PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 FINALS TEST 2

QUANTITATIVE DATA-COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

QUANTITATIVE DATA
- Data are pieces of information or facts known by people in this world. These data result from sensory experiences
whose descriptive qualities such as age, shape, speed, amount, weight, height, number, positions, and the like are
measurable.

TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA

• Collecting data - one major component of any type of research.

1. OBSERVATION
- Using your sense organs, you gather facts or information
Expressing these sensory experiences to quantitative data, you record them with the use of numbers.
2. SURVEY
- obtain facts or information about the subject or object of your research through interview andquestionnaire. This is
the most popular data-gathering technique in quantitative and qualitative researcher studies
• QUESTIONNAIRE
- a paper containing series of questions formulated for an individual and independent answering by several
respondents for obtaining statistical information.
• INTERVIEW - makes you ask a set of questions, only that, this time, orally.
> ORDER OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS - sequentially; questions follow a certain order
~FIRST SET OF QUESTIONS - opening ​~THIRD SET OF QUESTIONS - directive or close-ended
~SECOND SET OF QUESTIONS - generative ​~FOURTH SET OF QUESTIONS - ending
3. EXPERIMENT
- a scientific method of collecting data whereby you give the subjects a sort of treatment or condition. Then evaluate
the results to find out the manner by which the treatment affected the subjects and to discover the reasons behind
the effects of such treatment on the subjects.
- aims at manipulating or controlling conditions to show which condition or treatment has effects on the subjects
and to determine how much condition or treatment operates or functions to yield a certain outcome.
4. CONTENT ANALYSIS - makes you search through several oral or written forms of communication to find answers to
your research questions.

STATISTICAL METHOD
STATISTICS - term that pertains to your acts of collecting and analyzing numerical data. Doing statistics then means
performing some arithmetic procedures like addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, and other
mathematical calculations.

STATISTICAL METHODOLOGIES
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - this describes a certain aspect of a data set by making you calculate the mean, medium,
mode and standard deviation.
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - this statistical method is not a simple as the descriptive statistics. This does not focus
itself only on the features of the category of set, but on the characteristics of the sample that are also true for the
population from where you have drawn the sample.

TYPES OF STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS

➢ UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS - analysis of one variable
➢ BIVARIATE ANALYSIS - analysis of two variables (independent and dependent variables)
➢ MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS - analysis of multiple relations between multiple variables.

STATISTICAL METHODS OF BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

- happens by means
1. CORRELATION OR COVARIATION (CORRELATED VARIATION) - describes the relationship between two variables and
also test the strength or significance of their linear relation. Covariance is the statistical turn to measure the extent of
the change in the relationship of two random variables.
2. CROSS TABULATION - is also called "stop or students-contingency table" that follows the format of a matrix (plural:
matrices) is made up of lines of numbers, symbols, and other expressions.
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 FINALS TEST 2
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Time consuming because it involves series of examinations, classifications, mathematical calculations, and graphical
recording, among others.

STEPS IN QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

1. PREPARING THE DATA

• CODING SYSTEM - analyze data means to quantify or change the verbally express data into numerical information.
Converting the words, images, or pictures into numbers, become fit for any analytical procedures requiring knowledge
of arithmetic and mathematical computations.
• DATA TABULATION - for easy classification and distribution of numbers based on a certain criterion, you have to
collate with the help of a graph called table. Used for frequency and percentage distribution, this kind of graph is an
excellent data organizer that researchers find indispensable.
2. ANALYZING THE DATA
• DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE - this quantitative data-analysis technique provides a summary of the
orderly or sequential data obtained from the sample through the data
gathering instrument used.
➢ FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION - frequency of distribution and percentage of the occurrence of an item in asset of
data; gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one question.
➢ MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY - different positions or values of the items, touch that in a category of data,
you find an item or items serving as the:
• MEAN - average of all the items are scores ( SUM ÷ TOTAL QUANTITY )
• MEDIAN - the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the set into two groups.
( ODD - MIDDLE ) ( EVEN - SUM OF THE 2 MIDDLE ÷ 2 )
• MODE - refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated appearance in the set.
( MOST FREQUENT NUM. )

➢ STANDARD DEVIATION - extent of the difference of the data from the mean.
✓STEP 1: compute the MEAN
✓STEP 2: compute the deviation (difference) between each respondent's answer (data item) and the MEAN.
✓STEP 3: compute the square of each deviation
✓STEP 4: compute the sum of squares by adding the squared figures.
✓STEP 5: divide the sum of squares by the number of data items to get the variance.
✓STEP 6: compute the square root of variance figure to get standard deviation.

2. ADVANCED QUANTITATIVE ANALYTICAL METHODS

- involves the use of more complex statistical, methods needing computer software like the SPSS, STATA, or
MINITAB, among others, occurs among graduate level students taking their MA or PhD degrees.
• CORRELATION - uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the relationship of two variables. The results,
however, incapable of establishing causal relationships.
• ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) - results of this statistical analysis our sued to determine if the difference in the
means or averages of two categories of data are statistically significant.
• REGRESSION - shows the nature of relationship of variables, but gives more extensive result than that of
correlation; it determines whether a variable is capable of predicting the strength of the relation
between the treatment (independent variable) and the Outcome (dependent variable).
- incapable of establishing cause-effect relationships.

RANDOM SAMPLING VIS-À-VIS STATISTICAL METHODS

1. Decide on the size of the sample
2. Divide the sample into subsets or sub samples with the samples having the same aggregate number as that of the
sample they came from
3. Select the appropriate sub sample randomly from each subgroup or stratum
4. Put together the sub sample results to get the total number of the overall sample
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 FINALS TEST 2
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
SAMPLING - choosing from a large population the respondents or subjects to answer your research questions.
INTERPOPULATION - involved but for your research study, you choose only a part of the whole.

FACTORS AFFECTING SAMPLE SELECTION

1. SAMPLE SIZE - chances of getting a sample reflecting 95% distribution of the population or of a sample representing
the whole population is highly probable.
2. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE - fall under two categories:
• PROBABILITY SAMPLING - uses a random selection; gives all equal opportunity to be chosen as people to
constitute the sample is a precise way of sampling.
• NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING - a purposive or controlled selection.
3. HETEROGENEITY OF POPULATION - (heterogeneous population) composed of individuals with varied abilities.
- wide variation among the people composing the population.
4. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES - depends on how precise or accurate your methods are in calculating the numbers used
in measuring the chosen samples or in giving a certain value to each of them.
5. TIME AND COST - choosing samples make you deal with one big whole population, with each member of this large
group needing your attention, time and effort, let alone the amount of money you will fork out for
the materials you will need in making the sampling frame.

SAMPLING METHODS
1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING - base your selection of respondents on pure chance; everybody population participates.
• SIMPLE-RANDOM SAMPLING - choosing of respondents based on pure chance.
• SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING - picking out from the list every 5th every eight member listed in the sampling frame until
the completion of the desired total number of respondents.
• STRATIFIED SAMPLING - choosing into strata, subgroups, sub samples during the stage of the data analysis
• CLUSTER SAMPLING - selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in separate individuals such as choosing five
classes of 40 students each from a whole population of 5,000 students.

2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING - are not chosen randomly, but purposefully; are susceptible to bias.
• QUOTA SAMPLING - choosing specific samples that you know correspond to the population in terms of one, two, or
more characteristics.
• VOLUNTARY SAMPLING - selecting people who are willing to participate as respondents in the research project
• PURPOSIVE SAMPLING - choosing respondents whom you have judged as people with good background knowledge
or with great enthusiasm about the research.
• AVAILABILITY SAMPLING - who are easy to find or locate and willing to establish contact with you.
• SNOWBALL SAMPLING - from several alternative samples, whose dwelling places are not easily located for they are
like nomads moving from place to place.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FIVE BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

1. RANDOM SAMPLING
A: the most accurate theoretically; influence only by chance
D: unavailable list of the interpopulation sometimes or prevention of random sampling by practical considerations
2. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
A: shores a large sample to subdivide on important variables; needed when population is too large to list; can be
combined with another techniques
D: can be bias if strata are given false weights, unless the waiting procedure is used for overall analysis
3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
A: similar to random sampling; often easier than random sampling
D: times permits bias
4. CLUSTER SAMPLING
A: easy to collect data on the subject
D: prone to bias when the number is small
5. QUOTA SAMPLING
A: when random sampling is impossible; quick to do
D: presence of bias not controlled by the quota system presence of bias not controlled by the quota system
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 FINALS TEST 2
RESEARCH-REPORT WRITING
> First things you do in research are molding over a research problem that will lead you to the final topic of your
research, obtaining background knowledge about your topic by rrl, formulating research questions, collecting and
analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and making recommendations. Going through all these research stages makes you
perform all levels of thinking specially the HOTS or higher order thinking strategies of interpretative, critical,
interactive, and creative thinking.

• RESEARCH WRITING - presents facts and opinion of other people about the particular subject matter
- includes your own interpretations as the researcher about those known facts.
• REPORTING WRITING - presents facts and opinions of others however it does not claim that this opinions originally
come from the writer for the reason that stop reading materials that have already published facts and opinions.

GUIDELINES IN RESEARCH-REPORT WRITING

1. ORGANIZE - the parts of the research report based on the standard research report structure that consists of the
following sequential components:
• TITLE - gives formation and descriptions of the things focus on by your research study
• ABSTRACT - using only 100 to 150 words; present a summary of the research that makes clear the background,
objectives, significance, methodologies, results, and conclusion of the research study.
• INTRODUCTION - given a stress in the section of the paper are the research problem and its background, objectives,
research questions, hypothesis
• METHODOLOGY - explain the procedure in collecting and analyzing data and also describe the sources of data
• RESULTS OR FINDINGS - present the research findings that are expressed through graphics, statistics, or words.
- no more mentioning of analysis of data or not yet analyze data in this section.
• CONCLUSIONS - explains things that will lead you to significant points, insights, or understanding, conclusions that
derive their validity, credibility or acceptability from the factual evidence gathered during the data
collection stage.
• RECOMMENDATIONS - tends to be optional in some cases; gives something that will expand or extend one's
understanding of the conclusions raised earlier, testing a solution to the problem or
recommending a further research on the subject
• REFERENCES - identities or names of all writers or owners of ideas that you incorporated in your research paper
• APPENDICES - copies of materials like questionnaires, graphs, and letters among the others that you use in all
stages of your academic work, and are, then, part and parcel of your research study.

2. FAMILIARIZE - self with the language of academic writing.

> GEARED - toward bringing out what are generally to true, valid, and acceptable, the language of research-report
writing uses rich-information vocabulary objective, formal, or impersonal tone or register.
• DOMINANTLY - use passive voice and active voice sentences.
• THIRD PERSON POINT OF VIEW - use by using words like his or her, they or the user, instead of the personalized
first person point of view like I, we, me, are, etc.
• SUBJECT or PERSONAL OF THE ACADEMIC TEXT - de-emphasize by avoiding the use of emotive words like
dissatisfied, uninteresting, or undignified
• MODALITY - use to express opinionated statements that are prone to various degrees or lever levels of certainty.
(words indicating the degree of the appropriateness, effectiveness, or applicability of something)

3. OBSERVE - the mechanics of research report writing which are as follows)

• PHYSICAL APPEARANCE - use white bond paper having the size of 8 1/2 x 11 in. And provide 1 1/2 in left right
margin, plus 1 in top bottom margin. Bless your teacher instructs you to use a particular
font style and size, use the standard times roman, 12 pts
• QUOTATIONS - a one line, double space quotation is in quotation marks, four to five line single space quotations are
intended further from the margin to appear as block quotation
• FOOTNOTES - appear at the bottom of the page and are numbered consecutively stating with number one (1)
in its chapter
• STATISTICS AND GRAPHS - use tables, charts, bar graphs, line charts, pictograms, flowcharts, schematic diagrams.
• FINAL DRAFTS - check the final form of the research report to editing, revising, rewrite