Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system consists of the following parts:

 The penis
 Ducts (Epididymis, vas deferens and the urethra)
 Accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland and Cowper's gland)
 The testes

The testes are the primary male sex organs. They consist of:

 Seminiferous tubules = produce spermatozoa through meiosis

 Epididymis = stores sperms temporarily
 Vas deferens or Spermduct = carries spermatozoa from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
 Sertoli cells = these provide nutrients for the developing spermatozoa
 Cells of Leydig = secretes the male sex hormone, called testosterone
Diagram of a longitudinal section through a testis
Diagram of the cross section of a seminiferous tubule showing the stages of spermatogenes.

Scrotum:

 The bag of skin that encloses the testes.

 Protects the testes by holding them away from the body. This ensures that they are exposed to
temperatures 2 degrees lower than that of the body, therefore 35 degrees Celsius body
temperature, for optimal sperm production.

Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system consists of the following:

 The ovaries are the primary female sex organs. They produce ova (eggs) within the follicles.
 Fallopian tubes (oviduct) transport ova from the ovaries to the uterus and is also the site
for fertilization.
 The uterus is also known as the womb. It is where implantation and development take place. The
lining of the uterus, the endometrium consists of blood vessels.
 The vagina is also known as the birth canal. It is where copulation occurs and the foetus leaves the
female's body through the vagina.
The ovaries are the primary female sex organs. They are responsible for the following:

 production and release the female sex hormones progesterone and oestrogen (these hormones are
responsible for secondary sexual characteristics, during puberty)

 They produce ova within their follicles.

Puberty

 A child undergoes physical and physiological changes.

 It leads to the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
 The age at which it begins is affected by genetic and environmental factors.
 In girls it is normally between the ages of 11 and 14 and boys it is between the ages of 14 and 16.
 Puberty is stimulated when the pituitary gland secretes gonadotropin.
 In females, the hormone gonadotropin stimulates the ovaries to
secrete oestrogen and progesterone.
 In males, the hormone gonadotropin stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone
 Males and females both develop secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
 The respective sex hormones are responsible for this process.
Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is the process by which gametes are produced from the germinal epithelium of the sex
organs (testes and ovaries), through meiosis.

Gametogenesis is classified into two categories:

1. Oogenesis: process by which ovaries produce ova, by means of meiosis.

2. Spermatogenesis: process by which testes produce sperm cells (spermatozoa), by means of meiosis.

Spermatogenesis

 Cells of the germinal epithelium lining of the seminiferous tubules undergo meiosis.
 Each cell that undergoes meiosis produces four haploid spermatids.
 The spermatocytes undergo two meiotic divisions to form four haploid daughter cells (spermatids)
 Each spermatid matures to form a spermatozoan, which are differentiated.
Spermatozoan

The spermatozoan consists of THREE parts:

1. Head

2. Middle piece

3. Tail

1. Head is made up of mainly the nucleus, which carries the paternal genetic information. It contains 22
autosomes and either x or y gonosome. Acrosome contains enzymes that help penetrate the ovum for
fertilization.

2. Middle piece contains mitochondria which provide energy for locomotion.

3. Tail, also called a flagellum, enables it to swim.

Oogenesis

Oogenesis refers to the process by which ova are produced by the germinal epithelium of the ovaries.

It involves the following:

 Germinal epithelium in the ovaries undergoes mitosis.

 They form follicles.
 One cell inside a follicle enlarges and undergoes meiosis.
 One cell retains the entirety of the cytoplasm to form a secondary oocyte, while the other cell forms
a polar body
 Of the 4 cells that are formed, only 1 survives to form a mature ovum.
 The polar body remains trapped within the follicle until it eventually degenerates.
Ovum

The ovum consists of the following structures:

 Jelly-like layer (Zona pellucida): protective layer.

 Nucleus: carries maternal genetic information and controls the cell.
 Cytoplasm: also known as the yolk, provides reserve source of nutrients for the fertilized ovum.
 Corona radiata: follicle cells from prior to ovulation; dissolved by enzymes of the acrosome of the
sperm cell.
 Menstrual Cycle

Menstrual cycle refers to the changes that occur in the ovary and uterus of a female over a period of 28
days, for the purpose of fertilization.

There are TWO separate cycles that make up the menstrual cycle, namely:

1. Ovarian cycle

2. Uterine cycle
Ovarian Cycle

The ovarian cycle describes what happens inside the ovary.

The Graafian follicle undergoes changes, as it releases the ovum during ovulation to form the corpus
luteum.
OVERVIEW OF OVARIAN CYCLE

 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is produced by the pituitary gland/hypophysis.

 FSH stimulates the development of the Graafian follicles, containing the mature ovum.
 The Graafian follicle produces oestrogen, which begins to prepare the thickening of the inner lining
of the uterus (endometrium), for implantation, after fertilization.
 The Graafian follicle ruptures (breaks open) to release the mature ovum on day 14 of the cycle. This
is known as ovulation.
 The ovum leaves the ovary to enter the fallopian tubes.
 The hormone luteinising hormone (LH) is secreted by the pituitary gland/hypophysis converts the
ruptured follicles left into the ovary to form a yellow body, called the corpus luteum.
 The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which maintains the thickness of the endometrium.
 If fertilization doesn't happen, the corpus luteum disintegrates and the progesterone levels drop.

The Uterine Cycle

The uterine cycle describes the changes that take place in the inner wall of the uterus (endometrium). It
gradually thickens, becoming enriched with blood vessels, until the endometrium walls shed, thus
causing menstruation.

 Graafian follicle produces oestrogen which prepares the endometrium for implantation by:

–Thickening it

–Increasing blood supply

–Increasing glands
 After ovulation corpus luteum produces progesterone which keeps the endometrium intact for
implantation.
 If fertilization does occur the corpus luteum will remain and secrete progesterone to maintain the
endometrium and the pregnancy.
 If fertilization does not occur the corpus luteum disintegrates, causing progesterone levels to drop
and menstruation occurs.
 During menstruation, the endometrium wall disintegrates and leaves the vagina as blood.
 This can last between 3 to 7 days, and varies from one female to the next.

Feedback Mechanisms of the ovarian and uterine cycles

Fertilization to Birth

FERTILISATION

 The sperm and ovum meet in the Fallopian tube.

 Using the enzymes in the acrosome it digests away the jelly layer of the ovum.
 The haploid nucleus of the sperm cell penetrates the ovum and the nuclei fuse forming a diploid zygote. This is
called fertilization.
 As the zygote passes through the Fallopian tube it undergoes mitosis to form a ball of cells called a morula.
 The morula further undergoes mitosis and it forms a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst.
 By the time it reaches the uterus it will have formed an embryo.
 The embryo then attaches to the endometrium and this is called implantation.

DEVELOPMENT

 After implantation occurs the extra-embryonic membranes develop.

 Chorion which forms the chorionic villi.
 Amnion which is filled with amniotic fluid.

The amniotic fluid has the following functions:

 Acts as a shock absorber, preventing injury.

 Prevents dehydration.
 Regulates the temperature.

The chorionic villi together with the uterine tissue in which the villi are embedded make up
the placenta.

FUNCTIONS:

 Serves as attachment of the embryo to the mother.

 Allows for diffusion of food and oxygen from the mother to the embryo.
 Allows for diffusion of carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste from the embryo to the mother.
 Secretes progesterone after 12th week.
 The umbilical cord attaches the embryo and the placenta.
 It contains the umbilical artery and umbilical vein.
 The umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood with waste away the embryo to the mother.
 The umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood with nutrients from the placenta to the embryo.
Gestation is the period during which the embryo develops within the uterus of the mother, up to the
time it is born.

 During this period, the embryo increases in shape and size as it continues to grow and develop.
 At 8 weeks, it starts to look like a human baby and is referred to as a foetus.
 A full term of gestation in humans is 40 weeks long.
Contraception
Contraception is the process by which humans use various substances called contraceptives to prevent
pregnancy.

The various methods that can be used include:

–Condom

–Loop/IUD

–Female condom

–Diaphragm

–Contraceptive pill

–Spermicides

–Vasectomy

–Tubal ligation

–Contraceptive injections

–Withdrawal

–Rhythm method
Barrier Methods

Male condom:

Placed over an erect penis. Acts as a barrier, stops sperm getting into the vagina. Stops STDs but is only
about 98% safe as they can tear or break if put on incorrectly.

Female condom:

Is inserted into the vagina before intercourse. It acts as barrier and also stops the spread of STDs
The diaphragm (cap):

Acts as a barrier as it covers the cervical opening and prevents sperm from entering the uterus.
Spermicidal cream must be applied to the around the edges of the cap. Does not protect you from STDs.

Natural methods

Withdrawal method:
The penis is taken out of the vagina just before ejaculation, but it is not a safe method as sperm cells
can be released before ejaculation.

Rhythm method:
Sexual intercourse is avoided three to four days before and after ovulation. This is between days 10
and 18 of the menstrual cycle.

Both methods do not PROTECT you from STDs OR from falling pregnant. These are the most
ineffective forms of contraception.

Chemical/hormonal methods

Contraceptive pill:

Contains hormones which prevent FSH and LH production thus preventing ovulation. Since no egg is
released no pregnancy can result.

There are disadvantages:

–Woman may forget to take it.

–Certain side effects.

–Does NOT protect against STDs

The contraceptive injection:

Contains progesterone or combination of oestrogen and progesterone which stops
ovulation. Works for up to 2 to 3 months.
Does NOT protect against STDs.
Spermicides:

Contain a chemical that kills sperm cells and it acts as a barrier, which prevents the sperm from
entering through the cervix.

Does NOT protect against STDs.

Sterilization

Vasectomy: (male sterilisation)

–The sperm ducts are cut and tied. Semen without sperm cells is produced

Tubal ligation: (female sterilisation)

–The Fallopian tubes are cut and tied to prevent the fusion of sperm and ovum.

The loop/IUD

IUD stands for Intra-Uterine Device. It is commonly referred to as "the loop". It prevents embryos from
implanting into the endometrium, by preventing the endometrium from thickening in the first place.