City University of Hong Kong

Division of Building Science and Technology

Associate of Science in Building Services Engineering

BST20532 HVAC SERVICES 2

VAPOUR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS (2)

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

After studying this lecture notes, students are expected to:
• understand another two main types of refrigeration systems - centrifugal and twin screw, following the last
lecture notes of "Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (1)";
• appreciate the capacity control and functional controls of centrifugal refrigeration system;
• understand the energy-efficient features of centrifugal refrigeration system - economizer and free
refrigeration;
• appreciate the capacity control and economizer configuration of twin screw refrigeration system;
• distinguish the features, hence the selection and applications, among the reciprocating, centrifugal and twin
screw refrigeration systems.

OUTLINE
1. Centrifugal Refrigeration System
1.1 2-Stage Centrifugal Refrigeration System
1.2 Surging in Centrifugal Compressor
1.3 Capacity Control Devices
1.4 Functional Controls and Optimizing Controls
1.5 Economizer
1.6 Free Refrigeration

2. Rotary (Twin Screw) Refrigeration Systems

2.1 Capacity Control
2.2 Economizer

Tutorial
BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

CENTRIFUGAL & ROTARY TYPE

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

1. CENTRIFUGAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

1.1 2-Stage Centrifugal Refrigeration System

This is often called a '2-stage centrifugal chiller' and is usually assembled in a

package unit.

Processes of chiller operation:

• Hot refrigerant gas from the 1st-stage impeller mixes with the flash vapour
from the flash coolers; the mixture then enters the 2nd-stage impeller and
is compressed to the condensing pressure.

SF July 2005 Page 2 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

• A very small portion of the liquid refrigerant from the liquid cooler
(evaporator) is used to cool the hermetic motor.
• Liquid refrigerant from the condenser flows into a flash cooler through the
high side float valve and throttles to the inter-stage pressure; the liquid
then passes through the low side float valve and is injected into the liquid
cooler.

During operation, the pressure drop in the suction line is approximately equal
to an equivalent drop of 0.5 oC of the saturated temperature of the refrigerant.

The condenser in the system may be water-cooled or air-cooled. If for the

purpose of heat recovery, a double-bundle type can be used.

1.2 Surging in a Centrifugal Compressor

Surging is an unstable operation usually caused by low refrigerant flow. For

a single-stage centrifugal compressor, the performance curve is in the form as
shown:
Pressure
System Curve
Q
P'
P

Performance Curve
of Compressor

Flow Rate

P: normal operating point

P': slightly increase of flow resistance; stable
Q: turning point

In case the instantaneous operating point is at Q, any additional resistance will

shift the point to a position of lower flow and greater turbulence. This causes a
reverse refrigerant flow. The normal refrigerant flow will be resumed as soon
as the pressure in impeller builds up again.

The alternate forward and backward flow is known as surging which gives rise
to noise and vibration. Surging damages the compressor and the system if
allowed to continue for a longer period.

SF July 2005 Page 3 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

1.3 Capacity Control Devices

3 common types of capacity control are listed as follows:

• variable speed turbine drive

• adjustable frequency controller
• inlet guide vane
• hot gas bypass (not recommended since waste of energy)

1.3.1 Variable Speed Turbine Drive

A steam turbine which is connected to the impeller provides the drive for
variable rotating speed of the compressor. Very low speed of compressor can
be achieved. Installation cost is expensive except the exhaust steam can be
adopted for heating purpose.

1.3.2 Adjustable Frequency Controller

It alters the motor speed by varying the frequency of the power supply.

Operating principles:
• AC/DC Rectifier - rectify the incoming 3-phase power supply into DC
supply.
• Variable frequency inverter - DC power is shaped into a pseudo-sine wave
of predetermined frequency, and this actuates the motor at the required
speed.

1.3.3 Inlet Guide Vane Control

Characteristics of inlet guide vane control:

• Pivoted movable vanes placed before the
inlet of the impeller.
• These inlet guide vanes pre-swirl the
gaseous refrigerant before it enters the
impeller of the compressor.

Both the total pressure rise and the compressor

η fall when the refrigerant flow undergoes a
greater swirl. However, the power input also
drops due to the reduction in both total pressure
rise and volume flow rate.

SF July 2005 Page 4 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

Inlet guide vane control is most widely used because it is simple, effective and
cheap. When combined with an adjustable frequency controller, it gives an
efficient control with the least power input. In general, for save in energy:

> 50% load, variable-speed better

< 50% load, vane-control better

1.4 Functional Controls and Optimizing Controls

A large modern centrifugal chiller plant usually includes multiple chillers to

prevent the entire shutdown of the refrigeration system when one chiller fails
to operate. Control of a centrifugal chiller plant, therefore, includes
functional controls and optimizing controls. Only a microprocessor-based
DDC system can possibly perform all these duties.

For functional controls, a DDC panel monitors and controls the following:
• chilled water leaving temperature
• electric demand limit
• air purge
• safety features, including oil pressure, low temperature freezing protection
at the evaporator, high condensing-pressure control, motor overheating,
and time delaying
• status features, including cooling water flow, chilled water flow, electric
current, and refrigerant and chilled water temperatures and pressures at
key points

SF July 2005 Page 5 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

To optimize the controls of a plant with multiple centrifugal chillers one

should do the following:
• optimize the on-off stages of the multiple chillers
• control the condenser water temperature
• optimize start and stop

1.4.1 Chilled Water Leaving Temperature Control

Continuous modulation control is extensively used for chilled water leaving

temperature Tel control in centrifugal chillers. A temperature sensor located
in the chilled water pipes at the exit of the evaporator is used to sense Tel.
The DDC panel either varies the position of the opening of the inlet vanes or
varies the speed of the compressor motor through an adjustable frequency AC
inverter. The flow rate of refrigerant then decreases or increases, as does the
capacity of the centrifugal chiller.

Tel is often reset to a higher value at reduced load according to either the
outdoor temperature To. When To is high (e.g. 27 to 38°C), there is no reset.
Only when To is less than 27°C, Tel is reset for an increase of 0.2 to 0.35°C for
each °C drop in To. When To falls below a limit (e.g. 6°C), Tel remains
constant.

1.4.2 Functional Controls

a. Electric Demand Limit Control

This is used to prevent the electric current from exceeding a
predetermined value. If the current exceeds a predetermined limit,
the panel directs the inlet vanes to close or reduces the rotating speed
of the compressor through the adjustable-frequency AC invertor.

b. Motor Protection
The compressor motor assembly is the most expensive part of the
centrifugal chiller. For a typical control that protects a motor against
high temperatures, if the sensed temperature at stator winding exceeds
75°C, a start delay of 15 minutes would be introduced (4 minutes for
normal case). If the stator winding temperature exceeds a dangerous
upper limit, such as 130°C, the DDC panel then prohibits the operation
of the motor because of its high temperature.

c. Low-Temperature and High-Temperature Cutouts

Refrigerant temperature at the evaporator is detected, if the
predetermined low-temperature cutout is approached, inlet vanes hold
or close to provide freezing protection for the evaporator. A pressure
sensor also detects the condensing pressure of the refrigerant. The
DDC panel outputs override the inlet vane position instruction to close
the inlet vanes if the condensing pressure reaches the predetermined
limit.
d. High Bearing Temperature

SF July 2005 Page 6 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

If the bearing temperature detected by a temperature sensor exceeds a

preset value, the chiller is stopped immediately.

e. Short-Cycling Protection
Usually a time delay, typically of 30 minutes, is needed to restart a
centrifugal chiller after it has been turned off to prevent short-cycling.

f. Surge Protection
A surge detection device is used to send a signal to the DDC panel. If
the surge continues beyond a predetermined time period, the
compressor is then shut down.

g. Air Purge
An automatic purge operation includes the operation of an air purge
unit within a specific time interval, e.g. five minutes of air purge every
two hours. Both noncondensable gas and condensable vapour,
mainly water, leaking into the centrifugal chiller raise the purge drum
pressure, which would be detected in order to lengthen the period of
operation of air purge unit. However, for refrigerant having
evaporating pressure higher than atmospheric, no purge unit is
required.

1.4.3 Condenser Water Control

For water-cooled centrifugal chiller, interaction between the centrifugal chiller

and the cooling tower must be considered when one optimizes the condenser
cooling water entering temperature Tce so as to minimize the power
consumption. The control strategy is to minimize the total power
consumption of the chiller and condenser tower fans.

Tce should be designed to be floated, i.e. it should rise and fall with the
outdoor wet bulb temperature according to the following scheme:
• Tce must be maintained above the lower limit (generally around 15°C)
specified by the centrifugal chiller manufacturer to maintain a necessary
head pressure for proper operation. If the lower limit is reached, tower
fans must be turned off first, then the tower bypass valve should be
modulated to maintain Tce equal to or above the specified limit.
• If Tce reached the high limit, or if the chiller’s current limit is reached,
another tower fan should be added to the operating fans.

1.5 Economizer

For a 2-stage centrifugal chiller, a single-stage economizer is accompanied

with the chiller itself to provide up to 4.5% greater efficiency than design
without this. Since a 2-stage centrifugal chiller uses two impellers, it is
possible to flash refrigerant gas at two intermediate pressures between the
evaporator and condenser pressures, hence increasing chiller efficiency. This

SF July 2005 Page 7 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

improvement in efficiency is not possible in single-stage chillers since all

compression is done by one impeller.

Similarly, better efficiency (usually up to 7% greater) can be achieved by

using a 3-stage centrifugal chiller with 2-stage economizer.

1.6 Free Refrigeration

Free refrigeration means the production of a refrigeration effect without the

operation of a compressor. This effect can be achieved because refrigerant
tends to migrate to the area of lowest temperature in the system when the
compressor ceases to operate. When the free refrigeration is turned on, the
compressor stops, the inlet vanes are fully opened, and the valve in the
passage that connects the condenser and evaporator is opened.

When the temperature of the cooling water from the cooling tower or other
source is lower than the temperature of the chilled water leaving the
evaporator, the higher saturated pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator
forces the vaporized refrigerant to migrate to the condenser, where the
saturated pressure of the refrigerant is lower. The absorption of latent heat of
vapourization from the chilled water in the evaporator’s tube bundle causes
the temperature of the chilled water to drop. The condensation of vapourized
refrigerant into liquid results in the rejection of the latent heat of condensation
to cooling water through the tube bundle in the condenser, raising the
temperature of the cooling water a few degrees. Liquid refrigerant drains to
the evaporator as a result of gravity. Free refrigeration is thus achieved.

SF July 2005 Page 8 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

2. ROTARY (TWIN SCREW) REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Apart from reciprocating and centrifugal type, the rotary, especially twin screw type
liquid chiller is also very commonly adopted in refrigeration plant for HVAC
installation. The screw compressors can be designed to operate at high or low
pressure levels. Commercially available twin screw chillers are suitable for
application on all normally used high-pressure refrigerants, such as R-22.

2.1 Capacity Control

For ideal capacity control, it is expected that the compressor can achieve:

• continuous modulation from 100% to less than 10%;

• good part-load efficiency
• unloaded starting
• unchanged reliability

For twin screw compressor, the best means to meet those criteria are using
variable compressor displacement and variable speed. However the former
approach is the most common capacity control method adopted. There are
basically three kind of mechanisms To achieve variable displacement, the
mechanism is mainly functioned by the capacity slide valve, wihich is a valve
with sliding action parallel to the rotor bores. They are placed within or

SF July 2005 Page 9 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

close to the high-pressure cusp region, face one or both rotor bores, and
bypass a variable portion of the trapped gas charge back to suction, depending
on their position. It controls capacity as well as the location of the radial
discharge port at part load. The axial discharge port is designed for a volume
ratio giving good part-load performance.

This is generally the most efficient of the available capacity reduction

methods, due to its indirect correction of built-in volume ratio at part load and
its ability to give large volume reductions without large movement of the slide
valve.

SF July 2005 Page 10 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

SF July 2005 Page 11 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

2.2 Economizer

Twin screw compressors are available with a secondary suction port, i.e. the
economizer, between the primary compressor suction and discharge ports.
This economizer can accept a second suction load at a pressure above the
primary evaporator, or flash gas from a liquid subcooler vessel.

Partially compressed evaporator refrigerant vapour in the compressor is joined

by vapour produced during the motor cooling process and the economizer
cycle at an intermediate point in the compression cycle. The combined
refrigerant vapour streams are then fully compressed and the hot refrigerant
vapour is discharged to the condenser.

Once the liquid refrigerant leaves the bottom of the condenser, it passes
through the first orifice system. Because of the pressure drop created by the
orifice, some of the liquid vaporizes. The resulting mixture of liquid and
gaseous refrigerant then enters the motor housing, where it uniformly
surrounds and cools the motor. Motor heat absorbed by the refrigerant
causes more of the liquid refrigerant to flash to gas.

All of the refrigerant vapour available at this point is 'economized', i.e. routed
directly to the rotor section of the compressor housing. The liquid refrigerant
leaves the motor housing, passes through another orifice system and returns to
the evaporator continuing the cycle.

SF July 2005 Page 12 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

TUTORIAL

Comparison among Reciprocating, Twin Screw & Centrifugal Type Chillers

Characteristic Reciprocating Chiller Twin Screw Chiller Centrifugal Chiller

Range of
cooling capacity
for each
compressor
Max. nominal
capacity
available in
market
Common
refrigerant

kW/TR at full
load

Main capacity
control

Multi-stage and
economizer
application
Physical size for
same capacity

Noise problem

Vibration

Compressor
cycling

Frequency of
maintenance

Operating life

Initial cost in
general

SF July 2005 Page 13 of 14

BST20532 HVAC Services 2 - Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (2)

Suggested Answers

Characteristic Reciprocating Chiller Twin Screw Chiller Centrifugal Chiller

Range of < 300 kW (85 TR) 300 to 500 kW (i.e. 85 to > 500 kW (142 TR)
cooling capacity 142 TR)
∴ suitable for small size ∴ suitable for large size
for each
application ∴ suitable for medium application
compressor
size application
Max. nominal Air-cooled: ≈ 400 TR Air-cooled: ≈ 400 TR Air-cooled: ≈ 400 TR
capacity
Water cooled: 340 TR Water cooled: 1250 TR Water cooled: 2100 TR
available in
(even up to 8500 TR)
market
Common R-22 (to be banned in R-22 (to be banned in R-134a
refrigerant 2030) 2030)
kW/TR at full Highest Middle Lowest
load
Main capacity By cylinder unloader, By slide valve, By inlet guide vane
control hence step control modulating range from
15 to 100%
Multi-stage and No Yes Yes
economizer
application
Physical size for Largest Smallest Middle
same capacity
Noise problem More noisy, may require Less noisy Less noisy
acoustic enclosure
Vibration Most serious Least serious Middle
Compressor Yes No No
cycling
Frequency of More frequent, due to Less frequent, due to Less frequent, due to
maintenance much more critical parts major moving parts are 2 major moving part is
for maintenance rotors and slide valve rotating impeller
⇒ Highest maintenance
cost
Operating life Shorter Longer Longer
Initial cost in Lowest Medium Highest
general

SF July 2005 Page 14 of 14