Biometric Systems

James Wayman, Anil Jain, Davide Maltoni

and Dario Maio (Eds)

Biometric Systems
Technology, Design and Performance
Evaluation

13
James Wayman
San Jose State University, USA
Anil Jain
Michigan State University, USA
Davide Maltoni
University of Bologna, Italy
Dario Maio
University of Bologna, Italy

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Biometric Systems : technology, design and performance
evaluation
1.Biometric identification 2.Electronic security systems
I.Wayman, James
621.3'8928

ISBN 1852335963

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 Preface

The use of computers to recognize humans from physical and behavioral

traits dates back to the digital computer evolution of the 1960s. But even
after decades of research and hundreds of major deployments, the field of
biometrics remains fresh and exciting as new technologies are developed
and old technologies are improved and fielded in new applications. World-
wide over the past few years, there has been a marked increase in both gov-
ernment and private sector interest in large-scale biometric deployments
for accelerating human–machine processes, efficiently delivering human
services, fighting identity fraud and even combating terrorism. The pur-
pose of this book is to explore the current state of the art in biometric sys-
tems and it is the system aspect that we have wished to emphasize.
By their nature, biometric technologies sit at the exact boundary of the
human–machine interface. But like all technologies, by themselves they can
provide no value until deployed in a system with support hardware, net-
work connections, computers, policies and procedures, all tuned together
to work with people to improve some real business process within a social
structure.
In this book, we bring together some of the most respected and experi-
enced international researchers and practitioners in the field to look
closely at biometric systems from many disciplinary angles. We focus on
the technologies of fingerprint, iris, face and speaker recognition, how
those technologies have evolved, how they work, and how well they work as
determined in recent test programs. We look at the challenges of designing
and deploying biometrics in people-centered systems, particularly when
those systems become large. We conclude with discussions on the legal and
privacy issues of biometric deployments from both European and US per-
spectives. We hope you find this book valuable in understanding both the
historical accomplishments and remaining challenges in this fascinating
field.
James Wayman
Anil Jain
Davide Maltoni
Dario Maio
31 July 2004

v
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

1. An Introduction to Biometric Authentication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 A Quick Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The “Best” Biometric Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 The Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 A Taxonomy of Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 A Taxonomy of Application Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Overt Versus Covert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.2 Habituated Versus Non-Habituated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.3 Attended Versus Non-Attended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.4 Standard Versus Non-Standard Environment . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.5 Public Versus Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.6 Open Versus Closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.7 Examples of the Classification of Applications . . . . . . . 9
1.7 A System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7.1 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7.2 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7.3 Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7.4 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7.5 Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Biometrics and Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 The Road Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2. Fingerprint Identification Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.1 Early Biometric Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Applications of Fingerprints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.1 Forensics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.2 Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.3 Civil and Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.4 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Early Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.1 Manual Card Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.3 Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.4 Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Early Automation Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.1 US NBS/NIST Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

vii
viii Contents

2.4.2 Royal Canadian Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.4.3 FBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.4 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.5 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 The Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.1 Scanning and Digitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.2 Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5.3 Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.4 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.5 Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.6 Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.5.7 Manual Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6 Criminal Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6.1 National Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6.2 Local Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.3 Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6.4 “Daubert” Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.7 Civil Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.7.1 Welfare Fraud Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.7.2 Border Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.7.3 Driver registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.8 Commercial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.8.1 Miniaturized Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.8.2 Personal Access Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.8.3 Banking Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.8.4 Business-to-Business Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3. Iris Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2 Anatomical and Physiological Underpinnings . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3 Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4 Iris signature representation and matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.4.1 Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.4.2 Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4.3 Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.5 Systems and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.6 Future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4. Face Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.3 Face Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4 Face Recognition: Representation and Classification . . . . . . . . 100
4.4.1 Some Representation Techniques and Their
Applications to Face Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Contents ix

4.4.2 Some Classification Techniques and Their

Applications to Face Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.5 Kernel-Based Methods and 3D Model-based Methods for
Face Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.6 Learning the Face Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6.1 Evolutionary Pursuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6.2 Face Recognition Using Evolutionary Pursuit . . . . . . . . 108
4.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

5. Elements of Speaker Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.1.1 The Speaker Verification Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2 Features and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.2.1 Speech Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.2.2 Speaker Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3 Additional Methods for Managing Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.1 Channel Normalization and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.2 Constraining the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4 Measuring Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.4.1 How Well do These Systems Perform? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.5 Alternative Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.5.1 Speech Recognition Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.5.2 Words (and Phonetic Units) Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.5.3 Models Exploring the Shape of Feature Space . . . . . . . 133
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

6. Technology Evaluation of Fingerprint Verification Algorithms . . . . . . . 137

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2 FVC2000 Organization and Algorithms Submission Rules . . . . 139
6.3 Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.4 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.6 Organization of FVC2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

7. Methods for Assessing Progress in Face Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.2 Face Recognition Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.1 Introduction to FERET and FRVT 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.2 September 1996 FERET Evaluation Protocol . . . . . . . . . 212
7.2.3 Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.2.4 FERET and FRVT 2000 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
x Contents

7.2.5 Conclusions Drawn from the FERET Evaluations and

FRVT 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.3 Meta-Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.3.1 Introduction to Meta-Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.3.2 Methodology for Selecting Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.3.3 Analysis of Performance Scores – Viewing the Data
Through Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.3.4 Evaluation of Experiments with a Baseline . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.3.5 Meta-Analysis Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

8. The NIST speaker recognition evaluation program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.2 NIST Speaker Recognition Evaluation Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8.2.1 One-Speaker Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.2 Two-Speaker Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.3 Speaker Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.4 Speaker Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.3 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.3.1 Speaker Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.3.2 Test Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.4 Performance Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.5 Evaluation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.6 Factors Affecting Detection Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.6.1 Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.6.2 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.6.3 Handset Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.6.4 Handset Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.6.5 Landline vs. Cellular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.7 Extended Data Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.8 Multimodal Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.9 Future Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

9. Large-Scale Identification System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.1.1 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.1.2 Large-Scale Identification Systems: Requirements
and Basic Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.2 Extrapolation of Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.2.2 Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.2.3 Method 1: Extrapolation from Experiences . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.2.4 Method 2: Identification as a Succession of
N Verifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
9.2.5 Method 3: Extrapolation with Extreme Value . . . . . . . . 272
Contents xi

9.2.6 Method 4: Extrapolation when the Distance

Can Be Modeled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.2.7 Influence of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
9.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

10. Biometric System Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

10.1 Understanding, Describing and Documenting
the Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
10.2 Choosing the Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
10.3 Application Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10.4 Integration with Existing System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
10.5 Templates and Enrollment Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
10.6 Understanding User Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
10.7 Fine Tuning the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.8 Ongoing Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.9 Related Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

11. Biometrics and the US Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
11.1.1 Privacy Versus Security; Mankind Versus Machine . . . . . 311
11.1.2 The Growth of Both Anonymous Public Transactions
and the Complexity of Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
11.1.3 Constitutional Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
11.2 Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
11.2.1 Entitlements and Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
11.2.2 Instrumental and Intrinsic Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
11.2.3 Constitutional Development: From the Intrinsic to the
Instrumental Approach of Procedural Due Process . . . . 317
11.2.4 The Enigma of Substantive Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . 320
11.3 Individual Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
11.3.1 The Basis of an Inferred Right to Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . 322
11.3.2 Privacy and the Fourth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
11.3.3 Privacy and the Fifth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.3.4 Privacy of Personal Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
11.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
References and Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

12. Privacy Issues in the Application of Biometrics: a European Perspective . . 335

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
12.2 Privacy – from Philosophical Concept to a Human Right . . . . . 337
12.3 The European Personal Data Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
12.4 Applying the Directive and National Laws to
Biometric Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
12.4.1 Biometric Data as “Personal Data” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.4.2 Biometrics and Sensitive Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
xii Contents

12.4.3 Proportionality Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

12.4.4 First Principle Compliance – Fair and Lawful
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
12.4.5 Fourth Principle Compliance – Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . 347
12.4.6 Seventh Principle Compliance – Security . . . . . . . . . . . 347
12.4.7 Eighth Principle Compliance – Transfer to
Third Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.4.8 Automatic Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.4.9 Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12.5 Article 8 of the European Human Rights Convention . . . . . . . . 349
12.6 The Role of Privacy-Enhancing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
12.7 Looking to the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.8 Social and Psychological Context of the Application of
Biometric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
12.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
 List of Contributors

Robert J. Allen Herve Jarosz

Allen Consultants LLC Sagem
[email protected] [email protected]

Julian Ashbourn Anil K. Jain

International Biometric Michigan State University
Foundation [email protected]
[email protected]
Chengjun Liu
J. Mike Bone New Jersey Institute of Technology
NAVSEA Crane Division [email protected]
[email protected]
Davide Maltoni
Duane Blackburn University of Bologna
Federal Bureau of Investigation [email protected]
[email protected]
Dario Maio
Joseph P. Campbell, Jr. University of Bologna
Massachusetts Institute of [email protected]
Technology, Lincoln Laboratory
[email protected] Alvin Martin
National Institute of Standards and
Raffaele Cappelli Technology
University of Bologna [email protected]
[email protected]
Elaine Newton
Jean-Christophe Fondeur Rand Corporation
Sagem [email protected]
jean-christophe.fondeur
@sagem.com Kenneth P. Nuger
San Jose State University
Herbert Gish [email protected]
BBN Technologies
[email protected] P. Jonathon Phillips
National Institute of Standards and
Patrick Grother Technology
National Institute of Standards and [email protected]
Technology
[email protected]

xiii
xiv List of Contributors

Salil Prabhakar James L. Wayman

Digital Persona, Inc. San Jose State University
[email protected] [email protected]

Mark Przybocki Harry Wechsler

National Institute of Standards and George Mason University
Technology [email protected]
[email protected]
Richard Wildes
Marek Rejman-Greene York University
BTExact Technologies [email protected]
[email protected]

Pat Sankar
U.S. Naval Postgraduate School
[email protected]