deflate the boots and hold them tight to
the contour of the airfoil surface.
DRAG DEMONSTRATION — The demonstration of the effects of drag on a
multi-engine airplane from landing gear, flaps, and windmilling propellers.
DRIFTDOWN — The unavoidable descent due to the loss of an engine when
above the engine-out absolute ceiling of an airplane. If the airplane is above
its engine-out altitude limits, it is incapable of maintaining altitude with
one engine inoperative, and the airplane will drift down to the engine-out
absolute ceiling.
EMERGENCY DESCENT — A maneuver to allow the aircraft to descend to a
lower altitude at the fastest possible rate in an emergency such as an engine
fire or loss of cabin pressure.
FULL-AUTHORI TY D
I GI TALENGI NE CONTROL (FADEC) — A computer-
controlled electronic system that replaces many mechanical engine and
propeller control systems for more efficient engine operation. FADEC
systems typically have a single power lever for each engine.
GOVERNING RANGE — The engine rpm range in which the propeller
governor can control rpm by changing the blade pitch.
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATOR — A device for storing hydraulic pressure and
for absorbing the internal shocks that result from operating the hydraulic
system.
HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR — Device that converts fluid pressure into
mechanical force. Hydraulic cylinders provide linear motion, and hydraulic
motors provide rotary motion.
HYDRAULIC POWER PACK — An assembly that uses electric power to drive
a hydraulic pump, typically to raise and lower the landing gear on a light
airplane. The power pack includes the hydraulic fluid reservoir, pump,
electric motor, and a series of check valves and regulators. In most systems
the electric motor is reversible, so it can power the hydraulic pump in either
direction to retract or extend the gear.
HYPOXIA — Lack of sufficient oxygen reaching the body tissues for them to
function normally.
INOPERATIVE EQUIPMENT — Equipment in the aircraft that is not
functional.
KINDS OF OPERATIONS EQUIPMENT LIST (KOEL) — A list found in the
POH of an aircraft that includes all equipment originally installed, and lists
the equipment that must be operational for different flight conditions. The
requirements for operation of the equipment shown on the list are typically
based on Part 91 regulations.
LAMINAR FLOW — A flow of air over a surface in smooth layers without
turbulence.
LEADING EDGE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (LEMAC) — The forward
end of the chord line of an imaginary airfoil with the same aerodynamic
characteristics as the real airfoil. It is a specific distance from the airplane’s
reference datum, and is sometimes used for weight and balance
computations for transport category airplanes.
LETTER OF AUTHORIZATION (LOA) — A letter from the FAA authorizing
use of a minimum equipment list for a specific airplane. The letter and the
MEL together are considered a supplemental type certificate.
MACH — The ratio of the airplane’s speed to the speed of sound in the same
atmospheric conditions.
MANIFOLD ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (MAP) — The absolute pressure,
measured in inches of mercury, existing in the intake manifold of an engine.
MASTER MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST (MMEL) — A master list developed
by the FAA for an aircraft by make and model delineating the specific
equipment allowed to be inoperative during various types of flight
operations. The MMEL is the basis for the development of an MEL.
MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT— A maximum weight limit established to
prevent damage to the aircraft landing gear or airframe structure during
landing. For larger aircraft, this weight is usually lower than the maximum
takeoff weight, which means that fuel must either be burned or dumped
overboard before landing if the takeoff weight exceeded the maximum
landing weight.
MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT— The maximum weight allowed for ground
operations like taxiing.
MAXIMUM TAKEOFF WEIGHT— The maximum weight allowed for takeoff,
which is usually just a little less than the maximum ramp weight. The
difference allows for the weight of fuel used in startup, taxiing to the
runway, and runup checks.
MAXIMUM ZERO-FUEL WEIGHT— The maximum amount an airplane can
weigh without usable fuel. Above the maximum zero-fuel weight, flight
loads can cause structural damage or failure.
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC) — The chord line of an imaginary
airfoil with the same aerodynamic characteristics as the real airfoil. It is a
specific distance from the airplane’s reference datum, and is sometimes
used for weight and balance computations for transport category airplanes.
MINIMUM ENROUTE ALTITUDE (MEA) — Typically the lowest published
altitude between radio fixes that guarantees adequate navigation signal
reception and obstruction clearance (2,000 feet in mountainous areas and
1,000 feet elsewhere).
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST (MEL) — A list developed for larger aircraft
that outlines equipment that can be inoperative for various types of flight
including IFR and icing conditions. The list is developed by the operator
based on the MMEL and must be approved by the FAA for use. It is specific
to an individual aircraft by serial and registration number.
MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (MOCA) — A
minimum altitude for IFR route operations that assures obstruction
clearance along the flight route as well as reception of a radio navigation aid
within 22 nautical miles of the navaid.
PAYLOAD — That part of the useful load that a commercial operator could
charge to carry, such as mail, cargo, or passengers. The crew and fuel are
generally not considered part of the payload. In general aviation, all
occupants of an airplane are usually included in the payload.
PITCH STOPS — Pins inside the propeller hub that limit the governing range
of a constant-speed propeller. Centrifugal force keeps the stops in place
above a specific rpm, preventing the blades from feathering, With the
blades against the stops, the propeller is out of the governing range and
functions like a fixed-pitch propeller.
PNEUMATIC PUMP — A pump, typically engine-driven, that powers the
gyroscopic flight instruments and possibly some auxiliary systems such as
surface deice boots or inflatable door seals.
POWER — (1) The time-rate of doing work. Force times distance, divided by
time. Power can be expressed in terms of foot-pounds of work per minute or
in horsepower (HP). One HP is 33,000 ft-lb of work per minute. (2) The
basic unit of electrical power is the watt, and 746 watts of electrical power is
equal to one horsepower.
PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS (PTS) — An FAA-published list of standards
published by the FAA that establishes the standards that must be met for
the practical tests (checkrides) for specific categories and classes of aircraft.
FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners use these standards when
conducting pilot practical tests, and flight instructors use them to prepare
applicants for the practical test.
PROPELLER GOVERNOR — Device that adjusts propeller blade pitch to
maintain a constant engine and propeller rpm in response to changes in
airspeed, engine load, etc.
PROPELLER SYNCHRONIZATION —Adjusting the propellers on a multi-
engine airplane to rotate at the same speed to avoid an annoying pulsating
oscillation in the cabin that occurs when propellers rotate at slightly
different rates.
RAMP WEIGHT — The total weight of the aircraft while on the ramp. It
differs from takeoff weight by the weight of the fuel consumed in starting
and taxiing to the point of takeoff and engine runup checks.
REYNOLDS NUMBER — A dimensionless ratio that relates the viscosity of a
fluid to velocity and distance.
RISK MANAGEMENT (RM) — Using a tool, such as the 5P check, to assess
and mitigate risk during flight planning and throughout a flight.
SIDESLIP — An uncoordinated flight condition in which the aircraft yaws so
that its longitudinal axis is not aligned with the flight path. Sideslip can
result from improper use of the rudder during turns, or from the use of
rudder to maintain heading with an inoperative engine.
SINGLE-ENGINE ABSOLUTE CEILING — The density altitude an airplane is
capable of reaching and maintaining with the critical engine feathered and
the other at maximum power. This assumes the airplane is at maximum
weight and in the clean configuration, flying in smooth air. This is also the
density altitude at which VXSE and VYSE are the same airspeed.
SINGLE-ENGINE SERVICE CEILING — The maximum density altitude at
which the single-engine best rate-of-climb airspeed (VYSE) produces a 50
ft/min rate of climb. This ceiling assumes the airplane is at maximum gross
weight in the clean configuration, the critical engine (if appropriate) is
inoperative, and the propeller is feathered.
SINGLE-PILOT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (SRM) — the art of managing
all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources)
available to a pilot prior to and during flight to ensure a successful flight.
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS — The accurate perception and understanding
of all the factors and conditions that affect safety before, during, and after
the flight. When applied to CFIT, it means that the pilot is aware of what is
happening around the aircraft at all times in both the vertical and
horizontal plane, and includes the ability to project the near term status and
position of the aircraft in relation to other aircraft, terrain, and other
potential hazards.
SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMIT — A document issued to an aircraft that does not
meet airworthiness requirements but is capable of safe flight. A special
flight permit may be issued to move an aircraft for the purposes of
maintenance or repair, buyer delivery, manufacturer flight tests, evacuation
from danger, or customer demonstration.
SPIN AWARENESS — understanding the conditions required for a spin to
occur, and the indications of an incipient spin and a full spin, as well as spin
recovery techniques Training in spin awareness is required by the FARs.
STANDARD EMPTY WEIGHT — the weight of the standard airplane, full
hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full oil.
SUPPLEMENTAL TYPE CERTIFICATE (STC) — A certificate authorizing an
alteration to an airframe, engine, or component, which has been granted an
Approved Type Certificate.
SWEEPBACK — A wing design in which the wings do not form right angles
with the longitudinal axis but instead are angled backward from the wing
root to the wingtip.
SYNCHROPHASING — A form of propeller synchronization in which not
only the rpm of the engines is matched, but also the relative positions of the
propellers to each other. Effective synchrophasing reduces noise and
vibration inside the cabin.
TAKEOFF BRIEFING — A tool that pilots can use for takeoff planning where
they verbally rehearse the entire takeoff and departure prior to taking the
active runway. By conducting a takeoff briefing, multi-engine operations
can be performed in a safer manner.
TASK MANAGEMENT — Ensures essential operations are accomplished by
planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload.
THRUST — a force that overcomes drag, normally measured in pounds.
When thrust equals drag, the airplane’s speed stays the same, and when
thrust exceeds drag, the airplane accelerates. Unlike power, thrust is not
related to speed or time.
TRAILING EDGE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (TEMAC) — The aft end
of the chord line of an imaginary airfoil with the same aerodynamic
characteristics as the real airfoil. It is a specific distance from the airplane’s
reference datum, and is sometimes used for weight and balance
computations for transport category airplanes.
TURBOCHARGER — An exhaust-driven compressor that increases intake
manifold absolute pressure (MAP) so that the engine produces more power.
In operation, exhaust gases drive a turbine, which in turn drives an impeller
in the intake air passage. The additional MAP enables the engine to produce
sea level power at higher altitudes. Most turbocharger systems include a
waste gate, which opens or closes to regulate the amount of exhaust flowing
through the turbine.
UNFEATHERING ACCUMULATOR — A device that assists in bringing the
propeller out of the feathered position by providing oil pressure to the hub
when the control lever is moved out of the feather position.
UNUSABLE FUEL — The small amount of fuel in the tanks that cannot be
used safely in flight.
USABLE FUEL — The amount of fuel in the tanks that is available for flight
planning and for use in flight.
USEFUL LOAD — The difference between the basic empty weight and the
maximum ramp weight or maximum takeoff weight. It includes usable fuel,
the occupants of the airplane, and any baggage or cargo.
V-SPEEDS — Specific airspeeds given for individual aircraft. An example of a
V-speed would be VNE, or never exceed speed. V-speeds are different for
every aircraft.
VMC — Minimum controllable airspeed. VMC changes with altitude and is
considered the minimum airspeed at which control of a multi-engine
airplane can be maintained with one engine inoperative.
VMC DEMONSTRATION — This demonstration is required during a multi-
engine practical test to show the control pressures necessary to maintain
directional control with one engine inoperative.
VSSE — Intentional one engine inoperative airspeed. VSSE is not an airspeed
defined by the FAA, but rather an airspeed developed by the manufacturer.
It is considered the minimum speed for intentionally rendering one engine
inoperative in flight for pilot training.
VXSE — Best angle of climb, single engine airspeed. VXSE is used for
obstruction clearance with one engine inoperative. It provides the greatest
altitude gain over a specified distance with one engine inoperative.
VYSE — Best rate of climb, single engine, airspeed. VYSE is the speed that
produces the greatest gain in altitude in a given amount of time with one
engine inoperative.
VIEW LIMITING DEVICE — A device used to limit the viewing field of a pilot,
typically used during instrument training to allow the pilot to view the
instruments but blocking references outside the aircraft. Common view
limiting devices include plastic hoods and frosted goggles.
WINDMILLING — The rotation of an aircraft propeller caused by air flowing
around it rather than by power from the engine.
YAW STRING — A piece of yarn taped to the windscreen or to the top of the
nose to indicate sideslip. During flight, the yarn aligns with the airflow.
When the yarn is parallel to the longitudinal axis, the airplane has zero
sideslip. If the yarn is not aligned with the longitudinal axis, the airplane
has some degree of yaw, causing a sidslip.
ZERO SIDESLIP — A control technique used following an engine failure in a
multi-engine airplane in which the pilot maintains a flight attitude that
minimizes drag, alleviating the sideslip of the airplane. If the bank angle
exceeds the zero sideslip value, there is a sharp loss of climb performance.
Zero sideslip angle varies with the airplane type. Flying at zero sideslip
allows adequate directional control with the best climb performance
possible.
Índice
How the Textbook Works 8
Part I - Meet the Challenge 13
Chapter 1 - Exploring the Multi-Engine Rating 15
Section A - Seeking a New Experience 16
Section B - Considering SRM 47
Chapter 2 - Understanding Your Airplane 68
Section A - Examining Systems 69
Section B - Calculating Weight and Balance 163
Section C - Determining Performance 189
Chapter 3 - Discovering Aerodynamics 236
Section A - Introducing Multi-Engine Aerodynamics 237
Section B - Mastering Engine-Out Aerodynamics 259
Part II - Experience the Adventure 294
Chapter 4 - Performing Maneuvers and Procedures 296
Section A - Normal Operations 297
Section B - Maneuvers 341
Chapter 5 - Mastering Engine-Out Operations 364
Section A - When an Engine Fails 365
Section B - Engine-Out Maneuvers 389
Section C - Operating on Instruments 417
Chapter 6 - Applying SRM 434
APPENDIX A - Answers 484
APPENDIX B - Glossary 495