Signal and Systems
Signals
Combined operations: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏
• Three possible approaches to realize 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏
• Time-shift 𝑥 𝑡 by 𝑏 to obtain 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑏 . Now timescale the shifted signal
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑏 by 𝑎 [i.e., replace 𝑡 with 𝑎𝑡] to obtain 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 .
𝑏
• Time-scale 𝑥 𝑡 by 𝑎 to obtain 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 . Now time-shift 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 by [i.e., replace
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝑡 with 𝑡 + ] to obtain 𝑥 𝑎 𝑡 + = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 .
𝑎 𝑎
• Systematic Approach:
𝜏−𝑏
• Let 𝜏 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏, then 𝑡 =
𝑎
• Sketch 𝑥 𝑡 as 𝑥 𝜏
• Draw the transformed t-axis directly below the 𝜏-axis.
• Plot 𝑦 𝑡 on the t-axis
Example
• Consider the signal 𝑥 𝑡 shown, plot the transformed signal 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑡
𝑥 1− .
2
Example
• Consider the signal 𝑥 𝑡 shown, plot the transformed signal 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑡
𝑥 1− .
2
Example
• Consider the signal 𝑥 𝑡 shown, plot the transformed signal 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑡
𝑥 1− .
2
Example
• Consider the signal 𝑥 𝑡 shown, plot the transformed signal 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑡
𝑥 1− .
2
Example
• Consider the signal 𝑥 𝑡 shown, plot the transformed signal 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑡
𝑥 1− .
2
Example
• Consider the signal 𝑥 𝑡 shown, plot the transformed signal 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑡
𝑥 1− .
2
Classification of Signals
• We shall consider only the following classes of signals:
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Energy and power signals
• Deterministic and probabilistic signals
Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
• A signal that is specified for a continuum of values
of time 𝑡 is a continuous-time signal
• Denoted as 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ ℝ
• Examples:
• Telephone and video camera outputs
• Plot on Matlab using plot(t, x)
• A signal that is specified only at discrete values of 𝑡
is a discrete-time signal
• Denoted as 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
• Examples:
• Quarterly gross national product (GNP)
• Monthly sales of a corporation
• Stock market daily averages
• Plot on Matlab using stem(n, x)
Analog and Digital Signals
• An analog signal is a signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a
continuous range (an infinite number of values).
• A digital signal is one whose amplitude can take on only a finite number of
values.
• Signals associated with a digital computer are digital because they take on only two
values (binary signals).
• A digital signal whose amplitudes can take on 𝑀 values is an 𝑀-ary signal of which
binary (𝑀 = 2) is a special case.
• The term continuous time and discrete time qualify the nature of a signal
along the time (horizontal) axis.
• The terms analog and digital, on the other hand, qualify the nature of the
signal amplitude (vertical axis).
Analog and Digital Signals
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• A signal 𝑥 𝑡 is said to be periodic if for some positive constant 𝑇0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇0 for all 𝑡
• The smallest value of 𝑇0 that satisfies the periodicity condition above
is called the fundamental period of 𝑥 𝑡 .
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• A signal is aperiodic if it is not periodic.
• A periodic signal, by definition, must start at 𝑡 = −∞ and continue
forever, as illustrated below.
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• The area under a periodic signal 𝑥 𝑡 of period 𝑇0 over any interval of
duration 𝑇0 is the same; that is, for any real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏,
𝑎+𝑇0 𝑏+𝑇0
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑏
• The area under 𝑥 𝑡 over any interval of duration 𝑇0 is denoted by
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
Remarks
• An everlasting signal exists over the entire interval −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞.
• A signal that does not start before 𝑡 = 0 is a causal signal.
• In other words, 𝑥 𝑡 is a causal signal if 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 for 𝑡 < 0.
• A signal that starts before 𝑡 = 0 is a noncausal signal.
Remarks
• Observe that an everlasting signal is always noncausal but a
noncausal signal is not necessarily everlasting.
• A signal that is zero for all 𝑡 ≥ 0 is called an anti-causal signal.
• A true everlasting signal cannot be generated in practice for obvious
reasons. However, they serve a very useful purpose in the study of
signals and systems.
Energy and Power Signals
• A signal with finite energy is an energy signal.
• A signal with finite and nonzero power is a power signal.
• An energy signal has zero power
• A power signal has infinite energy.
• A signal is either a power signal, an energy signal, or neither
• The ramp signal is neither
• A signal cannot be both a power signal and an energy signal
Remarks
• All practical signals have finite energies and are therefore energy signals.
• A power signal must necessarily have infinite duration; otherwise, its
power, which is its energy averaged over an infinitely large interval, will not
approach a (nonzero) limit.
• Clearly, it is impossible to generate a true power signal in practice because
such a signal has infinite duration and infinite energy.
• Periodic signals are power signals; however, not all power signals are
periodic.
• 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 is neither an energy nor a power signal for any real value 𝑎. However,
if 𝑎 is imaginary, then it is a power signal with power 𝑃𝑥 = 1 regardless of
the value 𝑎.
Example
• Show that for any real 𝑎, 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 is neither a power signal nor an energy
signal
Example
• Show that for any real 𝑎, 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 is neither a power signal nor an energy
signal
Example
• Show that for any imaginary 𝑎, 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 is a power signal with power
𝑃𝑥 = 1
Example
• Show that for any imaginary 𝑎, 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 is a power signal with power
𝑃𝑥 = 1
Deterministic and Random Signals
• A deterministic signal is a signal whose physical description is known
completely, in either a mathematical form or a graphical form.
• A random signal is a signal whose values cannot be predicted
precisely but are known only in terms of probabilistic description,
such as mean value or mean-squared value.
• Remark:
• In this book we shall exclusively deal with deterministic signals. Random
signals are beyond the scope of this study.
