APEX Calculus

for University of Lethbridge

 APEX Calculus
for University of Lethbridge

Gregory Hartman, Ph.D.

Virginia Military Institute

Sean Fitzpatrick, Ph.D., Editor

University of Lethbridge

Alex Jordan, Ph.D., Editor

Portland Community College

Carly Vollet, M.S., Editor

Portland Community College

August 17, 2023

Contributors to the 4th Edition: Jennifer Bowen, Troy Siemers, Brian Heinold,
Dimplekumar Chalishajar

Edition: 5
Website: [Link]
©2021 Gregory Hartman
Licensed to the public under Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0
International Public License
Thanks

There are many people who deserve recognition for the important role they have
played in the development of this text. First, I thank Michelle for her support
and encouragement, even as this “project from work” occupied my time and
attention at home. Many thanks to Troy Siemers, whose most important con-
tributions extend far beyond the sections he wrote or the 227 figures he coded
in Asymptote for 3D interaction. He provided incredible support, advice and
encouragement for which I am very grateful. My thanks to Brian Heinold and
Dimplekumar Chalishajar for their contributions and to Jennifer Bowen for read-
ing through so much material and providing great feedback early on. Thanks
to Troy, Lee Dewald, Dan Joseph, Meagan Herald, Bill Lowe, John David, Vonda
Walsh, Geoff Cox, Jessica Libertini and other faculty of VMI who have given me
numerous suggestions and corrections based on their experience with teaching
from the text. (Special thanks to Troy, Lee and Dan for their patience in teach-
ing Calc III while I was still writing the Calc III material.) Thanks to Randy Cone
for encouraging his tutors of VMI’s Open Math Lab to read through the text and
check the solutions, and thanks to the tutors for spending their time doing so.
A very special thanks to Kristi Brown and Paul Janiczek who took this opportu-
nity far above and beyond what I expected, meticulously checking every solution
and carefully reading every example. Their comments have been extraordinarily
helpful. I am also thankful for the support provided by Wane Schneiter, who as
my Dean provided me with extra time to work on this project. I am blessed to
have so many people give of their time to make this book better.

iv
Preface

A Note on Using this Text. Thank you for reading this short preface. Allow us
to share a few key points about the text so that you may better understand what
you will find beyond this page.
This text comprises a three—volume series on Calculus. The first part covers
material taught in many “Calc 1” courses: limits, derivatives, and the basics of
integration, found in Chapters 1 through 6.1. The second text covers material of-
ten taught in “Calc 2:” integration and its applications, including an introduction
to differential equations, along with an introduction to sequences, series and
Taylor Polynomials, found in Chapters 5 through 8. The third text covers topics
common in “Calc 3” or “multivariable calc:” parametric equations, polar coordi-
nates, vector-valued functions, and functions of more than one variable, found
in Chapters 10 through 15. All three are available separately for free at apexcal-
[Link]¹, and HTML versions of the book can be found at [Link]².
These three texts are intended to work together and make one cohesive text,
APEX Calculus, which can also be downloaded from the website.
Printing the entire text as one volume makes for a large, heavy, cumbersome
book. One can certainly only print the pages they currently need, but some
prefer to have a nice, bound copy of the text. Therefore this text has been split
into these three manageable parts, each of which can be purchased for about
$15 at [Link]³.

For Students: How to Read this Text. Mathematics textbooks have a reputa-
tion for being hard to read. High—level mathematical writing often seeks to say
much with few words, and this style often seeps into texts of lower—level top-
ics. This book was written with the goal of being easier to read than many other
calculus textbooks, without becoming too verbose.
Each chapter and section starts with an introduction of the coming material,
hopefully setting the stage for “why you should care,” and ends with a look ahead
to see how the just—learned material helps address future problems.

• Please read the text.

It is written to explain the concepts of Calculus. There are numerous ex-
amples to demonstrate the meaning of definitions, the truth of theorems,
and the application of mathematical techniques. When you encounter a
sentence you don’t understand, read it again. If it still doesn’t make sense,
read on anyway, as sometimes confusing sentences are explained by later
sentences.
¹[Link]
²[Link]/[Link]
³[Link]

v
 vi

• You don’t have to read every equation.

The examples generally show “all” the steps needed to solve a problem.
Sometimes reading through each step is helpful; sometimes it is confus-
ing. When the steps are illustrating a new technique, one probably should
follow each step closely to learn the new technique. When the steps are
showing the mathematics needed to find a number to be used later, one
can usually skip ahead and see how that number is being used, instead of
getting bogged down in reading how the number was found.
• Most proofs have been omitted.
In mathematics, proving something is always true is extremely important,
and entails much more than testing to see if it works twice. However, stu-
dents often are confused by the details of a proof, or become concerned
that they should have been able to construct this proof on their own. To al-
leviate this potential problem, we do not include the proofs to most theo-
rems in the text. The interested reader is highly encouraged to find proofs
online or from their instructor. In most cases, one is very capable of un-
derstanding what a theorem means and how to apply it without knowing
fully why it is true.

Interactive, 3D Graphics. Versions 3.0 and 4.0 of the textbook include inter-
active, 3D graphics in the pdf version. Nearly all graphs of objects in space can
be rotated, shifted, and zoomed in/out so the reader can better understand the
object illustrated. However, the only pdf viewers that support these 3D graphics
are Adobe Reader Acrobat (and only the versions for PC/Mac/Unix/Linux com-
puters, not tablets or smartphones).
The latest version of the book, which is authored in PreTeXt, is available in
html. In html, the 3D graphics are rendered using WebGL, and should work in
any modern web browser.
Interactive graphics are no longer supported within the pdf, but clicking on
any 3D graphic within the pdf will take you directly to the interactive version on
the web.

APEX – Affordable Print and Electronic teXts. APEX is a consortium of au-

thors who collaborate to produce high quality, low cost textbooks. The current
textbook—writing paradigm is facing a potential revolution as desktop publish-
ing and electronic formats increase in popularity. However, writing a good text-
book is no easy task, as the time requirements alone are substantial. It takes
countless hours of work to produce text, write examples and exercises, edit and
publish. Through collaboration, however, the cost to any individual can be less-
ened, allowing us to create texts that we freely distribute electronically and sell
in printed form for an incredibly low cost. Having said that, nothing is entirely
free; someone always bears some cost. This text “cost” the authors of this book
their time, and that was not enough. APEX Calculus would not exist had not the
Virginia Military Institute, through a generous Jackson—Hope grant, given the
lead author significant time away from teaching so he could focus on this text.
Each text is available as a free .pdf, protected by a Creative Commons At-
tribution - Noncommercial 4.0 copyright. That means you can give the .pdf to
anyone you like, print it in any form you like, and even edit the original content
and redistribute it. If you do the latter, you must clearly reference this work and
you cannot sell your edited work for money.
We encourage others to adapt this work to fit their own needs. One might
add sections that are “missing” or remove sections that your students won’t
 vii

need. The source files can be found at [Link]/APEXCalculus⁴.

You can learn more at [Link]/APEX⁵.

First PreTeXt Edition (Version 5.0). Key changes from Version 4.0 to 5.0:
• The underlying source code has been completely rewritten, to use the
PreTeXt⁶ language, instead of the original LATEX.

• Using PreTeXt allows us to produce the books in multiple formats, includ-

ing html, which is both more accessible and more interactive than the
original pdf. html versions of the book can be found at [Link]⁷.
• The appendix on differential equations from the “Calculus for Quarters”
version of the book has been included as Chapter 8, just after applications
of integration. Chapters 8 — 14 are now numbered 9 — 15 as a result.
• In the html version of the book, many of the exercises are now interactive,
and powered by WeBWorK.
Key changes from Version 3.0 to 4.0:

• Numerous typographical and “small” mathematical corrections (again, thanks

to all my close readers!).
• “Large” mathematical corrections and adjustments. There were a number
of places in Version 3.0 where a definition/theorem was not correct as
stated. See [Link]⁸ for more information.
• More useful numbering of Examples, Theorems, etc. . “Definition 11.4.2”
refers to the second definition of Chapter 11, Section 4.
• The addition of Section 13.7: Triple Integration with Cylindrical and Spher-
ical Coordinates

• The addition of Chapter 14: Vector Analysis.

⁴[Link]/APEXCalculus
⁵[Link]/APEX
⁶[Link]
⁷[Link]/[Link]
⁸[Link]
A Brief History of Calculus

Calculus means “a method of calculation or reasoning.” When one computes

the sales tax on a purchase, one employs a simple calculus. When one finds the
area of a polygonal shape by breaking it up into a set of triangles, one is using
another calculus. Proving a theorem in geometry employs yet another calculus.
Despite the wonderful advances in mathematics that had taken place into
the first half of the 17th century, mathematicians and scientists were keenly
aware of what they could not do. (This is true even today.) In particular, two
important concepts eluded mastery by the great thinkers of that time: area and
rates of change.
Area seems innocuous enough; areas of circles, rectangles, parallelograms,
etc., are standard topics of study for students today just as they were then. How-
ever, the areas of arbitrary shapes could not be computed, even if the boundary
of the shape could be described exactly.
Rates of change were also important. When an object moves at a constant
rate of change, then “distance = rate × time.” But what if the rate is not
constant—can distance still be computed? Or, if distance is known, can we dis-
cover the rate of change?
It turns out that these two concepts were related. Two mathematicians, Sir
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, are credited with independently formulating
a system of computing that solved the above problems and showed how they
were connected. Their system of reasoning was “a” calculus. However, as the
power and importance of their discovery took hold, it became known to many
as “the” calculus. Today, we generally shorten this to discuss “calculus.”

viii
Contents

Thanks iv

Preface v

A Brief History of Calculus viii

I Math 1565: Accelerated Calculus I

1 Limits 2
1.1 An Introduction To Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Epsilon-Delta Definition of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Finding Limits Analytically . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6 Limits Involving Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2 Derivatives 63
2.1 Instantaneous Rates of Change: The Derivative . . . . . . 63
2.2 Interpretations of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.3 Basic Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.4 The Product and Quotient Rules . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.5 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.6 Implicit Differentiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 126

3 The Graphical Behavior of Functions 132

3.1 Extreme Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.4 Concavity and the Second Derivative . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.5 Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

ix
CONTENTS x

4 Applications of the Derivative 172

4.1 Newton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.2 Related Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.3 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.4 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.5 Taylor Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.6 L’Hospital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

5 Integration 223
5.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration . . . . . . . . 223
5.2 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.3 Riemann Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . 259
5.5 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
5.6 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.7 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

II Math 2565: Accelerated Calculus II

6 Techniques of Antidifferentiation 320

6.1 Integration by Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.2 Trigonometric Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
6.3 Trigonometric Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.4 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
6.5 Improper Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

7 Applications of Integration 370

7.1 Area Between Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.2 Volume by Cross-Sectional Area; Disk and Washer Methods . . 380
7.3 The Shell Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
7.4 Arc Length and Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.5 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
7.6 Fluid Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

8 Differential Equations 427

8.1 Graphical and Numerical Solutions to Differential Equations . . 427
8.2 Separable Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 440
8.3 First Order Linear Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . 446
8.4 Modeling with Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . 454

9 Sequences and Series 464

9.1 Sequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
9.2 Infinite Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
9.3 Integral and Comparison Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
9.4 Ratio and Root Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
9.5 Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence . . . . . . . 512
9.6 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
9.7 Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
CONTENTS xi

10 Curves in the Plane 546

10.1 Conic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
10.2 Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
10.3 Calculus and Parametric Equations. . . . . . . . . . . 570
10.4 Introduction to Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . 580
10.5 Calculus and Polar Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

11 Introduction to Functions of Several Variables 606

11.1 Introduction to Multivariable Functions . . . . . . . . . 606
11.2 Limits and Continuity of Multivariable Functions . . . . . . 614
11.3 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

III Math 2575: Accelerated Calculus III

12 Vectors 636
12.1 Introduction to Cartesian Coordinates in Space . . . . . . 636
12.2 An Introduction to Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
12.3 The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
12.4 The Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
12.5 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
12.6 Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

13 Vector Valued Functions 705

13.1 Vector-Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
13.2 Calculus and Vector-Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . 711
13.3 The Calculus of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
13.4 Unit Tangent and Normal Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . 736
13.5 The Arc Length Parameter and Curvature . . . . . . . . 745

14 Functions of Several Variables, Continued 756

14.1 Differentiability and the Total Differential . . . . . . . . 756
14.2 The Multivariable Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
14.3 Directional Derivatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
14.4 Tangent Lines, Normal Lines, and Tangent Planes . . . . . . 785
14.5 Extreme Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
14.6 The Derivative as a Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . 804
14.7 Constrained Optimization and Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . 813
14.8 Hessians and the General Second Derivative Test . . . . . . 819

15 Multiple Integration 825

15.1 Iterated Integrals and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
15.2 Double Integration and Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . 834
15.3 Double Integration with Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . 845
15.4 Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
15.5 Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
15.6 Volume Between Surfaces and Triple Integration . . . . . . 872
15.7 Triple Integration with Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates . . 895
15.8 Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals. . . . . . . . . 906
CONTENTS xii

16 Vector Analysis 928

16.1 Introduction to Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
16.2 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
16.3 Line Integrals over Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . 948
16.4 Flow, Flux, Green’s Theorem and the Divergence Theorem . . . 958
16.5 Parametrized Surfaces and Surface Area . . . . . . . . . 968
16.6 Surface Integrals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
16.7 The Divergence Theorem and Stokes’ Theorem . . . . . . 987

Appendices

A Answers to Selected Exercises 1002

B Quick Reference 1087

B.1 Differentiation Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
B.2 Integration Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
B.3 Trigonometry Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
B.4 Areas and Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
B.5 Algebra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
B.6 Additional Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
B.7 Summary of Tests for Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096

Back Matter

Index 1097
 Part I

Math 1565: Accelerated

Calculus I

1
Chapter 1

Limits

The foundation of “the calculus” is the limit. It is a tool to describe a particular

behavior of a function. This chapter begins our study of the limit by approximat-
ing its value graphically and numerically. After a formal definition of the limit,
properties are established that make “finding limits” tractable. Once the limit is
understood, then the problems of area and rates of change can be approached.

1.1 An Introduction To Limits

[Link]/watch?v=37n0cZn6Lyc
We begin our study of limits by considering examples that demonstrate key con- Figure 1.0.1 Overview of Calculus
cepts that will be explained as we progress.
Consider the function y = sin(x)
x . When x is near the value 1, what value (if
any) is y near?
While our question is not precisely formed (what constitutes “near the value
1”?), the answer does not seem difficult to find. One might think first to look
at a graph of this function to approximate the appropriate y values. Consider
Figure 1.1.3, where y = sin(x)
x is graphed. For values of x near 1, it seems that
y takes on values near 0.85. In fact, when x = 1, then y = sin(1)
1 ≈ 0.84, so it
makes sense that when x is “near” 1, y will be “near” 0.84.
y y
1 1
[Link]/watch?v=rG3XVvFIZPY
Figure 1.1.1 The concept of a limit
0.8
0.5

0.6

x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 x
0.5 1 1.5

Figure 1.1.2 sin(x)/x Figure 1.1.3 sin(x)/x near x = 1

Consider this same function again at a different value for x. When x is near
0, what value (if any) is y near? By considering Figure 1.1.4, one can see that it
seems that y takes on values near 1. But what happens when x = 0? We have

sin(0) “0”
y→ → .
0 0

2
 y
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 3
1

The expression 0/0 has no value; it is indeterminate. Such an expression gives

no information about what is going on with the function nearby. We cannot find
0.9
out how y behaves near x = 0 for this function simply by letting x = 0.
Finding a limit entails understanding how a function behaves near a particu-
lar value of x. Before continuing, it will be useful to establish some notation. Let
y = f (x); that is, let y be a function of x for some function f . The expression 0.8
“the limit of y as x approaches 1” describes a number, often referred to as L, x
that y nears as x nears 1. We write all this as −1 −0.5 0.5 1

lim y = lim f (x) = L. Figure 1.1.4 sin(x)/x near x = 0

x→1 x→1

This is not a complete definition (that will come in the next section); this is a
pseudo-definition that will allow us to explore the idea of a limit.
Above, where f (x) = sin(x)/x, we approximated
sin(x) sin(x)
lim ≈ 0.84 and lim ≈ 1.
x→1 x x→0 x
(We approximated these limits, hence used the “≈” symbol, since we are work-
ing with the pseudo-definition of a limit, not the actual definition.)
Once we have the true definition of a limit, we will find limits analytically;
that is, exactly using a variety of mathematical tools. For now, we will approxi-
mate limits both graphically and numerically. Graphing a function can provide
a good approximation, though often not very precise. Numerical methods can [Link]/watch?v=__qzaSg4y1I
provide a more accurate approximation. We have already approximated limits
graphically, so we now turn our attention to numerical approximations. Figure 1.1.5 Investigating sin(x)/x
Consider again limx→1 sin(x)
x . To approximate this limit numerically, we can
create a table of x and f (x) values where x is “near” 1. This is done in Fig-
ure 1.1.6. x sin(x)/x
Notice that for values of x near 1, we have sin(x)/x near 0.841. The x = 1
0.9 0.870363
row is included, but we stress the fact that when considering limits, we are not
0.99 0.844471
concerned with the value of the function at that particular x value; we are only
concerned with the values of the function when x is near 1. 0.999 0.841772
Now approximate limx→0 sin(x) numerically. We already approximated the 1 0.841471
x
value of this limit as 1 graphically in Figure 1.1.4. Figure 1.1.7 shows the value 1.001 0.841170
of sin(x)/x for values of x near 0. Ten places after the decimal point are shown 1.01 0.838447
to highlight how close to 1 the value of sin(x)/x gets as x takes on values very 1.1 0.810189
near 0. We include the x = 0 row but again stress that we are not concerned
with the value of our function at x = 0, only on the behavior of the function Figure 1.1.6 Values of sin(x)/x with x
near 0. near 1
This numerical method gives confidence to say that 1 is a good approxima-
tion of limx→0 sin(x)
x ; that is,

sin(x) x sin(x)/x
lim ≈ 1. -0.1 0.9983341665
x→0 x
-0.01 0.9999833334
Later we will be able to prove that the limit is exactly 1.
-0.001 0.9999998333
We now consider several examples that allow us explore different aspects of
0 not defined
the limit concept.
0.001 0.9999998333
Example 1.1.8 Approximating the value of a limit. 0.01 0.9999833334
0.1 0.9983341665
Use graphical and numerical methods to approximate
Figure 1.1.7 Values of sin(x)/x with x
x2 − x − 6 near 0
lim .
x→3 6x2 − 19x + 3
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 4

Solution. To graphically approximate the limit, graph

x2 − x − 6
y=
6x2 − 19x + 3
on a small interval that contains 3. To numerically approximate the limit,
create a table of values where the x values are near 3. This is done in Video Solution
Figure 1.1.9 and Figure 1.1.10, respectively.
0.35 y
x2 −x−6
x 6x2 −19x+3
2.9 0.29878
0.3
2.99 0.294569
2.999 0.294163
0.25 3 not defined
3.001 0.294073
3.01 0.293669 [Link]/watch?v=eHx3LmrQZXM
x
2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.1 0.289773

Figure 1.1.9 Graphically approxi- Figure 1.1.10 Numerically approx-

mating a limit in Example 1.1.8 imating a limit in Example 1.1.8
The graph shows that when x is near 3, the value of y is very near
0.3. By considering values of x near 3, we see that y = 0.294 is a better
approximation. The graph and the table imply that

x2 − x − 6
lim ≈ 0.294.
x→3 6x2 − 19x + 3

This example may bring up a few questions about approximating limits (and
the nature of limits themselves).

1. If a graph does not produce as good an approximation as a table, why

bother with it?
2. How many values of x in a table are “enough?” In the previous example,
could we have just used x = 3.001 and found a fine approximation?
Graphs are useful since they give a visual understanding concerning the be-
havior of a function. Sometimes a function may act “erratically” near certain x
values which is hard to discern numerically but very plain graphically (see Exam-
ple 1.1.22). Since graphing utilities are very accessible, it makes sense to make
proper use of them.
Since tables and graphs are used only to approximate the value of a limit,
there is not a firm answer to how many data points are “enough.” Include
enough so that a trend is clear, and use values (when possible) both less than
and greater than the value in question. In Example 1.1.8, we used both values
less than and greater than 3. Had we used just x = 3.001, we might have been
tempted to conclude that the limit had a value of 0.3. While this is not far off,
we could do better. Using values “on both sides of 3” helps us identify trends.

Example 1.1.11 Approximating the value of a limit.

Graphically and numerically approximate the limit of f (x) as x approaches

CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 5

0, where (
x+1 x<0 Video Solution
f (x) = .
−x + 1 x > 0
2

Solution. Again we graph f (x) and create a table of its values near x =
0 to approximate the limit. Note that this is a piecewise defined function,
so it behaves differently on either side of 0. Figure 1.1.12 shows a graph
of f (x), and on either side of 0 it seems the y values approach 1. Note
that f (0) is not actually defined, as indicated in the graph with the open
circle.
y
1
[Link]/watch?v=7RAiKoLCpgU
0.8 x f (x)
0.6
−0.1 0.9
−0.01 0.99
0.4
−0.001 0.999
0.2 0.001 0.999999
x 0.01 0.9999
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 0.1 0.99

Figure 1.1.12 Graphically approxi- Figure 1.1.13 Numerically approx-

mating a limit in Example 1.1.11 imating a limit in Example 1.1.11
Figure 1.1.13 shows values of f (x) for values of x near 0. It is clear
that as x takes on values very near 0, f (x) takes on values very near 1.
It turns out that if we let x = 0 for either “piece” of f (x), 1 is returned;
this is significant and we’ll return to this idea later.
The graph and table allow us to say that limx→0 f (x) ≈ 1; in fact,
we are probably very sure it equals 1.

1.1.1 Identifying When Limits Do Not Exist

A function may not have a limit for all values of x. That is, we cannot write
that limx→c f (x) = L (where L is some real number) for all values of c, for
there may not be a number that f (x) is approaching. There are three common
ways in which a limit may fail to exist.
1. The function f (x) may approach different values on either side of c.
2. The function may grow without upper or lower bound as x approaches c.
3. The function may oscillate as x approaches c without approaching a spe- [Link]/watch?v=DSIaDa_ABxo
cific value.
Figure 1.1.14 Video introduction for
We’ll explore each of these in turn. Subsection 1.1.1
Example 1.1.15 Different Values Approached From Left and Right.

Explore why limx→1 f (x) does not exist, where

(
x2 − 2x + 3 x ≤ 1
f (x) = .
x x>1

Solution. A graph of f (x) around x = 1 and a table are given in Fig-

ures Figure 1.1.16 and Figure 1.1.17, respectively. It is clear that as x ap-
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 6

proaches 1, f (x) does not seem to approach a single number. Instead,

it seems as though f (x) approaches two different numbers. When con-
sidering values of x less than 1 (approaching 1 from the left), it seems
that f (x) is approaching 2; when considering values of x greater than
1 (approaching 1 from the right), it seems that f (x) is approaching 1.
Recognizing this behavior is important; we’ll study this in greater depth
later. Right now, it suffices to say that the limit does not exist since f (x)
is approaching two different values as x approaches 1.
y
3

x f (x)
2
0.9 2.01
0.99 2.0001
1 0.999 2.000001
1.001 1.001
x
1.01 1.01
0.5 1 1.5 2 1.1 1.1

Figure 1.1.16 Observing no limit Figure 1.1.17 Values of f (x) near

as x → 1 in Example 1.1.15 x = 1 in Example 1.1.15

Example 1.1.19 The Function Grows Without Bound. [Link]/watch?v=NnV1A1KTbg0

1
Figure 1.1.18 Video presentation for
Explore why limx→1 (x−1)2 does not exist. Examples 1.1.15–1.1.19
1
Solution. A graph and table of f (x) = (x−1) 2 are given in Figure 1.1.20

and Figure 1.1.21, respectively. Both show that as x approaches 1, f (x)

grows larger and larger.
y
100

80 x f (x)
60
0.9 100.
0.99 10000.
40 0.999 1. × 106
20
1.001 1. × 106
x
1.01 10000.
0.5 1 1.5 2 1.1 100.

Figure 1.1.20 Observing no limit Figure 1.1.21 Values of f (x) near

as x → 1 in Example 1.1.19 x = 1 in Example 1.1.19
We can deduce this on our own, without the aid of the graph and
table. If x is near 1, then (x − 1)2 is very small, and:
1
= very large number .
very small number
Since f (x) is not approaching a single number, we conclude that
1
lim
x→1 (x − 1)2

does not exist.

CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 7

Example 1.1.22 The Function Oscillates.

Video Solution
Explore why limx→0 sin(1/x) does not exist.
Solution. Two graphs of f (x) = sin(1/x) are given in Figure 1.1.23.
Figure 1.1.23(a) shows f (x) on the interval [−1, 1]; notice how f (x)
seems to oscillate near x = 0. One might think that despite the oscilla-
tion, as x approaches 0, f (x) approaches 0. However, Figure 1.1.23(b)
zooms in on sin(1/x), on the interval [−0.1, 0.1]. Here the oscillation is
even more pronounced. Finally, in Figure 1.1.24, we see sin(1/x) evalu-
ated for values of x near 0. As x approaches 0, f (x) does not appear to
approach any value. [Link]/watch?v=gGvvFX5QyjE

y 1 y
1

0.5
0.5
x sin(1/x)
x
x 0.1 −0.544021
−0.1 −5 · 10−2 5 · 10−2
−1 −0.5 0.5 1
0.1
0.01 −0.506366
−0.5 −0.5 0.001 0.82688
0.0001 −0.305614
−1 −1 1. × 10−5 0.0357488
1. × 10−6 −0.349994
(a) (b)
1. × 10−7 0.420548
Figure 1.1.23 Observing that f (x) = sin(1/x) has no limit as x → 0 in
Figure 1.1.24 Observing that f (x) =
Example 1.1.22
sin(1/x) has no limit as x → 0 in Ex-
It can be shown that in reality, as x approaches 0, sin(1/x) takes ample 1.1.22
on all values between −1 and 1 infinitely many times! Because of this
oscillation, limx→0 sin(1/x) does not exist.

1.1.2 Limits of Difference Quotients

We have approximated limits of functions as x approached a particular number.
We will consider another important kind of limit after explaining a few key ideas.

Let f (x) represent the position function, in feet, of some particle that is
[Link]/watch?v=2NJmd0Jrt4U
moving in a straight line, where x is measured in seconds. Let’s say that when
x = 1, the particle is at position 10 ft., and when x = 5, the particle is at 20 ft. Figure 1.1.25 Video introduction to Sub-
Another way of expressing this is to say section 1.1.2

f (1) = 10 and f (5) = 20.

25 y
Since the particle traveled 10 feet in 4 seconds, we can say the particle’s average
velocity was 2.5 ft/s. We write this calculation using a “quotient of differences,” 20
or, a difference quotient:
15
f (5) − f (1) ft 10 ft
= = 2.5 ft/s .
5−1 s 4s 10

This difference quotient can be thought of as the familiar “rise over run” used
5
to compute the slopes of lines. In fact, that is essentially what we are doing:
given two points on the graph of f , we are finding the slope of the secant line x
through those two points. See Figure 1.1.26. 2 4 6

Figure 1.1.26 Interpreting a difference

quotient as the slope of a secant line
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 8

Now consider finding the average speed on another time interval. We again
start at x = 1, but consider the position of the particle h seconds later. That is,
consider the positions of the particle when x = 1 and when x = 1 + h. The
difference quotient (excluding units) is now

f (1 + h) − f (1) f (1 + h) − f (1)
= .
(1 + h) − 1 h

Let f (x) = −1.5x2 + 11.5x; note that f (1) = 10 and f (5) = 20, as in our
discussion. We can compute this difference quotient for all values of h (even
negative values!) except h = 0, for then we get “0/0,” the indeterminate form
introduced earlier. For all values h ̸= 0, the difference quotient computes the
average velocity of the particle over an interval of time of length h starting at
x = 1.
For small values of h, i.e., values of h close to 0, we get average velocities
over very short time periods and compute secant lines over small intervals. See
Figure 1.1.27. This leads us to wonder what the limit of the difference quotient
is as h approaches 0. That is,

f (1 + h) − f (1)
lim = ?
h→0 h

25 y 25 y 25 y

20 20 20

15 15 15

10 10 10
f (1+h)−f (1)
h h
5 5 5
−0.5 9.25
x x x
2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 −0.1 8.65
−0.01 8.515
(a) h = 2 (b) h = 1 (c) h = 0.5
0.01 8.485
Figure 1.1.27 Secant lines of f (x) at x = 1 and x = 1 + h, for shrinking values 0.1 8.35
of h (i.e., h → 0) 0.5 7.75
As we do not yet have a true definition of a limit nor an exact method for
computing it, we settle for approximating the value. While we could graph the Figure 1.1.28 The difference quotient
difference quotient (where the x-axis would represent h values and the y-axis evaluated at values of h near 0
would represent values of the difference quotient) we settle for making a table.
See Figure 1.1.28. The table gives us reason to assume the value of the limit is
about 8.5.
Proper understanding of limits is key to understanding calculus. With limits,
we can accomplish seemingly impossible mathematical things, like adding up an
infinite number of numbers (and not get infinity) and finding the slope of a line
between two points, where the “two points” are actually the same point. These
are not just mathematical curiosities; they allow us to link position, velocity and
acceleration together, connect cross-sectional areas to volume, find the work
done by a variable force, and much more.
In the next section we give the formal definition of the limit and begin our [Link]/watch?v=YplEX5ohJk0
study of finding limits analytically. In the following exercises, we continue our
Figure 1.1.29 Video examples for dif-
introduction and approximate the value of limits.
ference quotients: once with direct com-
putation, and then by simplifying first
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 9

1.1.3 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. In your own words, what does it mean to “find the limit of f (x) as x approaches 3”?
0
2. An expression of the form 0 is called .
3. (□ True □ False) The limit of f (x) as x approaches 5 is f (5).
4. Describe three situations where lim f (x) does not exist.
x→c

5. In your own words, what is a difference quotient?

sin x
6. When x is near 0, is near what value?
x

Problems

Exercise Group. Approximate the limit numerically and graphically.

7. lim x2 + 2x + 2 8. lim x3 + 4x2 − 4x + 2
x→1 x→1
   2 
9. lim xx−5
2 −4x 10. lim xx2 −x−20
+2x−8
x→0 x→−4
 2   2 
11. lim xx+10x+21
2 +5x+6 12. lim xx2−13x−32
+8x+16
x→−3 x→−4

13. lim f (x), where 14. lim f (x), where

x→−1
( x→−2
(
x+1 if x ≤ −1 x2 − 2x − 2 if x ≤ −2
f (x) = f (x) =
− (3x + 4) if x > −1 2x + 10 if x > −2
(
15. lim f (x), where sin(x) x≤ π
x→0 ( 16. lim f (x), where f (x) = 6
cos(x) if x ≤ 0 x→ π6 cos(x) x> π
6
f (x) =
x2 + 2x + 1 if x > 0
17. lim |x| x
18. lim e−e
1/x
x→0 x→0
   
19. lim |x| !, where |x| is the absolute value of 20. lim |x| !, where |x| is the absolute value of
x→−5 x→−1
x, ⌊x⌋ is the floor of x (the greatest integer less x, ⌊x⌋ is the floor of x (the greatest integer less
than or equal to x), and x! is x factorial. than or equal to x), and x! is x factorial.

f (a+h)−f (a)
Exercise Group. Approximate the limit of the difference quotient, lim h , using h = ±0.1, ±0.01.
h→0
21. f (x) = 2 − 7x, a = 3 22. f (x) = 9x + 0.06, a = −1
Show your work. Show your work.
23. f (x) = x2 + 3x − 7, a = 1 24. 1
f (x) = x+1 ,a=2
Show your work. Show your work.
25. f (x) = 5x − 4x2 − 1, a = −3 26. f (x) = ln(x), a = 5
Show your work. Show your work.
27. f (x) = sin(x), a = π 28. f (x) = cos(x), a = π
Show your work. Show your work.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 10

1.2 Epsilon-Delta Definition of a Limit

This section introduces the formal definition of a limit. Many refer to this as “the Note: the common phrase “the
epsilon-delta” definition, referring to the letters ε and δ of the Greek alphabet. ε-δ definition” is read aloud as
Before we give the actual definition, let’s consider a few informal ways of “the epsilon delta definition.” The
describing a limit. Given a function y = f (x) and an x-value, c, we say that “the hyphen between ϵ and δ is not a
limit of the function f , as x approaches c, is a value L” if: minus sign.

Tends “y tends to L” as “x tends to c.”

Approaches “y approaches L” as “x approaches c.”
Near “y is near L” whenever “x is near c.”

The problem with these definitions is that the words “tends,” “approach,”
and especially “near” are not exact. In what way does the variable x tend to, or
approach, c? How near do x and y have to be to c and L, respectively?
The definition we describe in this section comes from formalizing “Near”. A
quick restatement gets us closer to what we want:

Tolerance Levels [Link]/watch?v=OGvDIXuWn0g

If x is within a certain tolerance level of c, then the corresponding
value y = f (x) is within a certain tolerance level of L. Figure 1.2.1 An informal definition of
the limit
The traditional notation for the x-tolerance is the lowercase Greek letter
delta, or δ, and the y-tolerance is denoted by lowercase epsilon, or ε. One more
rephrasing of “Tolerance Levels” nearly gets us to the actual definition:

Named Tolerance Levels

If x is within δ units of c, then the corresponding value of y is
within ε units of L.

We can write “x is within δ units of c” mathematically as

|x − c| < δ,
which is equivalent to
c − δ < x < c + δ.
Letting the symbol “ =⇒ ” represent the word “implies,” we can rewrite
“Named Tolerance Levels” as
|x − c| < δ =⇒ |y − L| < ε
or
c − δ < x < c + δ =⇒ L − ε < y < L + ε.
The point is that δ and ε, being tolerances, can be any positive (but typically
small) values satisfying this implication. Finally, we have the formal definition of
the limit with the notation seen in the previous section.

Definition 1.2.2 The Limit of a Function f at a point.

Let I be an open interval containing c, and let f be a function defined
on I, except possibly at c. The statement that “the limit of f (x), as x
approaches c, is L” is denoted by

lim f (x) = L,
x→c

and means that given any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all x in
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 11

I, where x ̸= c, if |x − c| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.

Mathematicians often enjoy writing ideas without using any words. Here is
the wordless definition of the limit:

lim f (x) = L
x→c
⇐⇒
∀ ε > 0, ∃ δ > 0 s.t. 0 < |x − c| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

Note the order in which ε and δ are given. In the definition, the y-tolerance [Link]/watch?v=npoSY-AFvOY
ε is given first and then the limit will exist if we can find an x-tolerance δ that
works. Figure 1.2.3 Video presentation of De-
An example will help us understand this definition. Note that the explanation finition 1.2.2
is long, but it will take one through all steps necessary to understand the ideas.

Example 1.2.4 Evaluating a limit using the definition.

√ Video Solution
Show that lim x = 2.
x→4
Solution. Before we use the formal definition, let’s try some numerical
tolerances. What if the y tolerance is 0.5, or in other words ε = 0.5?
How close to 4 does x have to be so that y is within 0.5 units of 2? That
is, 1.5 < y < 2.5? In this case, we can proceed as follows:

1.5 < y < 2.5

√ √
1.5 < x < 2.5 (Let y = x)
2
1.5 < x < 2.5 2
(Square the inequality) [Link]/watch?v=qHWI0eha_rA
2.25 < x < 6.25
2.25 − 4 < x − 4 < 6.25 − 4 (Subtract 4 from both sides)
−1.75 < x − 4 < 2.25

So, what is the desired x tolerance? Remember, we want to find a δ

so that |x − 4| is smaller than δ. Since 1.75 < 2.25, then if we require
|x − 4| < 1.75, then we have

|x − 4| < 1.75
=⇒ −1.75 < x − 4 < 1.75 < 2.25

Therefore we can have δ ≤ 1.75. See Figure 1.2.5.

y y
Choose ε > 0. Then …
ε = 0.5 ε = 0.5
2 2
ε = 0.5 ε = 0.5
…choose δ smaller
than each of these:
1 1

width width
1.75 2.25
x x
2 4 6 2 4 6

Figure 1.2.5 Illustrating the ε − δ process. With ε = 0.5, we pick any

δ < 1.75
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 12

Given the y tolerance ε = 0.5, we have found an x tolerance, δ <

1.75, such that whenever x is within δ units of 4, then y is within ε units
of 2. That’s what we were trying to find.
Let’s try another value of ε.
What if the y tolerance is 0.01, i.e. ε = 0.01? How close to 4 does x
have to be in order for y to be within 0.01 units of 2? (In other words for
1.99 < y < 2.01?) Again, we just square these values to get 1.992 <
x < 2.012 , or

3.9601 < x < 4.0401

−0.0399 < x − 4 < 0.0401

What is the desired x tolerance? In this case we must have δ <

0.0399, which is the minimum distance from 4 of the two bounds given
above.
What we have so far: if ε = 0.5, then δ < 1.75 leads to f (x) being
less than ε from f (4) and if ε = 0.01, then δ < 0.0399 being less than ε
from f (4). A pattern is not easy to see, so we switch to general ε √
try to
determine an adequate δ symbolically. We start by assuming y = x is
within ε units of 2:

|y − 2| < ε
−ε < y − 2 < ε
√ √
−ε < x − 2 < ε (y = x)
√
2−ε< x<2+ε (Add 2)
(2 − ε) < x < (2 + ε)
2 2
(Square all)
4 − 4ε + ε < x < 4 + 4ε + ε
2 2
(Expand)
−4ε + ε < x − 4 < 4ε + ε
2 2
(Subtract 4)

The “desired form” in the last step is “4 − something < x < 4 +

something.” Since we want this last interval to describe an x tolerance
around 4, we have that either δ < 4ε − ε2 or δ < 4ε + ε2 , whichever is
smaller:
δ < min{4ε − ε2 , 4ε + ε2 }.
Since ε > 0, we have 4ε − ε2 < 4ε + ε2 , the minimum is δ ≤ 4ε − ε2 .
That’s the formula: given an ε, set δ ≤ 4ε − ε2 .
We can check this for our previous values. If ε = 0.5, the formula
gives δ < 4(0.5) − (0.5)2 = 1.75 and when ε = 0.01, the formula gives
δ < 4(0.01) − (0.01)2 = 0.0399.
So given any ε > 0, set δ < 4ε − ε2 . Then if |x − 4| < δ (and
x ̸= 4), then |f (x) − 2| < ε, satisfying the definition
√ of the limit. We
have shown formally (and finally!) that limx→4 x = 2.

The previous example was a little long in that we sampled a few specific
cases of ε before handling the general case. Normally
√ this is not done. The
previous example is also a bit unsatisfying in that 4 = 2; why work so hard
to prove something so obvious? Many ε-δ proofs are long and difficult to do.
In this section, we will focus on examples where the answer is, frankly, obvious,
because the non-obvious examples are even harder. In the next section we will
learn some theorems that allow us to evaluate limits analytically, that is, without
using the ε-δ definition.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 13

Example 1.2.6 Evaluating a limit using the definition.

Video Solution
Show that lim x2 = 4.
x→2
Solution. Let’s do this example symbolically from the start. Let ε > 0
be given; we want |y − 4| < ε, i.e., x2 − 4 < ε. How do we find δ such
that when |x − 2| < δ, we are guaranteed that x2 − 4 < ε?
This is a bit trickier than the previous example, but let’s start by notic-
ing that x2 − 4 = |x − 2| · |x + 2|. Consider:
ε
x2 − 4 < ε =⇒ |x − 2| · |x + 2| < ε =⇒ |x − 2| < .
|x + 2|
[Link]/watch?v=QGqoq-xEXyk
ε
Could we not set δ = |x+2| ?
We are close to an answer, but the catch is that δ must be a constant
value (so it can’t depend on x). There is a way to work around this, but
we do have to make an assumption. Remember that ε is supposed to
be a small number, which implies that δ will also be a small value. In
particular, we can (probably) assume that δ < 1. If this is true, then
|x − 2| < δ would imply that |x − 2| < 1, giving 1 < x < 3.
ε
Now, back to the fraction |x+2| . If 1 < x < 3, then 3 < x + 2 < 5
(add 2 to all terms in the inequality). Taking reciprocals, we have
1 1 1
< < ,
5 |x + 2| 3

which implies
1 1
< ,
5 |x + 2|
which implies
ε ε
< . (1.2.1)
5 |x + 2|
This suggests that we set δ < 5ε . To see why, let consider what fol-
lows when we assume |x − 2| < δ:

|x − 2| < δ
ε
|x − 2| < (Our choice of δ)
5
ε
|x − 2| · |x + 2| < |x + 2| · (Multiply by |x + 2| )
5 y
ε
x2 − 4 < |x + 2| · (Simplify left side)
5
ε ε
x2 − 4 < |x + 2| · (Inequality (1.2.1), δ < 1)
|x + 2|
x2 − 4 < ε 4

We have arrived at x2 − 4 < ε as desired. Note again, in order ε

δ = ε/5
to make this happen we needed δ to first be less than 1. That is a safe
assumption; we want ε to be arbitrarily small, forcing δ to also be small. x
We have also picked δ to be smaller than “necessary.” We could get 2
by with a slightly larger δ, as shown in Figure 1.2.7. The outer lines show
the boundaries defined by our choice of ε. The inner lines show the Figure 1.2.7 Choosing δ = ε/5 in Ex-
boundaries defined by setting δ = ε/5. Note how these dotted lines are ample 1.2.6
within the dashed lines. That is perfectly fine; by choosing x within the
dotted lines we are guaranteed that f (x) will be within ε of 4.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 14

In summary, given ε > 0, set δ = ε/5. Then |x − 2| < δ implies

x2 − 4 < ε (i.e. |y − 4| < ε) as desired. This shows that limx→2 x2 =
4. Figure 1.2.7 gives a visualization of this; by restricting x to values
within δ = ε/5 of 2, we see that f (x) is within ε of 4.

Make note of the general pattern exhibited in these last two examples. In
some sense, each starts out “backwards.” That is, while we want to
1. start with |x − c| < δ and conclude that
2. |f (x) − L| < ε,
we actually start by doing what is essentially some “scratch-work” first:
1. assume |f (x) − L| < ε, then perform some algebraic manipulations to
give an inequality of the form
2. |x − c| < something.
When we have properly done this, the something on the “greater than” side
of the inequality becomes our δ. We can refer to this as the “scratch-work”
phase of our proof. Once we have δ, we can formally start the actual proof with
|x − c| < δ and use algebraic manipulations to conclude that |f (x) − L| < ε,
usually by using the same steps of our “scratch-work” in reverse order.
We highlight this process in the following example.

Example 1.2.8 Evaluating a limit using the definition.

Video Solution
Prove that lim (x3 − 2x) = −1.
x→1
Solution. We start our scratch-work by considering |f (x) − (−1)| <
ε:

|f (x) − (−1)| < ε

x3 − 2x + 1 < ε (Now factor)
(x − 1)(x2 + x − 1) < ε
ε
|x − 1| < . (1.2.2) [Link]/watch?v=--_Rq2GX9IY
|x2 + x − 1|
We are at the phase of saying that |x − 1| < something, where something =
ε/ x2 + x − 1 . We want to turn that something into δ.
Since x is approaching 1, we are safe to assume that x is between 0
and 2. So

0<x<2
0 < x2 < 4 (Squared each term.)

Since 0 < x < 2, we can add 0, x and 2, respectively, to each part of the
inequality and maintain the inequality.

0 < x2 + x < 6
−1 < x2 + x − 1 < 5 (Subtracted 1 from each part.)

In Inequality (1.2.2), we wanted |x − 1| < ε/ x2 + x − 1 . The

above shows that given any x in [0, 2], we know that

x2 + x − 1 < 5 which implies that

CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 15

1 1
< 2 which implies that
5 x +x−1
ε ε
< 2 . (1.2.3)
5 x +x−1
So we set δ < ϵ/5. This ends our scratch-work, and we begin the
formal proof (which also helps us understand why this was a good choice
of δ).
Given ε, let δ < ε/5. We want to show that when |x − 1| < δ, then
(x3 − 2x) − (−1) < ε. We start with |x − 1| < δ:

|x − 1| < δ
ε
|x − 1| <
5
ε
|x − 1| < (Inequality (1.2.3), x near 1)
|x2 + x − 1|
|x − 1| · x2 + x − 1 < ε
x3 − 2x + 1 < ε
(x3 − 2x) − (−1) < ε,

which is what we wanted to show. Thus limx→1 (x3 − 2x) = −1.

We illustrate evaluating limits once more.

Example 1.2.9 Evaluating a limit using the definition.

Recall ln 1 = 0 and ln x < 0
Prove that lim ex = 1. when 0 < x < 1. So ln(1 − ε)
x→0
is negative because 1 − ε < 1;
Solution. Symbolically, we want to take the inequality |ex − 1| < ε
hence we consider its absolute
and unravel it to the form |x − 0| < δ. Here is our scratch-work:
value:
|ex − 1| < ε
|ln(1 − ε)|
−ε < ex − 1 < ε (Definition of absolute value)
= − ln(1 − ε)
1 − ε < ex < 1 + ε (Add 1)  
1
ln(1 − ε) < x < ln(1 + ε) (Take natural logs) = ln .
1−ε
Making the safe assumption that ε < 1 ensures the last inequality To determine which is smaller be-
is valid (i.e., so that ln(1 − ε) is defined). We can then set δ to be the tween |ln(1 − ε)| and ln(1 + ε)
minimum of |ln(1 − ε)| and ln(1 + ε); i.e., amounts to determining which
1
is smaller between 1−ε and 1 +
δ = min{|ln(1 − ε)| , ln(1 + ε)} = ln(1 + ε).
ε. But
Now, we work through the actual the proof:  
1
(1 + ε)/
1−ε
|x − 0| < δ
= (1 + ε)(1 − ε)
−δ < x < δ (Definition of absolute value)
− ln(1 + ε) < x < ln(1 + ε) = 1 − ε2 < 1,
ln(1 − ε) < x < ln(1 + ε) (since ln(1 − ε) < − ln(1 + ε)). so (1+ε) < 1−ε1
. And therefore
ln(1 + ε) < |ln(1 − ε)|.
The above line is true by our choice of δ and by the fact that since |ln(1 − ε)| >
ln(1 + ε) and ln(1 − ε) < 0, we know ln(1 − ε) < − ln(1 + ε).

1 − ε < ex < 1 + ε (Exponentiate)

CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 16

−ε < ex − 1 < ε (Subtract 1)

In summary, given ε > 0, let δ = ln(1 + ε). Then |x − 0| < δ implies

|ex − 1| < ε as desired. We have shown that limx→0 ex = 1.

We note that we could actually show that limx→c ex = ec for any con-
stant c. We do this by factoring out ec from both sides, leaving us to show
limx→c ex−c = 1 instead. By using the substitution u = x − c, this reduces
to showing limu→0 eu = 1 which we just did in the last example. As an added
benefit, this shows that in fact the function f (x) = ex is continuous at all values
of x, an important concept we will define in Section 1.5.
This formal definition of the limit is not an easy concept grasp. Our examples
are actually “easy” examples, using “simple” functions like polynomials, square
roots and exponentials. It is very difficult to prove, using the techniques given
above, that limx→0 sin(x)
x = 1, as we approximated in Section 1.1.
There is hope. Section 1.3 shows how one can evaluate complicated lim-
its using certain basic limits as building blocks. While limits are an incredibly
important part of calculus (and hence much of higher mathematics), rarely are
limits evaluated using the definition. Rather, the techniques of Section 1.3 are
employed.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 17

1.2.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. What is wrong with the following “definition” of a limit?

“The limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is K” means that given any δ > 0 there exists ε > 0 such that
whenever |f (x) − K| < ε, we have |x − a| < δ.
2. Which is given first in establishing a limit?
(□ x-tolerance □ y-tolerance)
3. (□ True □ False) ε must always be positive.
4. (□ True □ False) δ must always be positive.

Problems

Exercise Group. Prove the given limit using an ε-δ proof.

5. lim (2x + 5) = 13 6. lim (3 − x) = −2
x→4 x→5



7. lim x2 − 3 = 6 8. lim x2 + x − 5 = 15
x→3 x→4



9. lim 2x2 + 3x + 1 = 6 10. lim x3 − 1 = 7
x→1 x→2


11. lim 5 = 5
x→2
12. lim e2x − 1 = 0
x→0

13. lim 1 =1 14. lim sin(x) = 0

x→1 x x→0
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 18

1.3 Finding Limits Analytically

In Section 1.1 we explored the concept of the limit without a strict definition,
meaning we could only make approximations. In the previous section we gave
the definition of the limit and demonstrated how to use it to verify our approxi-
mations were correct. Thus far, our method of finding a limit is
1. make a really good approximation either graphically or numerically, and
2. verify our approximation is correct using a ε-δ proof.
Recognizing that ε-δ proofs are cumbersome, this section gives a series of
theorems which allow us to find limits much more quickly and intuitively.
Suppose that limx→2 f (x) = 2 and limx→2 g(x) = 3. What is limx→2 (f (x)+
g(x))? Intuition tells us that the limit should be 5, as we expect limits to behave
in a nice way. The following theorem states that already established limits do
behave nicely.

Theorem 1.3.1 Basic Limit Properties.

Let b, c, L and K be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f
and g be functions defined on an open interval I containing c with the
following limits:

lim f (x) = L lim g(x) = K.

x→c x→c
Many people like to remember
The following limits hold.
the Sum Property as stating that
“the limit of the sum is the sum
Constants lim b = b
x→c of the limits”, and the Product
Identity lim x = c Property as stating that the “limit
x→c of a product is the product of the
Sums/Differences lim (f (x) ± g(x)) = L ± K limits.”
x→c
In practice, the Scalar Multi-
Scalar Multiples lim (b · f (x)) = bL ple Property is often viewed as
x→c
telling us that we can “take con-
Products lim (f (x) · g(x)) = LK
x→c stants out of limits”:
Quotients lim (f (x)/g(x)) = L/K, when K ̸= 0
x→c lim (b · f (x)) = b · lim f (x).
x→c x→c
Powers lim f (x)n = Ln
x→c
p √
Roots lim n f (x) = n L
x→c
(If n is even then require f (x) ≥ 0 on I.)
Compositions Adjust the limit requirements to

lim f (x) = L lim g(x) = K g(L) = K.

x→c x→L

Then lim g(f (x)) = K.

x→c

We apply the theorem to an example.

[Link]/watch?v=da2vdsxd2Fs
Example 1.3.3 Using basic limit properties. Figure 1.3.2 Video presentation of The-
orem 1.3.1 (three videos)
Let

lim f (x) = 2 lim g(x) = 3 p(x) = 3x2 − 5x + 7.

x→2 x→2
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 19

Find the following limits:

(a) lim (f (x) + g(x))
x→2

(b) lim (5f (x) + g(x)2 )

x→2

(c) lim p(x) Video Solution

x→2

Solution.
(a) Using the Sums/Differences property, we know that

lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→2 x→2 x→2
= 2 + 3 = 5.

(b) Using the Scalar Multiples, Sums/Differences, and Powers proper- [Link]/watch?v=8x42kGfu9ts
ties, we find that

lim (5f (x) + g(x)2 ) = lim (5f (x)) + lim (g(x)2 )

x→2 x→2 x→2
 2
= 5 lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→2 x→2
= 5 · 2 + 3 = 19.
2

(c) Here we combine the Powers, Scalar Multiples, Sums/Differences

and Constants properties. We show quite a few steps, but in gen-
eral these can be omitted:


lim p(x) = lim 3x2 − 5x + 7
x→2 x→2


= lim 3x2 − lim (5x) + lim 7
x→2 x→2 x→2

2
= 3 lim x − 5 lim (x) + 7
x→2 x→2
= 3 · 22 − 5 · 2 + 7
=9

Part c of the previous example demonstrates how the limit of a quadratic

polynomial can be determined using the properties of Theorem 1.3.1. Not only
that, recognize that
lim p(x) = 9 = p(2);
x→2

i.e., the limit at 2 could have been found just by plugging 2 into the function.
This holds true for all polynomials, and also for rational functions (which are
quotients of polynomials), as stated in the following theorem.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 20

Theorem 1.3.4 Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions.

Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials and c a real number. Then:

1. lim p(x) = p(c)
x→c

p(x) p(c)
2. lim = q(c) , when q(c) ̸= 0.
x→c q(x)

Example 1.3.6 Finding a limit of a rational function.

Using Theorem 1.3.4, find [Link]/watch?v=NGoUHZESPso

3x − 5x + 1
2
Figure 1.3.5 Video presentation of The-
lim .
x→−1 x4 − x2 + 3 orem 1.3.4 and Theorem 1.3.20

Solution. Using Theorem 1.3.4, we can quickly state that

3x2 − 5x + 1 3(−1)2 − 5(−1) + 1

lim =
x→−1 x4 − x2 + 3 (−1)4 − (−1)2 + 3
9
= = 3.
3

It was likely frustrating in Section 1.2 to do a lot of work with ε and δ to prove
that
lim x2 = 4
x→2

as it seemed fairly obvious. The previous theorems state that many functions
behave in such an “obvious” fashion, as demonstrated by the rational function
in Example 1.3.6.
Polynomial and rational functions are not the only functions to behave in
such a predictable way. The following theorem gives a list of functions whose
behavior is particularly “nice” in terms of limits. In Section 1.5, we will give a
formal name to these functions that behave “nicely.”

Theorem 1.3.7 Limits of Common Functions.

Let c be a real number in the domain of the given function and let n be
a positive integer. The following limits hold:

1. lim sin(x) = sin(c) 6. lim cot(x) = cot(c)

x→c x→c

2. lim cos(x) = cos(c)

x→c 7. limx→c ax = ac , if a > 0
3. lim tan(x) = tan(c)
x→c
8. lim ln(x) = ln(c)
4. lim csc(x) = csc(c) x→c
x→c
√ √
5. lim sec(x) = sec(c) 9. lim n
x= n
c
x→c x→c

(Item 9 follows from the Identity and Roots rules.)

CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 21

Example 1.3.8 Evaluating limits analytically.

Evaluate the following limits.

(a) lim cos(x) (d) lim eln(x)

x→π x→1


(b) lim sec (x) − tan (x)
2 2
x→3

(c) lim (cos(x) sin(x)) sin(x)

x→π/2
(e) lim
x→0 x

Solution.
(a) This is a straightforward application of Theorem 1.3.7: lim cos(x) =
x→π
cos(π) = −1.
(b) We can approach this in at least two ways. First, by directly apply-
ing Theorem 1.3.7, we have:


lim sec2 (x) − tan2 (x) = sec2 (3) − tan2 (3).
x→3

Using the Pythagorean Theorem, this last expression is 1; there-

fore

lim sec2 (x) − tan2 (x) = 1.
x→3

We can also use the Pythagorean Theorem from the start.

lim sec2 (x) − tan2 (x) = lim 1 = 1,
x→3 x→3

using the Constants rule. Either way, we find the limit is 1.

(c) Applying the Products rule and Theorem 1.3.7 gives

lim cos(x) sin(x) = cos(π/2) sin(π/2) = 0 · 1 = 0.

x→π/2

(d) Again, we can approach this in two ways. First, we can use the ex-
ponential/logarithmic identity that eln(x) = x and evaluate lim eln(x) =
x→1
lim x = 1.
x→1
We can also use the Compositions rule. Using Theorem 1.3.7, we
have lim ln(x) = ln(1) = 0 and limx→0 ex = e0 = 1, satisfying
x→1
the conditions of the Compositions rule. Applying this rule,

lim eln(x) = elimx→1 ln(x) = eln(1) = e0 = 1.

x→1

Both approaches are valid, giving the same result.

(e) We encountered this limit in Section 1.1. Applying our theorems,
we attempt to find the limit as
sin(x) sin(0)
lim → ,
x→0 x 0
which is of the form 00 . This, of course, violates a condition of the
Quotients rule, as the limit of the denominator is not allowed to
be 0. Therefore, we are still unable to evaluate this limit with tools
we currently have at hand.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 22
y
h
Based on what we’ve done so far, this section could have been titled “Using
Known Limits to Find Unknown Limits.” By knowing certain limits of functions, g
we can find limits involving sums, products, powers, etc., of these functions. We
further the development of such comparative tools with the Squeeze Theorem, L
a clever and intuitive way to find the value of some limits.
Before stating this theorem formally, suppose we have functions f , g, and h f
where g always takes on values between f and h; that is, for all x in an interval,
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x). x
c
If f and h have the same limit at c, and g is always “squeezed” between them,
then g must have the same limit as well. That is what the Squeeze Theorem Figure 1.3.9 An illustration of the Squeeze
states. This is illustrated in Figure 1.3.9. Theorem

Theorem 1.3.10 Squeeze Theorem.

Let f , g and h be functions on an open interval I containing c such that
for all x in I,
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x).
If
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x),
x→c x→c

then
lim g(x) = L. [Link]/watch?v=8Tv-GRQdAVA
x→c
Figure 1.3.11 Explaining the Squeeze
It can take some work to figure out appropriate functions by which to “squeeze” Theorem
a given function. However, that is generally the only place where work is neces-
sary; the theorem makes the “evaluating the limit part” very simple.
The Squeeze Theorem can be used to show that limits of sin(x) can be done
by direct substitution, as the videos in Figure 1.3.12 illustrate.
We use the Squeeze Theorem in the following example to finally prove that
lim sin(x)
x = 1.
x→0

Example 1.3.13 Using the Squeeze Theorem.

Use the Squeeze Theorem to show that

sin(x) [Link]/watch?v=2pVHlrPee2w
lim = 1.
x→0 x Figure 1.3.12 Using the Squeeze The-
Solution. We begin by considering the unit circle. Each point on the orem to take the limit of sin(x) at 0
unit circle has coordinates (cos(θ), sin(θ)) for some angle θ as shown in
Figure 1.3.15. Using similar triangles, we can extend the line from the
origin through the point to the point (1, tan(θ)), as shown. (Here we are Video Solution
assuming that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2. Later we will show that we can also con-
sider θ ≤ 0.)Figure 1.3.15 shows three regions have been constructed
in the first quadrant, two triangles and a sector of a circle, which are
also drawn below. The area of the large triangle is 12 tan(θ); the area of
the sector is θ/2; the area of the triangle contained inside the sector is
1
2 sin(θ). It is then clear from Figure 1.3.14 that

tan(θ) θ sin(θ)
≥ ≥ .
2 2 2 [Link]/watch?v=pgjv3ojtXh4
(You may need to recall that the area of a sector of a circle is 12 r2 θ with
θ measured in radians.)
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 23

tan(θ)

tan(θ)

tan(θ)
(1, tan(θ))

sin(θ)
(cos(θ), sin(θ))
θ θ θ
1 1 1
θ
Figure 1.3.14 Bounding the sector between two triangles
(1, 0)
2
Multiply all terms by sin(θ) , giving

1 θ
≥ ≥ 1.
cos(θ) sin(θ)

Taking reciprocals reverses the inequalities, giving Figure 1.3.15 The unit circle and re-
sin(θ) lated triangles
cos(θ) ≤ ≤ 1.
θ
(These inequalities hold for all values of θ near 0, even negative values,
since cos(−θ) = cos(θ) and sin(−θ) = − sin(θ).)
Now take limits.
sin(θ)
lim cos(θ) ≤ lim ≤ lim 1
θ→0 θ→0θ θ→0
sin(θ)
cos(0) ≤ lim ≤1
θ→0 θ
sin(θ)
1 ≤ lim ≤1
θ→0 θ
sin(θ)
Clearly this means that lim θ = 1.
θ→0

sin(θ)
With the limit lim θ = 1 finally established, we can move on to other
θ→0
limits involving trigonometric functions, as the video in Figure 1.3.16 demon-
strates.
Two notes about the Example 1.3.13 are worth mentioning. First, one might
be discouraged by this application, thinking “I would never have come up with
that on my own. This is too hard!” Don’t be discouraged; within this text we
will guide you in your use of the Squeeze Theorem. As one gains mathematical [Link]/watch?v=Wd464IIls5Y
maturity, clever proofs like this are easier and easier to create. Figure 1.3.16 Finding limits involving
Second, this limit tells us more than just that as x approaches 0, sin(x)/x trigonometric functions
approaches 1. Both x and sin(x) are approaching 0, but the ratio of x and sin(x)
approaches 1, meaning that they are approaching 0 in essentially the same way.
Another way of viewing this is: for small x, the functions y = x and y = sin(x)
are essentially indistinguishable.
We include this special limit, along with three others, in the following theo-
rem.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 24

Theorem 1.3.17 Special Limits.

sin(x) 3. lim (1 + x)1/x = e

1. lim =1 x→0
x→0 x
cos(x) − 1 ex − 1
2. lim =0 4. lim =1
x→0 x x→0 x
A short word on how to interpret the latter three limits. We know that as
x goes to 0, cos(x) goes to 1. So, in the second limit, both the numerator and
denominator are approaching 0. However, since the limit is 0, we can interpret
this as saying that “cos(x) is approaching 1 faster than x is approaching 0.”
In the third limit, inside the parentheses we have an expression that is ap-
proaching 1 (though never equaling 1), and we know that 1 raised to any power
is still 1. At the same time, the power is growing toward infinity. What happens
to a number near 1 raised to a very large power? In this particular case, the
result approaches Euler’s number, e, approximately 2.718.
In the fourth limit, we see that as x → 0, ex approaches 1 “just as fast” as
x → 0, resulting in a limit of 1.
The special limits stated in Theorem 1.3.17 are called indeterminate forms;
in this case they are of the form 0/0, except the third limit, which is of a differ-
ent form. You’ll learn techniques to find these limits exactly using calculus in
Section 4.6.
Our final theorem for this section will be motivated by the following example.

Example 1.3.18 Using algebra to evaluate a limit.

Evaluate the following limit:

x2 − 1
lim .
x→1 x − 1

Solution. We begin by attempting to apply Theorem 1.3.4 and substi-

tuting 1 for x in the quotient. This gives:

x2 − 1 12 − 1
lim =
x→1 x − 1 1−1
which is of the form 00 , an indeterminate form. We cannot apply the
theorem.
By graphing the function, as in Figure 1.3.19, we see that the function
seems to be linear, implying that the limit should be easy to evaluate.
Recognize that the numerator of our quotient can be factored:
y
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) 3
= .
x−1 x−1
The function is not defined when x = 1, but for all other x, 2

x −1
2
(x − 1)(x + 1)
=
x−1 x−1
(x− 1
 1)(x + 1)
= 
(x
 −1)
= x + 1, if x ̸= 1 x
0.5 1 1.5 2

Figure 1.3.19 Graphing f in Example 1.3.18

to understand a limit
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 25

Clearly lim (x + 1) = 2. Recall that when considering limits, we

x→1
are not concerned with the value of the function at 1, only the value the
function approaches as x approaches 1. Since (x2 −1)/(x−1) and x+1
are the same at all points except at x = 1, they both approach the same
value as x approaches 1. Therefore we can conclude that

x2 − 1
lim = lim (x + 1)
x→1 x − 1 x→1
=2

The key to Example 1.3.18 is that the functions y = (x2 − 1)/(x − 1) and
y = x+1 are identical except at x = 1. Since limits describe a value the function
is approaching, not the value the function actually attains, the limits of the two
functions are always equal.

Theorem 1.3.20 Limits of Functions Equal At All But One Point.

Let g(x) = f (x) for all x in an open interval, except possibly at c, and let
lim g(x) = L for some real number L. Then
x→c

lim f (x) = L.
x→c

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra tells us that when dealing with a ra-
tional function of the form g(x)/f (x) and directly evaluating the limit lim fg(x)
(x)
x→c
returns “0/0”, then (x − c) is a factor of both g(x) and f (x). One can then
use algebra to factor this binomial out, cancel, then apply Theorem 1.3.20. We
demonstrate this once more.

Example 1.3.21 Evaluating a limit using Theorem 1.3.20.

Evaluate
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 Video Solution
lim .
x→3 2x3 + 3x2 − 32x + 15

Solution. We attempt to apply Theorem 1.3.4 by substituting 3 for x.

This returns the familiar indeterminate form of “0/0”. Since the numer-
ator and denominator are each polynomials, we know that (x − 3) is
factor of each. Using whatever method is most comfortable to you, fac-
tor out (x − 3) from each (using polynomial division, synthetic division,
a computer algebra system, etc.). We find that


x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 3) x2 + x − 2
= . [Link]/watch?v=MSckoYqdKH4
2x3 + 3x2 − 32x + 15 (x − 3) (2x2 + 9x − 5)

We can cancel the (x−3) factors as long as x ̸= 3. Using Theorem 1.3.20

we conclude:


x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 3) x2 + x − 2
lim = lim
x→3 2x3 + 3x2 − 32x + 15 x→3 (x − 3) (2x2 + 9x − 5)

x2 + x − 2
= lim
x→3 2x2 + 9x − 5
10
=
40
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 26

1
= .
4

Example 1.3.22 Evaluating a Limit with a Hole.

Evaluate √
x−3
lim .
x→9 x−9 Video Solution

Solution. We begin by trying to apply the Quotients limit rule, but the
denominator evaluates to zero. In fact, this limit is of the indeterminate
form 0/0. We will do some algebra to resolve the indeterminate form. In
this case, we multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate
of the numerator.
√ √ √
x−3 x − 3 ( x + 3)
= · √
x−9 x − 9 ( x + 3)
[Link]/watch?v=vOW92eipOu4
x−9
= √
(x − 9)( x + 3)

We can cancel the (x−9) factors as long as x ̸= 9. Using Theorem 1.3.20

we conclude:
√
x−3 x−9
lim = lim √
x→9 x − 9 x→9 (x − 9) ( x + 3)
1
= lim √
x→9 x+3
1
= √
limx→9 x + limx→9 3
1
=√
limx→9 x + 3
1
=√
3+3
1
= .
6

We end this section by revisiting a limit first seen in Section 1.1, a limit of a
difference quotient. Let f (x) = −1.5x2 + 11.5x; we approximated the limit
lim f (1+h)−f
h
(1)
≈ 8.5. We formally evaluate this limit in the following exam-
h→0
ple.

Example 1.3.23 Evaluating the limit of a difference quotient.

f (1+h)−f (1)
Let f (x) = −1.5x2 + 11.5x; find lim h .
h→0
Solution. Since f is a polynomial, our first attempt should be to employ
Theorem 1.3.4 and substitute 0 for h. However, we see that this gives us
“0/0.” Knowing that we have a rational function hints that some algebra
will help. Consider the following steps:


f (1 + h) − f (1) −1.5(1 + h)2 + 11.5(1 + h) − −1.5(1)2 + 11.5(1)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 27

−1.5(1 + 2h + h2 ) + 11.5 + 11.5h − 10

= lim
h→0 h
−1.5h + 8.5h
2
= lim
h→0 h
h(−1.5h + 8.5)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (−1.5h + 8.5) (using Theorem 1.3.20, as h ̸= 0)
h→0
= 8.5 (using Theorem 1.3.4)

This matches our previous approximation.

This section contains several valuable tools for evaluating limits. One of the
main results of this section is Theorem 1.3.7; it states that many functions that
we use regularly behave in a very nice, predictable way. In Section 1.5 we give
a name to this nice behavior; we label such functions as continuous. Defining
that term will require us to look again at what a limit is and what causes limits
to not exist.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 28

1.3.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. Explain in your own words, without using ε-δ formality, why lim b = b.
x→c

2. Explain in your own words, without using ε-δ formality, why lim x = c.
x→c

3. What does the text mean when it says that certain functions’ “behavior is ‘nice’ in terms of limits”? What, in
particular, is “nice”?
4. Sketch a graph that visually demonstrates the Squeeze Theorem.
5. You are given the following information:

f (x)
lim f (x) = 0 lim g(x) = 0 lim =2
x→1 x→1 x→1 g(x)

What can be said about the relative sizes of f (x) and g(x) as x approaches 1?
6. (□ True □ False) lim ln x = 0.
x→1
Use a theorem to defend your answer.

Problems

Exercise Group. Use the following information to evaluate the given limit, when possible.
lim f (x) = 6 lim f (x) = 9 f (9) = 6
x→9 x→6
lim g(x) = 3 lim g(x) = 3 g(6) = 3
x→9 x→6
 
7. lim (f (x) + g(x)) 8. lim 3f (x)
x→9 g(x)
x→9
If it is not possible to determine the limit, state If it is not possible to determine the limit, state
why not. why not.
   
9. lim f (x)−2g(x)
g(x) 10. f (x)
lim 3−g(x)
x→9 x→6
If it is not possible to determine the limit, state If it is not possible to determine the limit, state
why not. why not.
11. lim g(f (x)) 12. lim f (g(x))
x→9 x→6
If it is not possible to determine the limit, state If it is not possible to determine the limit, state
why not. why not.


13. lim g(f (f (x))) 14. lim f (x)g(x) − f (x)2 + g(x)2
x→6 x→6
If it is not possible to determine the limit, state If it is not possible to determine the limit, state
why not. why not.

Exercise Group. Use the following information to evaluate the given limit, when possible. If it is not possible to
determine the limit, state why not.
lim f (x) = 2 lim f (x) = 1 f (1) = 1/5
x→1 x→10
lim g(x) = 0 lim g(x) = π g(10) = π
x→1 x→10

15. lim (f (x)g(x)) 16. lim cos(g(x))

x→1 x→10
If it is not possible to determine the limit, state If it is not possible to determine the limit, state
why not. why not.
17. lim g(5f (x)) 18. lim 5g(x)
x→1 x→1
If it is not possible to determine the limit, state If it is not possible to determine the limit, state
why not. why not.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 29

Exercise Group. Evaluate the given limit.

 4
19. lim x2 − 3x + 5 x−5
x→6 20. lim x−8
x→π
21. lim cos(x) sin(x) −(5x+2)
x→ π
22. lim x+4
6 x→6
23. lim ln(x) 3
−2x
x→0
24. lim 4x
x→2
25. lim csc(x) 26. lim ln(4 + x)
x→ π
3
x→0

lim x 2−4x−2 lim 2x−4

2
27. 28.
x→π 2x −2x+1 x→π 5x−5

lim x2 −11x+30 lim x2 −7x

2 2
29. 30.
x→5 x −14x+45 x→0 x +2x
x2 −x−72 x2 +3x−40
31. lim x 2 −14x+45 32. lim x 2 +13x+40
x→9 x→−8
2 2
33. lim x2 +8x+12 34. lim x2 +13x+36
x→−6 x +3x−18 x→−4 x +12x+32

Exercise Group. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the limit.

35. lim x sin x1 36. lim sin(x) cos 1
x2
x→0 x→0
Show your work. Show your work.
37. lim f (x), where 3x − 2 ≤ f (x) ≤ x3 38. lim f (x), where 6x − 9 ≤ f (x) ≤ x2
x→1 x→3
Show your work. Show your work.

Exercise Group. The following exercises challenge your understanding of limits but can be evaluated using the
knowledge gained in Section 1.3.
sin(8x) sin(9x)
39. lim x 40. lim 8x
x→0 x→0
ln(1+x) sin(x)
41. lim x 42. lim x , where x is measured in degrees, not
x→0 x→0
radians.
43. Let f (x) = 0 and g(x) = xx .
(a) Explain why lim f (x) = 0.
x→2

(b) Explain why lim g(x) = 1.

x→0

(c) Explain why lim g(f (x)) does not exist.

x→2

(d) Explain why the previous statement does not violate the Composition Rule of Theorem 1.3.1.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 30

1.4 One-Sided Limits

We introduced the concept of a limit gently, approximating their values graphi-
cally and numerically. Next came the rigorous definition of the limit, along with
an admittedly tedious method for evaluating them. Section 1.3 gave us tools
(which we call theorems) that allow us to compute limits with greater ease. Chief
among the results were the facts that polynomials and rational, trigonometric,
exponential and logarithmic functions (and their sums, products, etc.) all be-
have “nicely.” In this section we rigorously define what we mean by “nicely.”
In Section 1.1 we saw three ways in which limits of functions can fail to exist:
1. The function approaches different values from the left and right.

2. The function grows without bound.

3. The function oscillates.
In this section we explore in depth the concepts behind Item 1 by introducing
the one-sided limit. We begin with formal definitions that are very similar to the
definition of the limit given in Section 1.2, but the notation is slightly different
and “x ̸= c” is replaced with either “x < c” or “x > c.”
There is a slightly different definition for a left-hand limit, than for a right-
hand limit, but both have a lot in common with Definition 1.2.2.

Definition 1.4.1 One Sided Limits: Left- and Right-Hand Limits.

Left-Hand Limit
Let f be a function defined on (a, c) for some a < c and
let L be a real number. The statement that the limit of
f (x), as x approaches c from the left, is L, (alternatively,
that the left-hand limit of f at c is L) is denoted by

lim f (x) = L,
x→c−

and means that for any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
for all x ∈ (a, c), if |x − c| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
Right-Hand Limit
Let f be a function defined on (c, b) for some b > c and let
L be a real number. The statement that the limit of f (x),
as x approaches c from the right, is L, (alternatively, that
the right-hand limit of f at c is L) is denoted by

lim f (x) = L,
x→c+

and means that for any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
for all x ∈ (c, b), if |x − c| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.

Practically speaking, when evaluating a left-hand limit, we consider only val-

ues of x “to the left of c,” i.e., where x < c. The admittedly imperfect notation
x → c− is used to imply that we look at values of x to the left of c. The notation
has nothing to do with positive or negative values of either x or c. It’s more like [Link]/watch?v=VU8lUocFAfE
you are adding very small negative values to c to get values for x. A similar state- Figure 1.4.2 Video presentation of De-
ment holds for evaluating right-hand limits; there we consider only values of x finition 1.4.1
to the right of c, i.e., x > c. We can use the theorems from previous sections to
help us evaluate these limits; we just restrict our view to one side of c.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 31

We practice evaluating left- and right-hand limits through a series of exam-

ples.

Example 1.4.3 Evaluating one-sided limits.

(
x 0≤x≤1
Let f (x) = , as shown in Figure 1.4.4. Find each of
3−x 1<x<2
y
the following:
2
(a) lim− f (x) (e) lim+ f (x)
x→1 x→0 1.5

(b) lim+ f (x) (f) f (0)

x→1 1

(c) lim f (x) (g) lim− f (x) 0.5

x→1 x→2

(d) f (1) (h) f (2) x

0.5 1 1.5 2

Solution. For these problems, the visual aid of the graph is likely more
Figure 1.4.4 A graph of f in Example 1.4.3
effective in evaluating the limits than using f itself. Therefore we will
refer often to the graph.
Video Solution
(a) As x goes to 1 from the left, we see that f (x) is approaching the
value of 1.
Therefore lim f (x) = 1.
x→1−

(b) As x goes to 1 from the right, we see that f (x) is approaching the
value of 2. Recall that it does not matter that there is an “open cir-
cle” there; we are evaluating a limit, not the value of the function.
Therefore lim f (x) = 2.
x→1+ [Link]/watch?v=NdBPwaP4Xkk
(c) The limit of f as x approaches 1 does not exist, as discussed in
Section 1.1. The function does not approach one particular value,
but two different values from the left and the right.

(d) Using the definition, and by looking at the graph, we see that
f (1) = 1.
(e) As x goes to 0 from the right, we see that f (x) is approaching
0. Therefore limx→0+ f (x) = 0. Note we cannot consider a left-
hand limit at 0 as f is not defined for values of x < 0.

(f) Using the definition and the graph, f (0) = 0.

(g) As x goes to 2 from the left, we see that f (x) is approaching the
value of 1.
Therefore lim f (x) = 1.
x→2−

(h) The graph and the definition of the function show that f (2) is not
defined.

Note how the left- and right-hand limits were different at x = 1. This, of
course, causes the limit to not exist. The following theorem states what is fairly
intuitive: the limit exists precisely when the left- and right-hand limits are equal.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 32

Theorem 1.4.5 Limits and One-Sided Limits.

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I containing c, except
possibly at c. Then
lim f (x) = L
x→c

if, and only if,

lim f (x) = L and lim+ f (x) = L.

x→c− x→c

The phrase “if, and only if” means the two statements are equivalent: they
are either both true or both false. If the limit equals L, then the left and right
hand limits both equal L. If the limit is not equal to L, then at least one of the
left and right-hand limits is not equal to L (it may not even exist).
One thing to consider in Examples 1.4.3-Example 1.4.10 is that the value of
the function may/may not be equal to the value(s) of its left/right-hand limits,
even when these limits agree.

Example 1.4.6 Evaluating limits of a piecewise-defined function.

(
2−x 0<x<1
Let f (x) = . Evaluate the following:
(x − 2) 2
1<x<2

(a) lim− f (x) (e) lim+ f (x)

x→1 x→0

(b) lim+ f (x) (f) f (0)

x→1

(c) lim f (x) (g) lim− f (x)

x→1 x→2

(d) f (1) (h) f (2) Video Solution

Solution. In this example, we evaluate each expression using just the

definition of f , without using a graph as we did in the previous example.

(a) As x approaches 1 from the left, we consider a limit where all x-

values are less than 1. This means we use the “2 − x” piece of
the piecewise-defined function f . As the x-values near 1, 2 − x
approaches 1; that is, f (x) approaches 1.
Therefore lim f (x) = 1. [Link]/watch?v=vE_7FG2h_LU
x→1−
A concise mathematical presentation of the above argument could
be written as follows:

lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) (f (x) = x − 2 for 0 < x < 1)

x→1− x→1−
= 2 − 1 = 1 ( properties of limits )

(b) As x approaches 1 from the right, we consider a limit where all x-

values are greater than 1. This means we use the “(x − 2)2 ” piece
of f . As the x-values near 1, (x − 2)2 approaches 1; that is, we
see that again f (x) approaches 1.
Therefore lim f (x) = 1.
x→1+
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 33

Once again, we can present our work computationally as follows:

lim f (x) = lim+ (x − 2)2 (f (x) = (x − 2)2 for 1 < x < 2)

x→1+ x→1
= (1 − 2)2 = 1 ( properties of limits )

(c) The limit of f as x approaches 1 exists and is 1, as f approaches 1

from both the right and left.
Therefore lim f (x) = 1.
x→1

(d) Neither piece of f is defined for the x-value of 1; in other words,

1 is not in the domain of f . Therefore f (1) is not defined.
y
(e) As x approaches 0 from the right, we consider a limit where all 2
x-values are greater than 0. This means we use the 2 − x piece
of f . As the x-values near 0, 2 − x approaches 2; that is, f (x) 1.5
approaches 2.
1
So lim f (x) = 2.
x→0+
0.5
(f) f (0) is not defined as 0 is not in the domain of f .
x
(g) As x approaches 2 from the left, we consider a limit where all x- 0.5 1 1.5 2
values are less than 2. This means we use the (x − 2)2 piece of f .
As the x-values near 2, (x − 2)2 nears 0; that is, f (x) approaches Figure 1.4.7 A graph of f from Exam-
0. ple 1.4.6
So lim− f (x) = 0.
x→2

(h) f (2) is not defined as 2 is not in the domain of f .

We can confirm our analytic result by consulting the graph of f shown y

in Figure 1.4.7. Note the open circles on the graph at x = 0, 1 and 2,
where f is not defined. 1

Example 1.4.8 Evaluating limits of a piecewise-defined function. 0.5

(
(x − 1)2 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, x ̸= 1
Let f (x) = as shown in Figure 1.4.9. x
1 x=1 0.5 1 1.5 2
Evaluate the following:

(a) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x) Figure 1.4.9 Graphing f in Example 1.4.8
x→1− x→1

(b) lim f (x) (d) f (1)

x→1+
Video Solution
Solution. It is clear by looking at the graph that both the left- and right-
hand limits of f , as x approaches 1, are 0. Thus it is also clear that the
limit is 0; i.e., limx→1 f (x) = 0. It is also clearly stated that f (1) = 1.

[Link]/watch?v=HVFazve-Qxc
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 34

Example 1.4.10 Evaluating limits of a piecewise-defined function. y

(
x2 0≤x≤1 1
Let f (x) = as shown in Figure 1.4.11. Evaluate the
2−x 1<x≤2
following:
0.5

(a) lim− f (x) (c) lim f (x)

x→1 x→1
x
(b) lim+ f (x) (d) f (1) 0.5 1 1.5 2
x→1

Solution. It is clear from the definition of the function and its graph
Figure 1.4.11 Graphing f in Example 1.4.10
that all of the following are equal:

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim f (x) = f (1) = 1.

x→1− x→1 x→1

In Examples 1.4.3-Example 1.4.10 we were asked to find both limx→1 f (x) Video Solution
and f (1). Consider the following table:

lim f (x) f (1)

x→1
Example 1.4.3 does not exist 1
Example 1.4.6 1 not defined
Example 1.4.8 0 1
Example 1.4.10 1 1
Only in Example 1.4.10 do both the function and the limit exist and agree. This [Link]/watch?v=Nn6JoJRK7nk
seems “nice;” in fact, it seems “normal.” This is in fact an important situation
which we explore in Section 1.5 entitled “Continuity.” In short, a continuous
function is one in which when a function approaches a value as x → c (i.e., when
limx→c f (x) = L), it actually attains that value at c. Such functions behave
nicely as they are very predictable.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 35

1.4.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. What are the three ways in which a limit may fail to exist?
2. (□ True □ False) If lim f (x) = 5, then lim f (x) = 5.
x→1− x→1

3. (□ True □ False) If lim− f (x) = 5, then lim+ f (x) = 5.

x→1 x→1

4. (□ True □ False) If lim f (x) = 5, then lim− f (x) = 5.

x→1 x→1

Problems

Exercise Group. Evaluate each expression using the given graph of f .

5. 6.
y y

4 4

2 2

x x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

(a) lim− f (x) (a) lim− f (x)

x→1 x→4

(b) lim+ f (x) (b) lim+ f (x)

x→1 x→4

(c) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)

x→1 x→4

(d) f (1) (d) f (4)

(e) lim− f (x) (e) lim− f (x)
x→0 x→0

(f) lim+ f (x) (f) lim+ f (x)

x→0 x→0
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 36

7. 8.
y y
8
4

4 2

2
x
x
−1 1 2 3
−1 1 2 3 4

(a) lim f (x) (a) lim− f (x)

x→1− x→1

(b) lim+ f (x) (b) lim f (x)

x→1 x→1+

(c) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)

x→1 x→1

(d) f (1) (d) f (1)

(e) lim− f (x)
x→3

(f) lim+ f (x)

x→0
9. 10.
3 y 4 y

2
2

x
1 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2
x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−4

−1
−6
(a) lim− f (x)
x→2 (a) lim− f (x)
x→0
(b) lim f (x)
x→2+ (b) lim f (x)
x→0+
(c) lim f (x)
x→2 (c) lim f (x)
x→0
(d) f (2)
(d) f (0)
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 37

11. 12.
4 y y
4

2 2

x
x
−4 −2 2 4
−4 −2 2 4
−2
−2
−4

−4
Let a be an integer with −3 ≤ a ≤ 3.
(a) lim f (x) (a) lim f (x)
x→−2− x→a−

(b) lim f (x) (b) lim+ f (x)

x→−2+ x→a

(c) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)

x→−2 x→a

(d) f (−2) (d) f (a)

(e) lim f (x)
x→2−

(f) lim+ f (x)

x→2

(g) lim f (x)

x→2

(h) f (2)

Exercise Group. Evaluate the given limits of the piecewise defined function.
( (
x − 1 if x ≤ 3 2x − 2x2 − 5 if x < 3
13. f (x) = 14. f (x) =
x2 − 3 if x > 3 sin(x − 3) if x ≥ 3

(a) lim f (x) (a) lim f (x)

x→3− x→3−

(b) lim+ f (x) (b) lim+ f (x)

x→3 x→3

(c) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)

x→3 x→3

(d) f (3) (d) f (3)

CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 38
 (

x + 3x − 1
 2 cos(x) x<π
if x < 2
16. f (x) =
15. f (x) = x +1 3
if 2 ≤ x ≤ 5 sin(x) x≥π


x2 + 4x + 81 if x > 5 (a) lim f (x)
x→π −
(a) lim f (x)
x→2− (b) lim f (x)
x→π +
(b) lim+ f (x)
x→2 (c) lim f (x)
x→π
(c) lim f (x)
x→2 (d) f (π)
(d) f (2)
(e) lim− f (x)
x→5

(f) lim f (x)

x→5+

(g) lim f (x)

x→5

(h) f (5)
( 
1 − cos2 (x) x<a 
 if x < −1
17. f (x) = where a is a real x + 1
sin2 (x) x≥a 18. f (x) = x−1 if x = −1


number. x + 2 if x > −1
(a) lim− f (x)
x→ (a) lim f (x)
x→−1−
(b) lim+ f (x)
x→ (b) lim f (x)
x→−1+
(c) lim f (x)
x→ (c) lim f (x)
x→−1
(d) f ()
(d) f (−1)
 (
 a(x − b)2 + c x < b
x − 2x − 7
 if x < −1
2
20. f (x) =
19. f (x) = x−1 if x = −1 a(x − b) + c x ≥ b

 − x2 + x + 4


if x > −1 (a) lim f (x)
x→b−
(a) lim f (x)
x→−1− (b) lim+ f (x)
x→b
(b) lim f (x)
x→−1+ (c) lim f (x)
x→b
(c) lim f (x)
x→−1 (d) f (b)
(d) f (−1)
(
|x|
x x ̸= 0
21. f (x) =
0 x=0

(a) lim− f (x)

x→0

(b) lim f (x)

x→0+

(c) lim f (x)

x→0

(d) f (0)
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 39

1.5 Continuity
As we have studied limits, we have gained the intuition that limits measure
“where a function is heading.” That is, if lim f (x) = 3, then as x is close to
x→1
1, f (x) is close to 3. We have seen, though, that this is not necessarily a good
indicator of what f (1) actually is. This can be problematic; functions can tend
to one value but attain another. This section focuses on functions that do not
exhibit such behavior.

Definition 1.5.1 Continuous Function.

Let f be a function whose domain contains an open interval I.

1. f is continuous at a point c in I if lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c

2. f is continuous on the open interval I if f is continuous at c for

all values of c in I. If f is continuous on (−∞, ∞), we say f is
continuous everywhere (or everywhere continuous). [Link]/watch?v=bKi6ReLchfw
Figure 1.5.2 Video presentation of De-
Note that in Definition 1.5.1, a function f can only be continuous at a point finition 1.5.1
c if c is in the domain of f .
A useful way to establish whether or not a function f is continuous at c is to
verify the following three things:
1. lim f (x) exists,
x→c
y
2. f (c) is defined, and 1.5

3. lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c
1
Example 1.5.3 Finding intervals of continuity.
0.5
Let f be defined as shown in Figure 1.5.4. Give the interval(s) on which
f is continuous.
x
Solution. We proceed by examining the three criteria for continuity. 1 2 3

1. The limits lim f (x) exists for all c between 0 and 3.

x→c
Figure 1.5.4 A graph of f in Example 1.5.3
2. f (c) is defined for all c between 0 and 3, except for c = 1. We
know immediately that f cannot be continuous at x = 1.
Our definition of continuity (cur-
3. The limit lim f (x) = f (c) for all c between 0 and 3, except, of rently) only applies to open in-
x→c
course, for c = 1. tervals. After Definition 1.5.7, we’ll
be able to say that f is continu-
We conclude that f is continuous at every point of the interval (0, 3) ous on [0, 1) and (1, 3].
except at x = 1. Therefore f is continuous on (0, 1) and (1, 3).

y
Example 1.5.5 Finding intervals of continuity. 2

The floor function, f (x) = ⌊x⌋, returns the largest integer smaller than,
1
or equal to, the input x. (For example, f (π) = ⌊π⌋ = 3.) The graph of
f in Figure 1.5.6 demonstrates why this is often called a “step function.” x
Give the intervals on which f is continuous. −2 −1 1 2 3
Solution. We examine the three criteria for continuity.
−1
1. The limits lim f (x) do not exist at the jumps from one “step” to
x→c
the next, which occur at all integer values of c. Therefore the limits −2

Figure 1.5.6 A graph of the step func-

tion in Example 1.5.5
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 40

exist for all c except when c is an integer.

2. The function is defined for all values of c.
In this text, when we use the
3. The limit lim f (x) = f (c) for all values of c where the limit exist, term “closed interval”, we mean
x→c
since each step consists of just a line. an interval of the form [a, b], where
a and b are real numbers. One
We conclude that f is continuous everywhere except at integer val- may be surprised to learn that
ues of c. So the intervals on which f is continuous are intervals of the form [a, ∞), (−∞, b]
and even (−∞, ∞) are all also
. . . , (−2, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2), . . . . considered closed in advanced cal-
culus. While the mathematics sup-
We could also say that f is continuous on all intervals of the form (n, n +
ported by this definition of closed
1) where n is an integer.
is fascinating and important, it
is beyond the scope of our pur-
Our definition of continuity on an interval specifies the interval is an open inter-
poses here.
val. We can extend the definition of continuity to closed intervals of the form
Some results, such as The Ex-
[a, b] by considering the appropriate one-sided limits at the endpoints.
treme Value Theorem, are valid
Definition 1.5.7 Continuity on Closed Intervals. for intervals of the form [a, b], but
not for intervals such as [a, ∞).
Let f be defined on the closed interval [a, b] for some real numbers a < The latter interval is closed, but
b. not bounded.
We say f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] if: A set of real numbers is bounded
if there is a number that is greater
1. f is continuous on (a, b),
than every element in the set (an
2. lim+ f (x) = f (a) and upper bound), and a number that
x→a is less than every element in the
3. lim− f (x) = f (b). set (a lower bound). When we
x→b do calculus in higher dimensions,
we can no longer talk about in-
We can make the appropriate adjustments to talk about continuity on half- tervals, but we can still talk about
open intervals such as [a, b) or (a, b] if necessary. sets being closed and bounded.
If the domain of f includes values less than a, we say that Item 2 in Defini- See Section 14.5 for details.
tion 1.5.7 indicates that f is continuous from the right at a. But if f is undefined
for x < a, we can say that f is continuous at a without ambiguity.
Similarly, Item 3 indcates that f is continuous from the left at b, and if f is
not defined for x > b, we can simply say that f is continuous at b. √
For example, it makes sense to say that the function f (x) = 1 − x2 is
continuous at 1 and −1, while the floor function in Example 1.5.5 is continuous
from the left at 1 and −1, but is not continuous at these points.
Using this new definition, we can adjust our answer in Example 1.5.3 by stat-
ing that f is continuous on [0, 1) and (1, 3], as mentioned in that example. We
can also revisit Example 1.5.5 and state that the floor function is continuous on
the following half-open intervals

. . . , [−2, −1), [−1, 0), [0, 1), [1, 2), . . . .

This can tempt us to conclude that f is continuous everywhere; after all, if

f is continuous on [0, 1) and [1, 2), isn’t f also continuous on [0, 2)? Of course,
the answer is no, and the graph of the floor function immediately confirms this.
Continuous functions are important as they behave in a predictable fashion: [Link]/watch?v=8z07z3yeChY
functions attain the value they approach. Because continuity is so important,
most of the functions you have likely seen in the past are continuous on their Figure 1.5.8 Two continuity examples
domains. This is demonstrated in the following example where we examine the
intervals of continuity of a variety of common functions.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 41

Example 1.5.9 Determining intervals on which a function is continu-

ous.
For each of the following functions, give the domain of the function and
the interval(s) on which it is continuous.
p
1. f (x) = 1/x 4. f (x) = 1 − x2
2. f (x) = sin(x)
√
3. f (x) = x 5. f (x) = |x| Video Solution

Solution. We examine each in turn.

1. The domain of f (x) = 1/x is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). As it is a rational

function, we apply Theorem 1.3.4 to recognize that f is continu-
ous on all of its domain.
2. The domain of f (x) = sin(x) is all real numbers, or (−∞, ∞). Ap-
plying Theorem 1.3.7 shows that sin(x) is continuous everywhere.
√ [Link]/watch?v=by3ioPN6KRM
3. The domain of f (x)√ = x is [0, ∞). Applying Theorem 1.3.7
shows that f (x) = x is continuous on its domain of [0, ∞).
√
4. The domain of f (x) = 1 − x2 is [−1, 1]. Applying Theorems 1.3.1
and Theorem 1.3.7 shows that f is continuous on all of its domain,
[−1, 1].

5. The domain of f (x) = |x| is (−∞, ∞). We can define the ab-
solute value function as
(
−x x < 0
f (x) = .
x x≥0

Each “piece” of this piecewise defined function is continuous on all

of its domain, giving that f is continuous on (−∞, 0) and [0, ∞).
We cannot assume this implies that f is continuous on (−∞, ∞);
we need to check that lim f (x) = f (0), as x = 0 is the point
x→0
where f transitions from one “piece” of its definition to the other.
It is easy to verify that this is indeed true, hence we conclude that
f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere.

Continuity is inherently tied to the properties of limits. Because of this, the

properties of limits found in Theorems 1.3.1 and Theorem 1.3.4 apply to continu-
ity as well. Further, now knowing the definition of continuity we can re-read The-
orem 1.3.7 as giving a list of functions that are continuous on their domains. The
following theorem states how continuous functions can be combined to form
other continuous functions, followed by a theorem which formally lists functions
that we know are continuous on their domains.

Theorem 1.5.11 Properties of Continuous Functions. [Link]/watch?v=GTiNiZT5ukg

Let f and g be continuous functions on an interval I, let c be a real num- Figure 1.5.10 Video presentation of The-
ber and let n be a positive integer. The following functions are continu- orem 1.5.11
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 42

ous on I.
We have defined what it means
Sums/Difference f ±g for a function to be continuous
on an interval, but many functions,
Constant Multiple c·f such as f (x) = tan(x), have do-
Product f ·g mains that are the union of more
Quotient f /g (as long as g ̸= 0 on I) than one interval.
If the domain of a function is
Power fn a union of intervals, saying that
√
Root n
f (If n is even then require f (x) ≥ 0 on I.) a function is continuous on its do-
Compositions Adjust the definitions of f and g to: Let f be main means that the function is
continuous on I, where the range of f on I is continuous on each of those in-
J, and let g be continuous on J. Then g ◦ f , tervals. But be careful to note
i.e., g(f (x)), is continuous on I. that the converse is not true. As
we learned in Example 1.5.5, a
function can be continuous on a
collection of intervals, but not on
Theorem 1.5.12 Continuous Functions. their union.

Let n be a positive integer. The following functions are continuous on

their domains.

1. f (x) = sin(x) 6. f (x) = cos(x)

2. f (x) = tan(x) 7. f (x) = cot(x)
3. f (x) = sec(x) 8. f (x) = csc(x)
4. f (x) = ln(x) √
9. f (x) = n x, where n is a
5. f (x) = ax (a > 0) positive integer.

As the video example in Figure 1.5.13 illustrates, the above theorems allow [Link]/watch?v=ewUiuE9bQlo
us to quickly construct new continuous functions from old ones.
We apply these theorems in the following Example. Figure 1.5.13 Continuity of composi-
tions
Example 1.5.14 Determining intervals on which a function is continu-
ous.

State the interval(s) on which each of the following functions is continu- Video Solution
ous.
√ √
1. f (x) = x−1+ 5−x 3. f (x) = tan(x)
p
2. f (x) = x sin(x) 4. f (x) = ln(x)

Solution. We examine each in turn, applying Theorems 1.5.11 and The-

orem 1.5.12 as appropriate.

1. The square root terms are continuous on the intervals [1, ∞) and [Link]/watch?v=6Lm-0eBi-5E
(−∞, 5], respectively. As f is continuous only where each term
is continuous, f is continuous on [1, 5], the intersection of these
two intervals. A graph of f is given in Figure 1.5.15.
2. The functions y = x and y = sin(x) are each continuous every-
where, hence their product is, too.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 43

3. Theorem 1.5.12 states that f (x) = tan(x) is continuous on its

domain. Its domain includes all real numbers except odd multiples
of π/2. Thus the intervals on which f (x) = tan(x) is continuous 3 y
are     
3π π π π π 3π
... − ,− , − , , , ,...,.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
√
4. Here, f (x) is the composition g(h(x)), where g(x) = x and
h(x) = ln(x). The domain of g is [0, ∞), while the range of h 1
is (−∞, ∞). If we restrict the domain to [1, ∞), then the output
√
∞), on which g(x) = x is
from h(x) = ln(x) is restricted to [0, p
x
defined. Thus the domain of f (x) = ln(x) is [1, ∞).
1 2 3 4 5
√
Figure
√ 1.5.15 A graph of f (x) = x − 1+
Classification of discontinuities. We now know what it means for a function 5−x
to be continuous, so of course we can easily say what it means for a function
to be discontinuous; namely, not continuous. However, to better understand
continuity, it is worth our time to discuss the different ways in which a function
can fail to be discontinuous. By definition, a function f is continuous at a point
a in its domain if lim f (x) = f (a). If this equality fails to hold, then f is not
x→a
continuous. We note, however, that there are a number of different things that
can go wrong with this equality.

1. lim f (x) = L exists, but L ̸= f (a), or f (a) is undefined. Such a discon-

x→a
tinuity is called a removable discontinuity .
[Link]/watch?v=TevrD3qci0Q
A removable discontinuity can be pictured as a “hole” in the graph of f .
The term “removable” refers to the fact that by simply redefining f (a) to Figure 1.5.16 Discussing classification
equal L (that is, changing the value of f at a single point), we can create a of discontinuities
new function that is continuous at x = a, and agrees with f at all x ̸= a.
2. lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = M exist, but L ̸= M . In this case
x→a+ x→a−
the left and right hand limits both exist, but since they are not equal, the
limit of f as x → a does not exist. Such a discontinuity is called a jump
discontinuity.
The phrase “jump discontinuity” is meant to represent the fact that visu-
ally, the graph of f “jumps” from one value to another as we cross the
value x = a.
3. The function f is unbounded near x = a. This means that the value of f
becomes arbitrarily large (or large and negative) as x approaches a. Such
a discontinuity is called an infinite discontinuity.
Infinite discontinuities are most easily understood in terms of infinite lim-
its, which are discussed in Section 1.6.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 44

y y y
100
3 3
80

2 2 60

40
1 1
20

x x x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

(a) The graph of a func- (b) The graph of a func- (c) The graph of a func-
tion with a removable tion with a jump discon- tion with an infinite dis-
discontinuity at x = 2 tinuity at x = 2 continuity at x = 2
Figure 1.5.17 Illustrating three common types of discontinuity

Consequences of continuity. A common way of thinking of a continuous func-

tion is that “its graph can be sketched without lifting your pencil.” That is, its
graph forms a “continuous” curve, without holes, breaks or jumps. This pseudo-
definition glosses over some of the finer points of continuity. There are some
very strange continuous functions that one would be hard pressed to actually
sketch by hand.
However, this intuitive notion of continuity does help us understand another 10 y

important concept as follows. Suppose f is defined on [1, 2], and f (1) = −10
5
and f (2) = 5. If f is continuous on [1, 2] (i.e., its graph can be sketched as a con-
tinuous curve from (1, −10) to (2, 5)) then we know intuitively that somewhere x

on the interval [1, 2] f must be equal to −9, and −8, and −7, −6, . . . , 0, 1/2, 1 1.5 2 2.5

etc. In short, f takes on all intermediate values between −10 and 5. It may take −5
on more values; f may actually equal 6 at some time, for instance, but we are
−10
guaranteed all values between −10 and 5.
While this notion seems intuitive, it is not trivial to prove and its importance
−15
is profound. Therefore the concept is stated in the form of a theorem.
Figure 1.5.18 Illustration of the Inter-
Theorem 1.5.19 Intermediate Value Theorem. mediate Value Theorem: the output
Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and, without loss of generality, 3 is in between −10 and 5, and there-
let f (a) < f (b). Then for every value y, where f (a) < y < f (b), there fore any continuous function on [1, 2]
is at least one value c in (a, b) such that f (c) = y. with f (1) = −10 and f (2) = 5 will
achieve the output 3 somewhere in
One important application of the Intermediate Value Theorem is root find- [1, 2]
ing. Given a function f , we are often interested in finding values of x where
f (x) = 0. These roots may be very difficult to find exactly. Good approxima-
tions can be found through successive applications of this theorem. Suppose
through direct computation we find that f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0, where a < b.
The Intermediate Value Theorem states that there is at least one c in (a, b) such
that f (c) = 0. The theorem does not give us any clue as to where to find such
a value in the interval (a, b), just that at least one such value exists.
There is a technique that produces a good approximation of c. Let d be the
midpoint of the interval [a, b], with f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0 and consider f (d).
There are three possibilities:
1. f (d) = 0: We got lucky and stumbled on the actual value. We stop as we
found a root. [Link]/watch?v=Fx7Qu9tZlN4
Figure 1.5.20 Video presentation of The-
2. f (d) < 0: Then we know there is a root of f on the interval [d, b] — we
orem 1.5.19
have halved the size of our interval, hence are closer to a good approxima-
tion of the root.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 45

3. f (d) > 0: Then we know there is a root of f on the interval [a, d] —

again,we have halved the size of our interval, hence are closer to a good
approximation of the root.
Successively applying this technique is called the Bisection Method of root
finding. We continue until the interval is sufficiently small. We demonstrate this
in the following example.

Example 1.5.21 Using the Bisection Method.

Approximate the root of f (x) = x − cos(x), accurate to three places Video Solution
after the decimal.
Solution. Consider the graph of f (x) = x − cos(x), shown in Fig-
ure 1.5.22. It is clear that the graph crosses the x-axis somewhere near
x = 0.8. To start the Bisection Method, pick an interval that contains
0.8. We choose [0.7, 0.9]. Note that all we care about are signs of f (x),
not their actual value, so this is all we display.

Iteration 1: f (0.7) < 0, f (0.9) > 0, and f (0.8) > 0. So

replace 0.9 with 0.8 and repeat. [Link]/watch?v=BH6kUpIgcfg
Iteration 2: f (0.7) < 0, f (0.8) > 0, and at the midpoint,
0.75, we have f (0.75) > 0. So replace 0.8
with 0.75 and repeat. Note that we don’t need
to continue to check the endpoints, just the y
0.5
midpoint. Thus we put the rest of the itera-
tions in Table 1.5.23.
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Table 1.5.23 Iterations of the Bisection Method of Root Finding
−0.5
Iteration # Interval Midpoint Sign

1 [0.7, 0.9] f (0.8) > 0 −1

2 [0.7, 0.8] f (0.75) > 0

Figure 1.5.22 Graphing a root of f (x) =
3 [0.7, 0.75] f (0.725) < 0
x − cos(x)
4 [0.725, 0.75] f (0.7375) < 0
5 [0.7375, 0.75] f (0.7438) >
6 [0.7375, 0.7438] f (0.7407) > 0
7 [0.7375, 0.7407] f (0.7391) > 0
8 [0.7375, 0.7391] f (0.7383) < 0
9 [0.7383, 0.7391] f (0.7387) < 0
10 [0.7387, 0.7391] f (0.7389) < 0
11 [0.7389, 0.7391] f (0.7390) < 0
12 [0.7390, 0.7391]
Notice that in the 12th iteration we have the endpoints of the inter-
val each starting with 0.739. Thus we have narrowed the zero down to
an accuracy of the first three places after the decimal. Using a computer,
we have

f (0.7390) = −0.00014, f (0.7391) = 0.000024.

Either endpoint of the interval gives a good approximation of where

f is 0. The Theorem 1.5.19 states that the actual zero is still within this
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 46

interval. While we do not know its exact value, we know it starts with
0.739.
This type of exercise is rarely done by hand. Rather, it is simple to
program a computer to run such an algorithm and stop when the end-
points differ by a preset small amount. One of the authors did write such
a program and found the zero of f to be 0.7390851332 , accurate to 10
places after the decimal. While it took a few minutes to write the pro-
gram, it took less than a thousandth of a second for the program to run
the necessary 35 iterations. In less than 8 hundredths of a second, the
zero was calculated to 100 decimal places (with less than 200 iterations).

It is a simple matter to extend the Bisection Method to solve problems similar

to “Find x, where f (x) = 0.” For instance, we can find x, where f (x) = 1. It
actually works very well to define a new function g where g(x) = f (x) − 1.
Then use the Bisection Method to solve g(x) = 0.
Similarly, given two functions f and g, we can use the Bisection Method
to solve f (x) = g(x). Once again, create a new function h where h(x) =
f (x) − g(x) and solve h(x) = 0.
In Section 4.1 another equation solving method will be introduced, called
Newton’s Method. In many cases, Newton’s Method is much faster. It relies on
more advanced mathematics, though, so we will wait before introducing it.
This section formally defined what it means to be a continuous function.
“Most” functions that we deal with are continuous, so often it feels odd to have
to formally define this concept. Regardless, it is important, and forms the basis
of the next chapter.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 47

1.5.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. In your own words, describe what it means for a function to be continuous.

2. In your own words, describe what the Intermediate Value Theorem states.
3. What is a “root” of a function?
4. Given functions f and g on an interval I, how can the Bisection Method be used to find a value c where f (c) =
g(c)?
5. (□ True □ False) If f is defined on an open interval containing c, and lim f (x) exists, then f is continuous
x→c
at c.
6. (□ True □ False) If f is defined on an open interval containing c, and f is continuous at c, then lim f (x)
x→c
exists.
7. (□ True □ False) If f is defined on an open interval containing c, and f is continuous at c, then lim+ f (x) =
x→c
f (c).
8. (□ True □ False) If f is continuous on [a, b], then lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a

9. (□ True □ False) If f is continuous on [0, 1) and [1, 2), then f is continuous on [0, 2).
10. (□ True □ False) The sum of continuous functions is also continuous.

Problems

Exercise Group. Use the graph to determine if the function is continuous at the given point.
11. Is f in the graph below continuous at 1? 12. Is f in the graph below continuous at 1?
y y

2 2

1 1

x x
−0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

(□ Yes. □ No.) (□ Yes. □ No.)

If not, state why it is not. If not, state why it is not.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 48

13. Is f in the graph below continuous at 1? 14. Is f in the graph below continuous at 0?
y y

2 2

1 1

x x
−0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

(□ Yes. □ No.) (□ Yes. □ No.)

If not, state why it is not. If not, state why it is not.
15. Is f in the graph below continuous at 1? 16. Is f in the graph below continuous at 4?
y 6 y
2
4

2
1
x
−4 −2 2 4
x
−0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
−2

(□ Yes. □ No.) −4
If not, state why it is not.
(□ Yes. □ No.)
If not, state why it is not.
17. Is f in the graph below continuous at −2, 0, and 18. Is f in the graph below continuous at 3π
2 ?
2? y
4 y
2

2
1
x
−4 −2 2 4
x
−2 − π2 π π 3π 2π
2 2

(□ Yes. □ No.)
−4 If not, state why it is not.

At −2: (□ Yes. □ No.)

If not, state why it is not.
At 0: (□ Yes. □ No.)
If not, state why it is not.
At 2: (□ Yes. □ No.)
If not, state why it is not.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 49

Exercise Group. Determine if f is continuous at the indicated values.

( (
1 x=0 x3 − x2 if x < 1
19. f (x) = sin(x) 20. f (x) =
x x ̸= 0 x−2 if x ≥ 1

(a) Is f is continuous at 0? (a) Is f is continuous at 0?

(□ Yes. □ No.) (□ Yes. □ No.)
If not, explain why not. If not, explain why not.

(b) Is f is continuous at π? (b) Is f is continuous at 1?

(□ Yes. □ No.) (□ Yes. □ No.)
If not, explain why not. If not, explain why not.
 2 
 x + 5x + 4 if x ̸= −1  x2 − 64
if x ̸= 8
21. f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2 22. f (x) = x − 11x + 24
2
 
3 if x = −1 5 if x = 8

(a) Is f is continuous at −1? (a) Is f is continuous at 0?

(□ Yes. □ No.) (□ Yes. □ No.)
If not, explain why not. If not, explain why not.

(b) Is f is continuous at 10? (b) Is f is continuous at 8?

(□ Yes. □ No.) (□ Yes. □ No.)
If not, explain why not. If not, explain why not.

Exercise Group. Give the intervals on which the function is continuous.

√
23. f (x) = x2 − 6x + 2 24. f (x) = x2 − 4
√ √ √
25. f (x) = 4 − x2 26. f (x) = 3−x+ x+3
√
27. f (t) = 4t2 − 12 28. g(t) = √ 1
49−t2
1 x
29. g(t) = 8+5t2
30. f (x) = π
31. g(s) = log2 (s) 32. h(t) = cos(t)
√

33. f (k) = 3 − ek 34. f (x) = sin ex + x4

Exercise Group. Test your understanding of the Intermediate Value Theorem.

35. Let f be continuous on [1, 5] where f (1) = −2 and f (5) = −10. Does a value 1 < c < 5 exist such that
f (c) = −9? Why/why not?
36. Let g be continuous on [−3, 7] where g(0) = 0 and g(2) = 25. Does a value −3 < c < 7 exist such that
g(c) = 15? Why/why not?
37. Let f be continuous on [−1, 1] where f (−1) = −10 and f (1) = 10. Does a value −1 < c < 1 exist such
that f (c) = 11? Why/why not?
38. Let h be a function on [−1, 1] where h(−1) = −10 and h(1) = 10. Does a value −1 < c < 1 exist such
that h(c) = 0? Why/why not?

Exercise Group. Use the Bisection Method to approximate, accurate to two decimal places, the value of the root of
the given function in the given interval.
39. f (x) = x2 + 2x − 4 on the interval [1, 1.5]
Show the steps you used applying the Bisection Method.
40. f (x) = sin(x) − 12 on the interval [0.5, 0.55]
Show the steps you used applying the Bisection Method.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 50

41. f (x) = ex − 2 on the interval [0.65, 0.7]

Show the steps you used applying the Bisection Method.
42. f (x) = cos(x) − sin(x) on the interval [0.7, 0.8]
Show the steps you used applying the Bisection Method.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 51

1.6 Limits Involving Infinity

In Definition 1.2.2 we stated that in the equation limx→c f (x) = L, both c and
L were numbers. In this section we relax that definition a bit by considering
situations when it makes sense to let c and/or L be “infinity.”
As a motivating example, consider f (x) = 1/x2 , as shown in Figure 1.6.1.
Note how, as x approaches 0, f (x) grows very, very large—in fact, it grows with-
out bound. It seems appropriate, and descriptive, to state that
1
lim = ∞.
x→0 x2 y
100
Also note that as x gets very large, f (x) gets very, very small. We could
represent this concept with notation such as 80

1 60
lim = 0.
x→∞ x2
40
We explore both types of use of ∞ in turn.

Definition 1.6.2 Limit of Infinity, ∞. 20

x
Let I be an open interval containing c, and let f be a function defined
−1 −0.5 0.5 1
on I, except possibly at c.
Figure 1.6.1 Graphing f (x) = 1/x2
• The limit of f (x), as x approaches c, is infinity, denoted by
for values of x near 0
lim f (x) = ∞,
x→c

if given any N > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all x in I,
where x ̸= c, if |x − c| < δ, then f (x) > N .

• The limit of f (x), as x approaches c, is negative infinity, denoted

by
lim f (x) = −∞,
x→c

if given any N < 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all x in I,
where x ̸= c, if |x − c| < δ, then f (x) < N .

The first definition is similar to the ε-δ definition in Definition 1.2.2 from
Section 1.2. In that definition, given any (small) value ε, if we let x get close
enough to c (within δ units of c) then f (x) is guaranteed to be within ε of L.
Here, given any (large) value N , if we let x get close enough to c (within δ units [Link]/watch?v=UVhqWmKqHtw
of c), then f (x) will be at least as large as N . In other words, if we get close Figure 1.6.3 Video presentation of De-
enough to c, then we can make f (x) as large as we want. finition 1.6.2
It is important to note that by saying limx→c f (x) = ∞ we are implicitly
stating that the limit of f (x), as x approaches c, does not exist. A limit only
exists when f (x) approaches an actual numeric value. We use the concept of
limits that approach infinity because it is helpful and descriptive. It is one specific
way in which a limit can fail to exist.
We define one-sided limits that approach infinity in a similar way.

Definition 1.6.4 One-Sided Limits of Infinity.

• Let f be a function defined on (a, c) for some a < c. We say the

limit of f (x), as x approaches c from the left, is infinity, or, the
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 52

left-hand limit of f at c is infinity, denoted by

lim f (x) = ∞,
x→c−

if given any N > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all a < x < c,
if |x − c| < δ, then f (x) > N .
y
• Let f be a function defined on (c, b) for some b > c. We say the 100
limit of f (x), as x approaches c from the right, is infinity, or, the
right-hand limit of f at c is infinity, denoted by 80

lim f (x) = ∞, 60
x→c+
40
if given any N > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all c < x < b,
if |x − c| < δ, then f (x) > N . 20

x
• The term left- (or, right-) hand limit of f at c is negative infinity is
0.5 1 1.5 2
defined in a manner similar to Definition 1.6.2.
Figure 1.6.6 Observing infinite limit as
x → 1 in Example 1.6.5
Example 1.6.5 Evaluating limits involving infinity.

Find lim 1
2 as shown in Figure 1.6.6. Video Solution
x→1 (x−1)
Solution. In Example 1.1.19 of Section 1.1, by inspecting values of x
close to 1 we concluded that this limit does not exist. That is, it cannot
equal any real number. But the limit could be infinite. And in fact, we
see that the function does appear to be growing larger and larger, as
f (0.99) = 104 , f (0.999) = 106 , f (0.9999) = 108 . A similar thing
happens on the other side of 1. From the graph and the numeric infor-
mation, we could state limx→1 1/(x − 1)2 = ∞. We can prove this by
using Definition 1.6.2 √
In general, let a “large” value√N be given. Let δ = 1/ N . If x is [Link]/watch?v=S3dUAUQiKFQ
within δ of 1, i.e., if |x − 1| < 1/ N , then:
1 y
|x − 1| < √ 40
N
1
(x − 1)2 < 20
N
1 x
> N, −1 −0.5
(x − 1)2 0.5 1

−20
which is what we wanted to show. So we may say limx→1 1/(x − 1)2 =
∞. −40

Example 1.6.7 Evaluating limits involving infinity. Figure 1.6.8 Evaluating lim 1
x→0 x
1
Find lim , as shown in Figure 1.6.8.
x→0 x
Solution. It is easy to see that the function grows without bound near Video Solution
0, but it does so in different ways on different sides of 0. Since its be-
havior is not consistent, we cannot say that limx→0 x1 = ∞. Instead,
we will say limx→0 x1 does not exist. However, we can make a state-
ment about one-sided limits. We can state that limx→0+ x1 = ∞ and
limx→0− x1 = −∞.

[Link]/watch?v=JP1k74FZE1I
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 53

1.6.1 Vertical asymptotes

The graphs in the two previous examples demonstrate that if a function f has a
limit (or, left- or right-hand limit) of infinity at x = c, then the graph of f looks
similar to a vertical line near x = c. This observation leads to a definition.

Definition 1.6.9 Vertical Asymptote.

Let I be an interval that either contains c or has c as an endpoint, and
let f be a function defined on I, except possibly at c.
If the limit of f (x) as x approaches c from either the left or right (or
both) is ∞ or −∞, then the line x = c is a vertical asymptote of f . [Link]/watch?v=qIrLL7jbEZw
Figure 1.6.10 Video presentation of De-
Example 1.6.11 Finding vertical asymptotes. finition 1.6.9

3x
Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) = x2 −4 .
Solution. Vertical asymptotes occur where the function grows without Video Solution
bound; this can occur at values of c where the denominator is 0. When x
is near c, the denominator is small, which in turn can make the function
take on large values. In the case of the given function, the denominator
is 0 at x = ±2. Substituting in values of x close to 2 and −2 seems to
indicate that the function tends toward ∞ or −∞ at those points. We
can graphically confirm this by looking at Figure 1.6.12. Thus the vertical
asymptotes are at x = ±2.

When a rational function has a vertical asymptote at x = c, we can conclude

that the denominator is 0 at x = c. However, just because the denominator [Link]/watch?v=h-1BCF_lsHI
is 0 at a certain point does not mean there is a vertical asymptote there. For
instance, f (x) = (x2 − 1)/(x − 1) does not have a vertical asymptote at x = 1, y
as shown in Figure 1.6.13. While the denominator does get small near x = 1,
10
the numerator gets small too, matching the denominator step for step. In fact,
factoring the numerator, we get
(x − 1)(x + 1) x
f (x) = . −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
x−1
Canceling the common term, we get that f (x) = x + 1 for x ̸= 1. So there
−10
is clearly no asymptote; rather, a hole exists in the graph at x = 1.
The above example may seem a little contrived. Another example demon-
strating this important concept is f (x) = (sin(x))/x. We have considered this 3x
Figure 1.6.12 Graphing f (x) =
function several times in the previous sections. We found that limx→0 sin(x)
x = 1; x2 −4

i.e., there is no vertical asymptote. No simple algebraic cancellation makes this

fact obvious; we used the Theorem 1.3.10 in Section 1.3 to prove this.
If the denominator is 0 at a certain point but the numerator is not, then 3 y
there will usually be a vertical asymptote at that point. On the other hand, if the
numerator and denominator are both zero at that point, then there may or may
not be a vertical asymptote at that point. This case where the numerator and 2
denominator are both zero returns us to an important topic.

1.6.2 Indeterminate Forms 1

−12
We have seen how the limits limx→0 sin(x)x and limx→1 xx−1 each return the
x
indeterminate form 0/0 when we blindly plug in x = 0 and x = 1, respectively.
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
However, 0/0 is not a valid arithmetical expression. It gives no indication that
the respective limits are 1 and 2. Figure 1.6.13 Graphically showing that
2
−1
f (x) = xx−1 does not have an as-
ymptote at x = 1
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 54

With a little cleverness, one can come up with 0/0 expressions which have
a limit of ∞, 0, or any other real number. That is why this expression is called
indeterminate.
A key concept to understand is that such limits do not really return 0/0.
Rather, keep in mind that we are taking limits. What is really happening is that
the numerator is shrinking to 0 while the denominator is also shrinking to 0. The
respective rates at which they do this are very important and determine the ac-
tual value of the limit.
An indeterminate form indicates that one needs to do more work in order
to compute the limit. That work may be algebraic (such as factoring and cancel-
ing), it may involve using trigonometric identities or logarithm rules, or it may
require a tool such as the Squeeze Theorem. In Section 4.6 we will learn yet
another technique called L’Hospital’s Rule that provides another way to handle
indeterminate forms.
Some other common indeterminate forms are ∞ − ∞, ∞ · 0, ∞/∞, 00 , ∞0
and 1∞ . Again, keep in mind that these are the “blind” results of directly sub-
stituting c into the expression, and each, in and of itself, has no meaning. The
expression ∞ − ∞ does not really mean “subtract infinity from infinity.” Rather,
it means “One quantity is subtracted from the other, but both are growing with-
out bound.” What is the result? It is possible to get every value between −∞
and ∞.
Note that 1/0 and ∞/0 are not indeterminate forms, though they are not
exactly valid mathematical expressions, either. In each, the function is growing
without bound, indicating that the limit will be ∞, −∞, or simply not exist if the
left- and right-hand limits do not match.

1.6.3 Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

At the beginning of this section we briefly considered what happens to f (x) =
1/x2 as x grew very large. Graphically, it concerns the behavior of the function
to the “far right” of the graph. We make this notion more explicit in the following
definition.

Definition 1.6.14 Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes.

Let L be a real number.

1. Let f be a function defined on (a, ∞) for some number a. The

limit of f at infinity is L, denoted limx→∞ f (x) = L, if for every
ϵ > 0 there exists M > a such that if x > M , then |f (x) − L| <
ϵ.
2. Let f be a function defined on (−∞, b) for some number b. The
limit of f at negative infinity is L, denoted limx→−∞ f (x) = L,
if for every ϵ > 0 there exists M < b such that if x < M , then
|f (x) − L| < ϵ.
3. If limx→∞ f (x) = L or limx→−∞ f (x) = L, we say the line y =
L is a horizontal asymptote of f .

We can also define limits such as limx→∞ f (x) = ∞ by combining this defi-
nition with Definition 1.6.2.

[Link]/watch?v=7PwKJHgic7U
Figure 1.6.15 Video presentation of De-
finition 1.6.14
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 55

Example 1.6.16 Approximating horizontal asymptotes.

x2
Approximate the horizontal asymptote(s) of f (x) = x2 +4 .
Solution. We will approximate the horizontal asymptotes by approxi-
2 2
mating the limits limx→−∞ x2x+4 and limx→∞ x2x+4 . (A rational function
can have at most one horizontal asymptote. So we could get away with
only taking x → ∞).
Figure 1.6.17(a) shows a sketch of f , and the table in Figure 1.6.17(b)
gives values of f (x) for large magnitude values of x. It seems reasonable
to conclude from both of these sources that f has a horizontal asymp-
tote at y = 1.

y
1

0.8 x f (x)
0.6 10 0.9615
0.4
100 0.9996
10000 0.999996
0.2
−10 0.9615
x
−20 −10 10 20
−100 0.9996
−0.2 −10000 0.999996

(a) (b)
Figure 1.6.17 Using a graph and a table to approximate a horizontal as-
ymptote in Example 1.6.16
Later, we will show how to determine this analytically.

The video in Figure 1.6.18 shows how to prove the result from Example 1.6.16
using the limit definition.
Horizontal asymptotes can take on a variety of forms. Figure 1.6.19(a) shows
that f (x) = x/(x2 + 1) has a horizontal asymptote of y = 0, where 0 is ap-
proached from both above and below. √
Figure 1.6.19(b) shows that f (x) = x/ x2 + 1 has two horizontal asymp- [Link]/watch?v=kYmfeq-qKiI
totes; one at y = 1 and the other at y = −1. Figure 1.6.18 Using an ε-δ proof with
Figure 1.6.19(c) shows that f (x) = sin(x)/x has even more interesting be- Definition 1.6.14 in Example 1.6.16
havior than at just x = 0; as x approaches ±∞, f (x) approaches 0, but oscil-
lates as it does this.

1 y 1 y 1
y

0.5 0.5

x x 0.5

−20 −10 10 20 −20 −10 10 20

−0.5 −0.5 x
−20 −10 10 20
−1 −1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.6.19 Considering different types of horizontal asymptotes
We can analytically evaluate limits at infinity for rational functions once we
understand limx→∞ x1 . As x gets larger and larger, 1/x gets smaller and smaller,
approaching 0. We can, in fact, make 1/x as small as we want by choosing a
large enough value of x. Given ε, we can make 1/x < ε by choosing x > 1/ε.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 56

Thus we have limx→∞ 1/x = 0.

It is now not much of a jump to conclude the following:
1 1
lim
=0 lim = 0.
xn
x→∞ x→−∞ xn

Now suppose we need to compute the following limit:

x3 + 2x + 1
lim .
x→∞ 4x3 − 2x2 + 9 [Link]/watch?v=v5SrtUsdMeU
A good way of approaching this is to divide through the numerator and de- Figure 1.6.20 Basic examples involv-
nominator by x3 (hence multiplying by 1), which is the largest power of x to ing limits at infinity
appear in the denominator. Doing this, we get

x3 + 2x + 1 1/x3 x3 + 2x + 1
lim = lim ·
x→∞ 4x − 2x + 9
3 2 x→∞ 1/x3 4x3 − 2x2 + 9

x3 /x3 + 2x/x3 + 1/x3

= lim
x→∞ 4x3 /x3 − 2x2 /x3 + 9/x3

1 + 2/x2 + 1/x3
= lim .
x→∞ 4 − 2/x + 9/x3

Then using the rules for limits (which also hold for limits at infinity), as well
as the fact about limits of 1/xn , we see that the limit becomes
1+0+0 1
= .
4−0+0 4
This procedure works for any rational function. In fact, it gives us the follow-
ing theorem.

Theorem 1.6.21 Limits of Rational Functions at Infinity.

Let f (x) be a rational function of the following form:

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
f (x) = ,
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0

where m, n are positive integers and where any of the coefficients may
be 0 except for an and bm . Then:
1. If n = m, then
an
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = .
x→∞ x→−∞ bm

2. If n < m, then

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0.

x→∞ x→−∞

3. If n > m, then limx→∞ f (x) and limx→−∞ f (x) are both infinite.

We can see why this is true. If the highest power of x is the same in both
the numerator and denominator (i.e. n = m), we will be in a situation like the
example above, where we will divide by xn and in the limit all the terms will
approach 0 except for an xn /xn and bm xm /xn . Since n = m, this will leave
us with the limit an /bm . If n < m, then after dividing through by xm , all the
terms in the numerator will approach 0 in the limit, leaving us with 0/bm or 0.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 57

If n > m, and we try dividing through by xm , we end up with the denominator

tending to bm while the numerator tends to ∞.
Intuitively, as x gets very large, all the terms in the numerator are small in
comparison to an xn , and likewise all the terms in the denominator are small
compared to bm xm . If n = m, looking only at these two important terms, we
have (an xn )/(bm xm ). This reduces to an /bm . If n < m, the function behaves
like an /(bm xm−n ), which tends toward 0. If n > m, the function behaves like
an xn−m /bm , which will tend to either ∞ or −∞ depending on the values of n,
m, an , bm and whether you are looking for limx→∞ f (x) or limx→−∞ f (x).

Example 1.6.22 Finding a limit of a rational function.

Confirm analytically that y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote of f (x) = Video Solution

x2
x2 +4 , as approximated in Example 1.6.16.
Solution. Before using Theorem 1.6.21, let’s use the technique of eval-
uating limits at infinity of rational functions that led to that theorem. The
largest power of x in f is 2, so divide the numerator and denominator
of f by x2 , then take limits.

x2 x2 /x2
lim = lim
x→∞ x2 + 4 x→∞ x2 /x2 + 4/x2
1 [Link]/watch?v=cmZ39j1YI-o
= lim
x→∞ 1 + 4/x2
1
=
1+0
= 1.

We can also use Theorem 1.6.21 directly; in this case n = m so

the limit is the ratio of the leading coefficients of the numerator and
denominator, i.e., 1/1 = 1.

Example 1.6.23 Finding limits of rational functions.

Use Theorem 1.6.21 to evaluate each of the following limits.

x2 + 2x − 1 x2 − 1
1. lim 3. lim
x→−∞ x3 + 1 x→∞ 3 − x

x2 + 2x − 1
2. lim
x→∞ 1 − x − 3x2

Solution.
1. The highest power of x is in the denominator. Therefore, the limit
is 0; see Figure 1.6.24(a).
2. The highest power of x is x2 , which occurs in both the numerator
and denominator. The limit is therefore the ratio of the coeffi-
cients of x2 , which is −1/3. See Figure 1.6.24(b).
3. The highest power of x is in the numerator so the limit will be ∞
or −∞. To see which, consider only the dominant terms from the
numerator and denominator, which are x2 and −x. The expres-
sion in the limit will behave like x2 /(−x) = −x for large values of
x. Therefore, the limit is −∞. See Figure 1.6.24(c).
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 58

0.6 y y x
0.4 y 10 20 30 40
0.4 −10
0.2
0.2
x −20
−40 −30 −20 −10 x
10 20 30 40 −30
−0.2
−0.2
−0.4 −40
−0.4
−0.6 −50

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.6.24 Visualizing the functions in Example 1.6.23

With care, we can quickly evaluate limits at infinity for a large number of
functions by considering the long run behavior using “dominant terms” of f (x).
For instance, consider again limx→±∞ √xx2 +1 , graphed in Figure 1.6.19(b). The
√
dominant terms are x in the numerator and x2 in the denominator. When x
is very large, x2 + 1 ≈ x2 . Thus
p √ x x
x2 + 1 ≈ x2 = |x| √ ≈ .
2
x +1 |x|

This expression is 1 when x is positive and −1 when x is negative. Hence

we get asymptotes of y = 1 and y = −1, respectively. We will show this more
formally in the next example.

Example 1.6.25 Finding a limit using dominant terms.

Confirm analytically that y = 1 and y = −1 are the horizontal asymp-

tote of limx→±∞ √xx2 +1 , as graphed in Figure 1.6.19(b).
√
Solution. The dominating term of f in the denominator
√ is x2 = |x|
2
so divide the numerator and denominator of f by x , then take limits.

√1
x x x2
lim √ = lim √ ·
x→∞ x2 + 1 x→∞ x2 + 1 √1
x2
x
|x|
= lim q
x→∞ x2 +1
x2
1
= lim q for x > 0
x→∞ 1
1+ x2
1
=√
1+0
= 1.

As x → −∞, the only thing that changes is the value of |x|

x
. For
x < 0, we have |x| = −1, making limx→−∞ √x2 +1 = −1. Therefore,
x x

the horizontal asymptotes are y = 1 and y = −1.

The video in Figure 1.6.26 provides another example similar to Example 1.6.25.

[Link]/watch?v=vD1-zrRZQTI
Figure 1.6.26 Limits at infinity with a
radical function
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 59

1.6.4 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) If lim f (x) = ∞, then we are implicitly stating that the limit exists.
x→5

2. (□ True □ False) If lim f (x) = 5, then we are implicitly stating that the limit exists.
x→5

3. (□ True □ False) If lim− f (x) = −∞, then lim+ f (x) = ∞.

x→1 x→1

4. (□ True □ False) If lim f (x) = ∞, then f has a vertical asymptote at x = 5.

x→5

5. (□ True □ False) ∞/0 is not an indeterminate form.

6. List five indeterminate forms.
7. Construct a function with a vertical asymptote at x = 5 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 5.
8. Let lim f (x) = ∞. Explain how we know that f is or is not continuous at x = 7.
x→7

Problems

Exercise Group. Evaluate the given limits using the graph of the function.
1 1
9. f (x) = (x+2)5
has the graph: 10. f (x) = (x−1)(x−2)2
has the graph:
y y
40 40

20 20

x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 −1 1 2 3

−20 −20

−40 −40

(a) lim f (x) (a) lim f (x)

x→−2− x→1−

(b) lim f (x) (b) lim+ f (x)

x→−2+ x→1

(c) lim f (x)

x→1

(d) lim− f (x)

x→2

(e) lim+ f (x)

x→2

(f) lim f (x)

x→2
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 60

3
11. f (x) = e−x +1 has the graph: 12. f (x) = x3 sin(4πx) has the graph:
4 y y
1,000

3
500

2 x
−10 −5 5 10
1
−500
x
−10 −5 5 10 −1,000

−1
(a) lim f (x)
x→−∞
(a) lim f (x)
x→−∞
(b) lim f (x)
x→∞
(b) lim f (x)
x→∞
(c) lim− f (x)
x→0
(c) lim− f (x)
x→0
(d) lim f (x)
x→0+
(d) lim f (x)
x→0+
13. f (x) = sin(4x) has the graph: 14. f (x) = 2.4x − 9 has the graph:
y 20 y
1

0.5 10

x
x
−10 −5 5 10 −10 −5 5 10
−0.5
−10

−1
−20
(a) lim f (x)
x→−∞
(a) lim f (x)
x→−∞
(b) lim f (x)
x→∞
(b) lim f (x)
x→∞

Exercise Group. Numerically approximate the limits.

x2 −x−20 x2 −4x−5
15. f (x) = x2 −3x−40 16. f (x) = x3 +26x2 +225x+648

(a) lim− f (x) (a) lim f (x)

x→8 x→−9−

(b) lim+ f (x) (b) lim f (x)

x→8 x→−9+

(c) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)

x→8 x→−9
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 61

x2 +13x+40 x2 −x−20
17. f (x) = x3 +7x2 −24x−180 18. f (x) = x2 +3x−4

(a) lim f (x) (a) lim f (x)

x→−6− x→−4−

(b) lim f (x) (b) lim f (x)

x→−6+ x→−4+

(c) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)

x→−6 x→−4

Exercise Group. Identify the horizontal and vertical asymptotes, if any, of the given function.
2x2 +x−15 5x2 +x−4
19. f (x) = x2 −7x−18 20. f (x) = −2x2 −20x−18
4x2 −12x+8 2x2 −12x+16
21. f (x) = 6x3 −36x2 +48x 22. f (x) = −6x−18
x2 −10x+24 4x2 −44x+96
23. f (x) = 3x−18 24. f (x) = −x2 −4x−8

Exercise Group. Evaluate the given limit.

x3 −4x2 −x+2 x3 +9x2 +7x−6
25. lim 3x−3 26. lim 3x+8
x→∞ x→∞
x3 +3x2 −4x+9 x3 −5x2 +5x+3
27. lim 3x2 −3 28. lim 3x2 +8
x→∞ x→∞
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS 62

Chapter Summary. In this chapter we:

• defined the limit,
• found accessible ways to approximate their values numerically and graph-
ically,

• developed a not-so-easy method of proving the value of a limit (ε-δ proofs),

• explored when limits do not exist,
• defined continuity and explored properties of continuous functions, and

• considered limits that involved infinity.

Why? Mathematics is famous for building on itself and calculus proves to be
no exception. In the next chapter we will be interested in “dividing by 0.” That
is, we will want to divide a quantity by a smaller and smaller number and see
what value the quotient approaches. In other words, we will want to find a limit.
These limits will enable us to, among other things, determine exactly how fast
something is moving when we are only given position information.
Later, we will want to add up an infinite list of numbers. We will do so by
first adding up a finite list of numbers, then take a limit as the number of things
we are adding approaches infinity. Surprisingly, this sum often is finite; that is,
we can add up an infinite list of numbers and get, for instance, 42.
These are just two quick examples of why we are interested in limits. Many
students dislike this topic when they are first introduced to it, but over time an
appreciation is often formed based on the scope of its applicability.
Chapter 2

Derivatives

Chapter 1 introduced the most fundamental of calculus topics: the limit. This
chapter introduces the second most fundamental of calculus topics: the deriva-
tive. Limits describe where a function is going; derivatives describe how fast the
function is going.

2.1 Instantaneous Rates of Change: The Derivative

2.1.1 Introduction
A common amusement park ride lifts riders to a height then allows them
to freefall a certain distance before safely stopping them. Suppose such a ride
drops riders from a height of 150 feet. Students of physics may recall that the
height (in feet) of the riders, t seconds after freefall (and ignoring air resistance, [Link]/watch?v=jRW9d25E_ls
etc.) can be accurately modeled by f (t) = −16t2 + 150. Figure 2.1.1 Video introduction to Sec-
Using this formula, it is easy to verify that, without
√ intervention, the riders tion 2.1
will hit the ground when f (t) = 0 so at t = 2.5 1.5 ≈ 3.06 seconds. Suppose
the designers of the ride decide to begin slowing the riders’ fall after 2 seconds
(corresponding to a height of f (2) = 86 ft). How fast will the riders be traveling
at that time?
We have been given a position function, but what we want to compute is a
velocity at a specific point in time, i.e., we want an instantaneous velocity. We
do not currently know how to calculate this.
However, we do know from common experience how to calculate an average
velocity. (If we travel 60 miles in 2 hours, we know we had an average velocity
of 30 mph.) We looked at this concept in Section 1.1 when we introduced the
difference quotient. We have
change in distance “rise”
= = average velocity.
change in time “run”
We can approximate the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 by considering the
average velocity over some time period containing t = 2. If we make the time in-
terval small, we will get a good approximation. (This fact is commonly used. For
instance, high speed cameras are used to track fast moving objects. Distances
are measured over a fixed number of frames to generate an accurate approxi-
mation of the velocity.)

63
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 64

Consider the interval from t = 2 to t = 3 (just before the riders hit the
ground). On that interval, the average velocity is

f (3) − f (2) 6 − 86
= = −80 ft/s,
3−2 1
where the minus sign indicates that the riders are moving down. By narrowing
the interval we consider, we will likely get a better approximation of the instan-
taneous velocity. On [2, 2.5] we have Units in Calculations. In the above
calculations, we left off the units
f (2.5) − f (2) 50 − 86 until the end of the problem. You
= = −72 ft/s. should always be sure that you
2.5 − 2 0.5
label your answer with the cor-
We can do this for smaller and smaller intervals of time. For instance, over
rect units. For example, if g(x)
a time span of one tenth of a second, i.e., on [2, 2.1], we have
gave you the cost (in $) of pro-
f (2.1) − f (2) 79.44 − 86 ducing x widgets, the units on
= = −65.6 ft/s. the difference quotient would be
2.1 − 2 0.1
$/widget.
Over a time span of one hundredth of a second, on [2, 2.01], the average
velocity is
f (2.01) − f (2) 85.3584 − 86
= = −64.16 ft/s.
2.01 − 2 0.01
What we are really computing is the average velocity on the interval [2, 2+h]
for small values of h. That is, we are computing

f (2 + h) − f (2)
h
where h is small.
We really want to use h = 0, but this, of course, returns the familiar “0/0” h Average Velocity ( fts )
indeterminate form. So we employ a limit, as we did in Section 1.1. 1 −80
We can approximate the value of this limit numerically with small values of 0.5 −72
h as seen in Figure 2.1.2. It looks as though the velocity is approaching −64 fts . 0.1 −65.6
Computing the limit directly gives 0.01 −64.16
0.001 −64.016
f (2 + h) − f (2) −16(2 + h)2 + 150 − (−16(2)2 + 150)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h Figure 2.1.2 Approximating the instan-
−16(4 + 4h + h2 ) + 150 − 86 taneous velocity with average veloci-
= lim
h→0 h ties over a small time period h
−64 − 64h − 16h2 + 64
= lim
h→0 h
−64h − 16h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (−64 − 16h)
h→0
= −64.

Graphically, we can view the average velocities we computed numerically as

the slopes of secant lines on the graph of f going through the points (2, f (2))
and (2 + h, f (2 + h)). In Figures 2.1.3–2.1.5, the secant line corresponding to
h = 1 is shown in three contexts. Figure 2.1.3 shows a “zoomed out” version
of f with its secant line. In Figure 2.1.4, we zoom in around the points of inter-
section between f and the secant line. Notice how well this secant line approx-
imates f between those two points — it is a common practice to approximate
functions with straight lines.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 65

y y
120
150
100

80
100
60

40
50
20
t
t
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4
1 2 3
Figure 2.1.4 The function f (t) and a
Figure 2.1.3 The function f (t) and its secant line corresponding to t = 2
secant line corresponding to t = 2 and t = 3, zoomed in near t = 2
and t = 3
y y
120

100
100
80

60
50
40

20
t t
1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6

Figure 2.1.5 The function f (t) with Figure 2.1.6 The function f (t) with its
the same secant line, zoomed in fur- tangent line at t = 2
ther
As h → 0, these secant lines approach the tangent line, a line that goes
through the point (2, f (2)) with the special slope of −64. In Figure 2.1.5 and
Figure 2.1.6, we zoom in around the point (2, 86). We see the secant line, which
approximates f well, but not as well the tangent line shown in Figure 2.1.6.
We have just introduced a number of important concepts that we will flesh
out more within this section. First, we formally define two of them.

Definition 2.1.7 Derivative at a Point.

Let f be a continuous function on an open interval I and let c be in I.
The derivative of f at c, denoted f ′ (c), is

f (c + h) − f (c)
lim ,
h→0 h
provided the limit exists. If the limit exists, we say that f is differentiable
at c; if the limit does not exist, then f is not differentiable at c. If f is
differentiable at every point in I, then f is differentiable on I.

Definition 2.1.9 Tangent Line.

Let f be continuous on an open interval I and differentiable at c, for
some c in I. The line with equation ℓ(x) = f ′ (c)(x − c) + f (c) is the
tangent line to the graph of f at c; that is, it is the line through (c, f (c))
whose slope is the derivative of f at c.

Some examples will help us understand these definitions. [Link]/watch?v=JXFMh21PMx4

Figure 2.1.8 Video presentation of De-
finition 2.1.7
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 66

Example 2.1.10 Finding derivatives and tangent lines.

Let f (x) = 3x2 + 5x − 7. Find:

(a) f ′ (1) (c) f ′ (3)

(b) The equation of the tangent
line to the graph of f at x = (d) The equation of the tangent
1. line to the graph f at x = 3. Video Solution

Solution.
(a) We compute this directly using Definition 2.1.7.
f (1 + h) − f (1)
f ′ (1) = lim
h→0 h
3(1 + h)2 + 5(1 + h) − 7 − (3(1)2 + 5(1) − 7)
= lim
h→0 h
3(1 + 2h + h2 ) + 5 + 5h − 7 − 1 [Link]/watch?v=4OMc0gJWcb0
= lim
h→0 h
3 + 6h + 3h2 + 5 + 5h − 8
= lim
h→0 h
3h2 + 11h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (3h + 11)
h→0
= 11.

(b) The tangent line at x = 1 has slope f ′ (1) and goes through the
point (1, f (1)) = (1, 1). Thus the tangent line has equation, in
point-slope form, y = 11(x − 1) + 1. In slope-intercept form we
have y = 11x − 10.
(c) Again, using the definition,
f (3 + h) − f (3)
f ′ (3) = lim
h→0 h
3(3 + h)2 + 5(3 + h) − 7 − (3(3)2 + 5(3) − 7)
= lim
h→0 h
3(9 + 6h + h2 ) + 15 + 3h − 7 − 35
= lim
h→0 h
27 + 18h + 3h2 + 15 + 3h − 42 y
= lim 60
h→0 h
3h2 + 23h
= lim 40
h→0 h
= lim 3h + 23
h→0
20
= 23.

(d) The tangent line at x = 3 has slope 23 and goes through the x
−1 1 2 3 4
point (3, f (3)) = (3, 35). Thus the tangent line has equation
y = 23(x − 3) + 35 = 23x − 34.
Figure 2.1.11 A graph of f (x) = 3x2 +
A graph of f is given in Figure 2.1.11 along with the tangent lines at 5x − 7 and its tangent lines at x = 1
x = 1 and x = 3. and x = 3
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 67

In Definition 2.1.7, we assumed that the function is continuous, but this is

actually not necessary. One can in fact prove that a function has to be continuous
at any point where it is differentiable. Or, in other words, a function cannot
be differentiable at a point of discontinuity. This is explained in the video in
Figure 2.1.12.
Another important line that can be created using information from the de-
rivative is the normal line. It is perpendicular to the tangent line, hence its slope
is the negative-reciprocal of the tangent line’s slope.

Definition 2.1.13 Normal Line.

Let f be continuous on an open interval I and differentiable at c, for
some c in I. The normal line to the graph of f at c is the line with equa-
tion [Link]/watch?v=Ev9hJVbDO1k
−1
n(x) = ′ (x − c) + f (c),
f (c) Figure 2.1.12 Showing that every dif-
′ ′
when f (c) ̸= 0. (When f (c) = 0, the normal line is the vertical line ferentiable function is continuous
through (c, f (c)); that is, x = c.)

Example 2.1.14 Finding equations of normal lines.

Let f (x) = 3x2 + 5x − 7, as in Example 2.1.10. Find the equations of

the normal lines to the graph of f at x = 1 and x = 3.
Solution. In Example 2.1.10, we found that f ′ (1) = 11. Hence at x =
1, the normal line will have slope −1/11. An equation for the normal
line is
−1
n(x) = (x − 1) + 1. y
11
3
The normal line is plotted with y = f (x) in Figure 2.1.15. Note how
the line looks perpendicular to f . (A key word here is “looks.” Mathe-
matically, we say that the normal line is perpendicular to f at x = 1 as 2
the slope of the normal line is the negative-reciprocal of the slope of the
tangent line. However, normal lines may not always look perpendicular.
The aspect ratio of the picture of the graph plays a big role in this. 1
When using graphing software, there is usually an option called Zoom
Square that keeps the aspect ratio 1 : 1 x
We also found that f ′ (3) = 23, so the normal line to the graph of f 1 2 3 4
at x = 3 will have slope −1/23. An equation for the normal line is
Figure 2.1.15 A graph of f (x) = 3x2 +
−1 5x − 7, along with its normal line at
n(x) = (x − 3) + 35.
23 x=1

Linear functions are easy to work with; many functions that arise in the
course of solving real problems are not easy to work with. A common practice
in mathematical problem solving is to approximate difficult functions with not-
so-difficult functions. Lines are a common choice. It turns out that at any given
point on the graph of a differentiable function f , the best linear approximation
to f is its tangent line. That is one reason we’ll spend considerable time finding
tangent lines to functions.
One type of function that does not benefit from a tangent line approximation
is a line; it is rather simple to recognize that the tangent line to a line is the line
itself. We look at this in the following example.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 68

Example 2.1.16 Finding the derivative of a linear function.

Consider f (x) = 3x + 5. Find the equation of the tangent line to f at

x = 1 and x = 7.
Solution. We find the slope of the tangent line by using Definition 2.1.7.

f (1 + h) − f (1)
f ′ (1) = lim
h→0 h
3(1 + h) + 5 − (3 + 5)
= lim
h→0 h
3h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 3
h→0
= 3.

We just found that f ′ (1) = 3. That is, we found the instantaneous

rate of change of f (x) = 3x + 5 is 3. This is not surprising; lines are
characterized by being the only functions with a constant rate of change.
That rate of change is called the slope of the line. Since their rates of
change are constant, their instantaneous rates of change are always the
same; they are all the slope.
So given a line f (x) = ax + b, the derivative at any point x will be
a; that is, f ′ (x) = a.
It is now easy to see that the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 1
is just f , with the same being true at x = 7.

We often desire to find the tangent line to the graph of a function without
knowing the actual derivative of the function. While we will eventually be able
to find derivatives of many common functions, the algebra and limit calculations
on some functions are complex. Until we develop further techniques, the best
we may be able to do is approximate the tangent line. We demonstrate this in
the next example.

Example 2.1.17 Numerical approximation of the tangent line.

Approximate the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) =

sin(x) at x = 0.
Solution. In order to find the equation of the tangent line, we need
a slope and a point. The point is given to us: (0, sin(0)) = (0, 0). To
compute the slope, we need the derivative. This is where we will make
an approximation. Recall that 1 y

sin(0 + h) − sin(0)
f ′ (0) ≈ 0.5
h
for a small value of h. We choose (somewhat arbitrarily) to let h = 0.1. x
Thus −π − π2 π π
sin(0.1) − sin(0) 2

f ′ (0) ≈ ≈ 0.9983.
0.1 −0.5
Thus our approximation of the equation of the tangent line is y =
0.9983(x − 0) + 0 = 0.9983x; it is graphed in Figure 2.1.18. The graph −1
seems to imply the approximation is rather good.
Figure 2.1.18 f (x) = sin(x) graphed
sin(x)
Recall from Section 1.3 that limx→0 x = 1, meaning for values of x near with an approximation to its tangent
line at x = 0
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 69

0, sin(x) ≈ x. Since the slope of the line y = x is 1 at x = 0, it should seem

reasonable that “the slope of f (x) = sin(x)” is near 1 at x = 0. In fact, since
we approximated the value of the slope to be 0.9983, we might guess the actual
value is 1. We’ll come back to this later.
Consider again Example 2.1.10. To find the derivative of f at x = 1, we
needed to evaluate a limit. To find the derivative of f at x = 3, we needed to
again evaluate a limit. We have this process:

input specific do something return

−→ −→
number c to f and c number f ′ (c)

This process describes a function; given one input (the value of c), we return
exactly one output (the value of f ′ (c)). The “do something” box is where the
tedious work (taking limits) of this function occurs.
Instead of applying this function repeatedly for different values of c, let us
apply it just once to the variable x. We then take a limit just once. The process
now looks like:
input do something return
−→ −→
variable x to f and x function f ′ (x)

The output is the derivative function, f ′ (x). The f ′ (x) function will take a
number c as input and return the derivative of f at c. This calls for a definition.

Definition 2.1.19 Derivative Function.

Let f be a differentiable function on an open interval I. The function

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
[Link]/watch?v=yPzNYlzA0Js
is the derivative of f .
Let y = f (x). The following notations all represent the derivative of Figure 2.1.20 Video presentation of De-
f: finition 2.1.19
dy df d d
f ′ (x) = y ′ = = = (f ) = (y).
dx dx dx dx
dy
Important: The notation dx is one symbol; it is not the fraction “dy/dx”. The
notation, while somewhat confusing at first, was chosen with care. A fraction-
looking symbol was chosen because the derivative has many fraction-like prop-
erties. Among other places, we see these properties at work when we talk about
the units of the derivative, when we discuss the Chain Rule, and when we learn
about integration (topics that appear in later sections and chapters).
Examples will help us understand this definition.

Example 2.1.22 Finding the derivative of a function.

[Link]/watch?v=TJhJiA_w4mQ
Let f (x) = 3x2 + 5x − 7 as in Example 2.1.10. Find f ′ (x).
Figure 2.1.21 Explaining derivative no-
Solution. We apply Definition 2.1.19.
tation
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
3(x + h)2 + 5(x + h) − 7 − (3x2 + 5x − 7)
= lim
h→0 h
3h2 + 6xh + 5h
= lim
h→0 h
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 70

= lim (3h + 6x + 5)
h→0
= 6x + 5

So f ′ (x) = 6x + 5. Recall earlier we found that f ′ (1) = 11 and

f (3) = 23. Note our new computation of f ′ (x) affirms these facts.
′

Example 2.1.23 Finding the derivative of a function.

Video Solution
Let f (x) = 1
x+1 . Find f ′ (x).
Solution. We apply Definition 2.1.19.

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
1
− 1
= lim x+h+1 x+1
h→0 h
Now find common denominator then subtract; pull 1/h out front to fa-
cilitate reading. [Link]/watch?v=JKHbXYanjDs
 
1 x+1 x+h+1
= lim · −
h→0 h (x + 1)(x + h + 1) (x + 1)(x + h + 1)

Now simplify algebraically.

 
1 x + 1 − (x + h + 1)
= lim ·
h→0 h (x + 1)(x + h + 1)
 
1 −h
= lim ·
h→0 h (x + 1)(x + h + 1)

Finally, apply the limit.

−1
= lim
h→0 (x + 1)(x + h + 1)
−1
=
(x + 1)(x + 1)
−1
= .
(x + 1)2
−1
So f ′ (x) = (x+1)2 . To practice using our notation, we could also
state  
d 1 −1
= .
dx x + 1 (x + 1)2

Example 2.1.24 Finding the derivative of a function.

Video Solution
Find the derivative of f (x) = sin(x).
Solution. Before applying Definition 2.1.19, note that once this is found,
we can find the actual tangent line to f (x) = sin(x) at x = 0, whereas
we settled for an approximation in Example 2.1.17.
sin(x + h) − sin(x)
f ′ (x) = lim Derivative definition
h→0 h

[Link]/watch?v=vsnDopbWHXQ
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 71

sin(x) cos(h) + cos(x) sin(h) − sin(x)

= lim Angle addition identity
h→0 h
sin(x)(cos(h) − 1) + cos(x) sin(h)
= lim Regrouped and factored
h→0 h
 
sin(x)(cos(h) − 1) cos(x) sin(h)
= lim + Split into two fractions
h→0 h h
cos(h) − 1
= lim sin(x) · lim
h→0 h→0 h
sin(h)
+ lim cos(x) · lim Product/sum limit rules
h→0 h→0 h
= sin(x) · 0 + cos(x) · 1 Applied Theorem 1.3.17
= cos(x). (Are you surprised?)

We have found that when f (x) = sin(x), f ′ (x) = cos(x). This

should be somewhat amazing; the result of a tedious limit process on
the sine function is a nice function. Then again, perhaps this is not en-
tirely surprising. The sine function is periodic — it repeats itself on regu-
lar intervals. Therefore its rate of change also repeats itself on the same
regular intervals. We should have known the derivative would be peri-
odic; we now know exactly which periodic function it is.
Thinking back to Example 2.1.17, we can find the slope of the tangent
line to f (x) = sin(x) at x = 0 using our derivative. We approximated
the slope as 0.9983; we now know the slope is exactly cos(0) = 1. [Link]/watch?v=-1lOFzhDJAo
Using similar techniques, we can show that the derivative of cos(x) Figure 2.1.25 Finding the derivative of
is − sin(x). See if you can show this yourself; if you get stuck, you can cos(x)
check out the video in Figure 2.1.25.

Example 2.1.26 Finding the derivative of a piecewise defined function.

y
1
Find the derivative of the absolute value function,
( 0.8
−x x < 0
f (x) = |x| = . 0.6
x x≥0
0.4
See Figure 2.1.27.
0.2
Solution. We need to evaluate limh→0 f (x+h)−f h
(x)
. As f is piecewise- x
defined, we need to consider separately the limits when x < 0 and when −1 −0.5 0.5 1
x > 0. −0.2
When x < 0:
Figure 2.1.27 The absolute value func-
d −(x + h) − (−x) tion f (x) = |x|. Notice how the slope
(−x) = lim
dx h→0 h of the lines (and hence the tangent
−h lines) abruptly changes at x = 0.
= lim
h→0 h
= lim −1
h→0
= −1.
d
When x > 0, a similar computation shows that dx (x) = 1.
We need to also find the derivative at x = 0. By the definition of the
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 72

derivative at a point, we have

f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim .
h→0 h
Since x = 0 is the point where our function’s definition switches
from one piece to the other, we need to consider left and right-hand
limits. Consider the following, where we compute the left and right hand
limits side by side.

f (0 + h) − f (0) f (0 + h) − f (0)
lim lim
h→0− h h→0+ h
−h − 0 h−0
= lim− = lim+
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim− −1 = lim+ 1
h→0 h→0
y
= −1 =1
1
The last lines of each column tell the story: the left and right hand
limits are not equal. Therefore the limit does not exist at 0, and f is not 0.5
differentiable at 0. So we have
x
(
−1 −0.5
′ −1 x < 0 0.5 1
f (x) = . −0.5
1 x>0
−1
At x = 0, f ′ (x) does not exist; there is a jump discontinuity at 0; see
Figure 2.1.28. So f (x) = |x| is differentiable everywhere except at 0.
Figure 2.1.28 A graph of the deriva-
The point of non-differentiability came where the piecewise defined func- tive of f (x) = |x|
tion switched from one piece to the other. Our next example shows that this
does not always cause trouble.

Example 2.1.29 Finding the derivative of a piecewise defined function.

Find the derivative of f (x), where y

(
sin(x) x ≤ π/2 1
f (x) = .
1 x > π/2
0.5
See Figure 2.1.30.
Solution. Using Example 2.1.24, we know that when x < π/2, f ′ (x) =
cos(x). It is easy to verify that when x > π/2, f ′ (x) = 0; consider: x
π
2
f (x + h) − f (x) 1−1
lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

So far we have Figure 2.1.30 A graph of f (x) as de-

( fined in Example 2.1.29
cos(x) x < π/2
f ′ (x) = .
0 x > π/2
We still need to find f ′ (π/2). Notice at x = π/2 that both pieces of
f are 0, meaning we can state that f ′ (π/2) = 0.
′

Being more rigorous, we can again evaluate the difference quotient

limit at x = π/2, utilizing again left- and right-hand limits. We will begin
with the left-hand limit:
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 73

f (π/2 + h) − f (π/2)
lim
h→0− h
sin(π/2 + h) − sin(π/2)
= lim−
h→0 h
sin( π2 ) cos(h) + sin(h) cos( π2 ) − sin( π2 )
= lim−
h→0 h
1 · cos(h) + sin(h) · 0 − 1
= lim−
h→0 h
cos(h) − 1 sin(h)
= lim− · lim−
h→0 h h→0 h
=1·0
= 0.

Notice we used Limits of Common Functions to finally evaluate the limit.

y
Now we will find the right-hand limit:

f (π/2 + h) − f (π/2) 1
lim+
h→0 h
1−1 0.5
= lim+
h→0 h
0
= lim x
h→0+ h π
2
= 0.

Since both the left and right hand limits are 0 at x = π/2, the limit Figure 2.1.31 A graph of f ′ (x) in Ex-
exists and f ′ (π/2) exists (and is 0). Therefore we can fully write f ′ as ample 2.1.29.
(
cos(x) x ≤ π/2
f ′ (x) = .
0 x > π/2

See Figure 2.1.31 for a graph of this derivative function.

For one more example involving piecewise-defined functions, we turn to the

video in Figure 2.1.32.
Recall we pseudo-defined a continuous function as one in which we could
sketch its graph without lifting our pencil. We can give a pseudo-definition for
differentiability as well: it is a continuous function that does not have any “sharp
corners” or a vertical tangent line. One such sharp corner is shown in Figure 2.1.27. [Link]/watch?v=q1ZAqRsgVPk
Even though the function f in Example 2.1.29 is piecewise-defined, the transi- Figure 2.1.32 Determining when a piecewise-
tion is “smooth” hence it is differentiable. Note how in the graph of f in Fig- defined function is differentiable
ure 2.1.30 it is difficult to tell when f switches from one piece to the other;
there is no “corner.”
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 74

2.1.2 Differentiability on Closed Intervals

When we defined the derivative at a point in Definition 2.1.7, we specified that
the interval I over which a function f was defined needed to be an open inter-
val. Open intervals are required so that we can take a limit at any point c in I,
meaning we want to approach c from both the left and right.
Recall we also required open intervals in Definition 1.5.1 when we defined
what it meant for a function to be continuous. Later, we used one-sided limits to
extend continuity to closed intervals. We now extend differentiability to closed
intervals by again considering one-sided limits.
Our motivation is three-fold. First, we consider “common sense.” In Exam-
ple 2.1.22 we found that when f (x) = 3x2 + 5x − 7, f ′ (x) = 6x + 5, and this
derivative is defined for all real numbers, hence f is differentiable everywhere.
It seems appropriate to also conclude that f is differentiable on closed intervals,
like [0, 1], as well. After all, f ′ (x)
√ is defined at both x = 0 and x = 1.
Secondly, consider f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0, ∞). Is f differentiable
on its domain — specifically, is f differentiable at 0? (We’ll consider this in the
next example.)
Finally, in later sections, having the derivative defined on closed intervals will
prove useful. One such place is Section 7.4 where the derivative plays a role in
measuring the length of a curve.
After a formal definition of differentiability on a closed interval, we explore
the concept in an example.

Definition 2.1.33 Differentiability on a Closed Interval.

Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If the one-sided

limits
f (a + h) − f (a) f (b + h) − f (b)
lim lim
h→0+ h h→0− h
exist, then we say f is differentiable on [a, b].

For all the functions f in this text, we can determine differentiability on [a, b]
by considering the limits limx→a+ f ′ (x) and limx→b− f ′ (x). This is often easier
to evaluate than the limit of the difference quotient.

Example 2.1.34 Differentiability at an endpoint.

√ √
Consider f (x) = x = x1/2 and g(x) = x3 = x3/2 . The domain of
each function is [0, ∞). It can be shown that each is differentiable on
(0, ∞); determine the differentiability of each at x = 0.
Solution. We start by considering f and take the right-hand limit of the
difference quotient:
√ √
f (a + h) − f (a) 0+h− 0
lim = lim
h→0+ h h→0+ h
√
h
= lim+
h→0 h
1
= lim+ 1/2 = ∞.
h→0 h

The one-sided limit of the difference quotient does not exist at x = 0

for f ; therefore f is differentiable on (0, ∞) and not differentiable on
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 75

[0, ∞). √

We state (without proof) that f ′ (x) = 1/ 2 x . Note that limx→0+ f ′ (x) =
∞; this limit was easier to evaluate than the limit of the difference quo-
tient, though it required us to already know the derivative of f .
Now consider g:
p √
g(a + h) − g(a) (0 + h)3 − 0
lim = lim+
h→0+ h h→0 h
h3/2 y
= lim+
h→0 h 1
= lim+ h1/2 = 0.
h→0
y = x1/2
As the one-sided limit exists at x = 0, we conclude g is differentiable
0.5
on its domain of [0, ∞). √
We state (without proof) that g ′ (x) = 3 x/2. Note that limx→0+ g ′ (x) = y = x3/2
0; again, this limit is easier to evaluate than the limit of the difference
quotient. x
−0.2
√ The two functions are graphed in Figure 2.1.35. Note how f (x) =
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
x seems to “go vertical” as x approaches 0, implying the slopes of its
tangent lines are growing toward
√ infinity. Also note how the slopes of Figure 2.1.35 A graph of y = x1/2 and
the tangent lines to g(x) = x3 approach 0 as x approaches 0. y = x3/2 in Example 2.1.34

Most calculus textbooks omit this topic and simply avoid specific cases where
it could be applied. We choose in this text to not make use of the topic unless
it is “needed.” Many theorems in later sections require a function f to be differ-
entiable on an open interval I; we could remove the word “open” and just use
“. . . on an interval I,” but choose to not do so in keeping with the current math-
ematical tradition. Our first use of differentiability on closed intervals comes in
Chapter 7, where we measure the lengths of curves.
This section defined the derivative; in some sense, it answers the question of
“What is the derivative?” The next section addresses the question “What does
the derivative mean?”
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 76

2.1.3 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) Let f be a position function. The average rate of change on [a, b] is the slope of the line
through the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).
2. (□ True □ False) The definition of the derivative of a function at a point involves taking a limit.
3. In your own words, explain the difference between the average rate of change and instantaneous rate of change.
4. In your own words, explain the difference between Definitions 2.1.7 and Definition 2.1.19.
5. Let y = f (x). Give three different notations equivalent to “f ′ (x).”
6. If two lines are perpendicular, what is true of their slopes?

Problems

Exercise Group. Use the definition of the derivative to compute the derivative of the given function.
7. f (x) = 6 8. f (x) = 2x
Show your work. Show your work.
9. f (t) = 4 − 3t 10. g(x) = x2
Show your work. Show your work.
11. h(x) = x 3
12. f (x) = 3x2 − x + 4
Show your work. Show your work.
13. r(x) = x1 14. 1
r(s) = s−2
Show your work. Show your work.

Exercise Group. A function and an x-value are given. (Note: these functions are the same as those given in Exer-
cises 2.1.7 through Exercise 2.1.14.) Give the equations of the tangent line and the normal line at that x-value.
15. f (x) = 6 at x = −2 16. f (x) = 2x at x = 3
17. f (x) = 4 − 3x at x = 7 18. g(x) = x2 at x = 2
19. h(x) = x3 at x = 4 20. f (x) = 3x2 − x + 4 at x = −1
21. r(x) = 1
x at x = −2 22. r(x) = 1
x−2 at x = 3

Exercise Group. A function f and an x-value a are given. Approximate the equation of the tangent line to the graph
of f at x = a by numerically approximating f ′ (a), using h = 0.1.
23. f (x) = x2 − 2x + 5 and a = −2 24. f (x) = − x+8
10
and a = 4
25. f (x) = ex and a = −4 26. f (x) = cos(x) and a = 0

27. The graph of f (x) = x2 − 1 is shown.

CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 77

y
3

x
−2 −1 1 2

−1

(a) Use the graph to approximate the slope of the tangent line to f at (−1, 0), (0, −1), and (2, 3).

(b) Using the definition of the derivative, find f ′ (x).

Show your work.
(c) Use the derivative to find the slope of the tangent line at the points (−1, 0), (0, −1) and (2, 3).
1
28. The graph of f (x) = x+1 is shown.
y
5

x
−1 1 2 3

(a) Use the graph to approximate the slope of the tangent line to f at (0, 1) and (1, 0.5).
(b) Using the definition of the derivative, find f ′ (x).
Show your work.
(c) Use the derivative to find the slope of the tangent line at the points (0, 1) and (1, 0.5).

Exercise Group. A graph of a function f (x) is given. Using the graph, sketch f ′ (x).
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 78

29. 30.
y y
3

2
2

1 x
−6 −4 −2 2
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2
−1

31. 32.
y 1 y
4

0.5
2

x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −2π −π π 2π
−2
−0.5
−4
−1

Exercise Group. Use the graph of the function to answer the following questions.

(a) Where is g(x) > 0? (d) Where is g ′ (x) < 0?

(b) Where is g(x) < 0? (e) Where is g ′ (x) > 0?

(c) Where is g(x) = 0? (f) Where is g ′ (x) = 0?

33. 34.
y 6 y
4
4
2

x 2
−2 −1 1 2
−2 x
−2 −1 1 2
−4
−2

Exercise Group. A function f (x) is given, along with its domain and derivative. Determine if f (x) is differentiable
on its domain.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 79

p 3/2
35. f (x) = x5 (1 − x), domain is [0, 1], f ′ (x) = (5−6x)x
√
2 1−x
(□ yes □ no)
√
√ sin( x)
36. f (x) = cos ( x) , domain is [0, ∞), f ′ (x) = − 2√x
(□ yes □ no)
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 80

2.2 Interpretations of the Derivative

Section 2.1 defined the derivative of a function and gave examples of how to
compute it using its definition (i.e., using limits). The section also started with a
brief motivation for this definition, that is, finding the instantaneous velocity of a
falling object given its position function. Section 2.3 will give us more accessible
tools for computing the derivative; tools that are easier to use than repeated
use of limits.
This section falls in between the “What is the definition of the derivative?”
and “How do I compute the derivative?” sections. Here we are concerned with
“What does the derivative mean?”, or perhaps, when read with the right em-
phasis, “What is the derivative?” We offer two interconnected interpretations
of the derivative, hopefully explaining why we care about it and why it is worthy
of study.

2.2.1 Interpretation of the Derivative as Instantaneous Rate of

Change
Section 2.1 started with an example of using the position of an object (in this
case, a falling amusement park rider) to find the object’s velocity. This type of
example is often used when introducing the derivative because we tend to read-
ily recognize that velocity is the instantaneous rate of change in position. In
general, if f is a function of x, then f ′ (x) measures the instantaneous rate of
change of f with respect to x. Put another way, the derivative answers “When
x changes, at what rate does f change?” Thinking back to the amusement park
ride, we asked “When time changed, at what rate did the height change?” and
found the answer to be “By −64 feet per second.”
Now imagine driving a car and looking at the speedometer, which reads
“60 mph.” Five minutes later, you wonder how far you have traveled. Certainly,
lots of things could have happened in those 5 minutes; you could have intention-
ally sped up significantly, you might have come to a complete stop, you might
have slowed to 20 mph as you passed through construction. But suppose that
you know, as the driver, none of these things happened. You know you main-
tained a fairly consistent speed over those 5 minutes. What is a good approxi-
mation of the distance traveled?
One could argue the only good approximation, given the information pro-
vided, would be based on “distance = rate × time.” In this case, we assume a
constant rate of 60 mph with a time of 5 minutes or 5/60 of an hour. Hence we
would approximate the distance traveled as 5 miles.
Referring back to the falling amusement park ride, knowing that at t =
2 the velocity was −64 ft/s, we could reasonably approximate that 1 second
later the riders’ height would have dropped by about 64 feet. Knowing that
the riders were accelerating as they fell would inform us that this is an under-
approximation. If all we knew was that f (2) = 86 and f ′ (2) = −64, we’d know
that we’d have to stop the riders quickly otherwise they would hit the ground.
In both of these cases, we are using the instantaneous rate of change to
predict future values of the output.

2.2.2 Units of the Derivative

It is useful to recognize the units of the derivative function. If y is a function of x,
i.e., y = f (x) for some function f , and y is measured in feet and x in seconds,
then the units of y ′ = f ′ are “feet per second,” commonly written as “ft/s.” In
general, if y is measured in units P and x is measured in units Q, then y ′ will be
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 81

measured in units “P per Q”, or “P /Q.” Here we see the fraction-like behavior
dy units of y
of the derivative in the notation: the units of dx are units of x .

Example 2.2.1 The meaning of the derivative: World Population.

Let P (t) represent the world population t minutes after 12:00 a.m., Jan-
uary 1, 2012. It is fairly accurate to say that P (0) = 7,028,734,178
([Link]). It is also fairly accurate to state that P ′ (0) = 156; that is,
at midnight on January 1, 2012, the population of the world was growing
by about 156 people per minute (note the units). Twenty days later (or
28,800 minutes later) we could reasonably assume the population grew
by about 28,800 · 156 = 4,492,800 people.

Example 2.2.2 The meaning of the derivative: Manufacturing.

The term widget is an economic term for a generic unit of manufactur-

ing output. Suppose a company produces widgets and knows that the
market supports a price of $10 per widget. Let P (n) give the profit, in
dollars, earned by manufacturing and selling n widgets. The company
likely cannot make a (positive) profit making just one widget; the start-
up costs will likely exceed $10. Mathematically, we would write this as
P (1) < 0.
What do P (1000) = 500 and P ′ (1000) = 0.25 mean? Approximate
P (1100).
Solution. The equation P (1000) = 500 means that selling 1000 wid-
gets returns a profit of $500. We interpret P ′ (1000) = 0.25 as meaning
that when we are selling 1000 widgets, the profit is increasing at rate of
$0.25 per widget (the units are “dollars per widget.”) Since we have no
other information to use, our best approximation for P (1100) is:

P (1100) ≈ P (1000) + P ′ (1000) × 100

= $500 + (100 widgets ) · $0.25/widget
= $525.

We approximate that selling 1100 widgets returns a profit of $525.

The previous examples made use of an important approximation tool that

we first used in our previous “driving a car at 60 mph” example at the begin-
ning of this section. Five minutes after looking at the speedometer, our best
approximation for distance traveled assumed the rate of change was constant.
In Examples 2.2.1 and Example 2.2.2 we made similar approximations. We were
given rate of change information which we used to approximate total change.
Notationally, we would say that

f (c + h) ≈ f (c) + f ′ (c) · h.

This approximation is best when h is “small.” “Small” is a relative term; when

dealing with the world population, h = 22 days = 28,800 minutes is small in
comparison to years. When manufacturing widgets, 100 widgets is small when
one plans to manufacture thousands.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 82

2.2.3 The Derivative and Motion

One of the most fundamental applications of the derivative is the study of mo-
tion. Let s(t) be a position function, where t is time and s(t) is distance. For
instance, s could measure the height of a projectile or the distance an object Convention with s. Using s(t)
has traveled. to represent position is a fairly
Let s(t) measure the distance traveled, in feet, of an object after t seconds common mathematical conven-
of travel. Then s′ (t) has units “feet per second,” and s′ (t) measures the instan- tion. It is also common to use s
taneous rate of distance change with respect to time — it measures velocity. to represent arc length.
Now consider v(t), a velocity function. That is, at time t, v(t) gives the ve-
locity of an object. The derivative of v, v ′ (t), gives the instantaneous rate of
velocity change with respect to time — acceleration. (We often think of accel-
eration in terms of cars: a car may “go from 0 to 60 in 4.8 seconds.” This is an
average acceleration, a measurement of how quickly the velocity changed.) If
velocity is measured in feet per second, and time is measured in seconds, then
the units of acceleration (i.e., the units of v ′ (t)) are “feet per second per sec-
ond,” or (ft/s)/s. We often shorten this to “feet per second squared,” or sft2 , but
this tends to obscure the meaning of the units.
Perhaps the most well known acceleration is that of gravity. In this text, we
use g = 32 ft/s2 or g = 9.8 m/s2 . What do these numbers mean?
A constant acceleration of 32 ft/s
s means that the velocity changes by 32 ft/s
each second. For instance, let v(t) measure the velocity of a ball thrown straight
up into the air, where v has units ft/s and t is measured in seconds. The ball will
have a positive velocity while traveling upwards and a negative velocity while
falling down. The acceleration is thus −32 ft/s2 . If v(1) = 20 ft/s, then 1 second
later, the velocity will have decreased by 32 ft/s; that is, v(2) = −12 ft/s. We can
continue: v(3) = −44 ft/s. Working backward, we can also figure that v(0) =
52 ft/s.
These ideas are so important we write them out as a Key Idea.

Key Idea 2.2.3 The Derivative and Motion.

1. Let s(t) be the position function of an object. Then s′ (t) = v(t) is

the velocity function of the object.
2. Let v(t) be the velocity function of an object. Then v ′ (t) = a(t) is
the acceleration function of the object.

2.2.4 Interpretation of the Derivative as the Slope of the Tangent

Line
We now consider the second interpretation of the derivative given in this section.
This interpretation is not independent from the first by any means; many of the
same concepts will be stressed, just from a slightly different perspective.
Given a function y = f (x), the difference quotient f (c+h)−f h
(c)
gives a
change in y values divided by a change in x values; i.e., it is a measure of the
“rise over run,” or “slope,” of the secant line that goes through two points on
the graph of f : (c, f (c)) and (c + h, f (c + h)). As h shrinks to 0, these two
points come close together; in the limit we find f ′ (c), the slope of a special line
called the tangent line that intersects f only once near x = c.
Lines have a constant rate of change, their slope. Nonlinear functions do not
have a constant rate of change, but we can measure their instantaneous rate of
change at a given x value c by computing f ′ (c). We can get an idea of how f
 y
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 83 15

is behaving by looking at the slopes of its tangent lines. We explore this idea in
10
the following example.

Example 2.2.4 Understanding the derivative: the rate of change.

5
2
Consider f (x) = x as shown in Figure 2.2.5. It is clear that at x = 3
the function is growing faster than at x = 1, as it is steeper at x = 3. x
How much faster is it growing at 3 compared to 1? −1 1 2 3 4
Solution. We can answer this exactly (and quickly) after Section 2.3,
where we learn to quickly compute derivatives. For now, we will answer Figure 2.2.5 A graph of f (x) = x2
graphically, by considering the slopes of the respective tangent lines.
With practice, one can fairly effectively sketch tangent lines to a curve
at a particular point. In Figure 2.2.6, we have sketched the tangent lines y
15
to f at x = 1 and x = 3, along with a grid to help us measure the slopes
of these lines. At x = 1, the slope is 2; at x = 3, the slope is 6. Thus we
can say not only is f growing faster at x = 3 than at x = 1, it is growing
10
three times as fast.

5
Example 2.2.7 Understanding the graph of the derivative.

Consider the graph of f (x) and its derivative, f ′ (x), in Figure 2.2.8. Use x
these graphs to find the slopes of the tangent lines to the graph of f at −1 1 2 3 4
x = 1, x = 2, and x = 3.
Figure 2.2.6 A graph of f (x) = x2
Solution. To find the appropriate slopes of tangent lines to the graph
and tangent lines at x = 1 and x = 3
of f , we need to look at the corresponding values of f ′ .
• The slope of the tangent line to f at x = 1 is f ′ (1); this looks to
be about −1. 5
y f (x)

• The slope of the tangent line to f at x = 2 is f ′ (2); this looks to

f ′ (x)
be about 4. x
′ 1 2 3
• The slope of the tangent line to f at x = 3 is f (3); this looks to
be about 3.
−5
Using these slopes, tangent line segments to f are sketched in Fig-
ure 2.2.9. Included on the graph of f ′ in this figure are points where
x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3 to help better visualize the y value of f ′ at
those points. Figure 2.2.8 Graphs of f and f ′ in Ex-
ample 2.2.7
Example 2.2.10 Approximation with the derivative.

Consider again the graph of f (x) and its derivative f ′ (x) in Example 2.2.7. f (x)
y
Use the tangent line to f at x = 3 to approximate the value of f (3.1). 5

Solution. Figure 2.2.11 shows the graph of f along with its tangent line,
f ′ (x)
zoomed in at x = 3. Notice that near x = 3, the tangent line makes an x
excellent approximation of f . Since lines are easy to deal with, often 1 2 3
it works well to approximate a function with its tangent line. (This is
especially true when you don’t actually know much about the function
at hand, as we don’t in this example.) −5
While the tangent line to f was drawn in Example 2.2.7, it was not
explicitly computed. Recall that the tangent line to f at x = c is y =
f ′ (c)(x − c) + f (c). While f is not explicitly given, by the graph it looks
Figure 2.2.9 Graphs of f and f ′ in Ex-
ample 2.2.7
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 84

like f (3) = 4. Recalling that f ′ (3) = 3, we can compute the tangent

line to be approximately y = 3(x − 3) + 4. It is often useful to leave the
tangent line in point-slope form.
To use the tangent line to approximate f (3.1), we simply evaluate y
at 3.1 instead of f . y

f (3.1) ≈ y(3.1) f (x)

= 3(3.1 − 3) + 4 4

= 0.1 · 3 + 4
= 4.3. 3

We approximate f (3.1) ≈ 4.3.

2 x
To demonstrate the accuracy of the tangent line approximation, we now 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3
state that in Example 2.2.10, f (x) = −x3 + 7x2 − 12x + 4. We can evalu-
ate f (3.1) = 4.279. Had we known f all along, certainly we could have just Figure 2.2.11 Zooming in on f and its
made this computation. In reality, we often only know two things: tangent line at x = 3 for the func-
tion given in Examples 2.2.7 and Ex-
1. what f (c) is, for some value of c, and ample 2.2.10
2. what f ′ (c) is.

For instance, we can easily observe the location of an object and its instan-
taneous velocity at a particular point in time. We do not have a “function f ”
for the location, just an observation. This is enough to create an approximating
function for f .
This last example has a direct connection to our approximation method ex-
plained above after Example 2.2.2. We stated there that

f (c + h) ≈ f (c) + f ′ (c) · h.

If we know f (c) and f ′ (c) for some value x = c, then computing the tangent
line at (c, f (c)) is easy: y(x) = f ′ (c)(x − c) + f (c). In Example 2.2.10, we used
the tangent line to approximate a value of f . Let’s use the tangent line at x = c
to approximate a value of f near x = c; i.e., compute y(c + h) to approximate
f (c + h), assuming again that h is “small.” Note:

y(c + h) = f ′ (c) ((c + h) − c) + f (c)

= f ′ (c) · h + f (c).

This is the exact same approximation method used above! Not only does
it make intuitive sense, as explained above, it makes analytical sense, as this
approximation method is simply using a tangent line to approximate a function’s
value.
The importance of understanding the derivative cannot be understated. When
f is a function of x, f ′ (x) measures the instantaneous rate of change of f with
respect to x and gives the slope of the tangent line to f at x.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 85

2.2.5 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. What is the instantaneous rate of change of position called?

2. Given a function y = f (x), in your own words describe how to find the units of f ′ (x).
3. What functions have a constant rate of change?

Problems

4. Given f (4) = 18 and f ′ (4) = 2, approximate f (5).

5. Given P (100) = −19 and P ′ (100) = −7, approximate P (110).
6. Given z(60) = 106 and z ′ (60) = 3, approximate z(55).
7. Knowing f (10) = 25 and f ′ (10) = 5 and the methods described in this section, which approximation is likely
to be most accurate? (□ f(10.1) □ f(11) □ f(20))
Explain your reasoning.
8. Given f (8) = 43 and f (9) = 41, approximate f ′ (8).
9. Given H(5) = 12 and H(8) = 33, approximate H ′ (5).
10. Let V (x) measure the volume, in decibels, measured inside a restaurant with x customers. What are the units
of V ′ (x)?
11. Let v(t) measure the velocity, in ft/s, of a car moving in a straight line t seconds after starting. What are the
units of v ′ (t)?
12. The height H, in feet, of a river is recorded t hours after midnight, April 1. What are the units of H ′ (t)?
13. P is the profit, in thousands of dollars, of producing and selling c cars.
(a) What are the units of P ′ (c)?
(b) What is likely true of P (0)?
14. T is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, h hours after midnight on July 4 in Sidney, NE.
(a) What are the units of T ′ (h)?

(b) Is T ′ (8) likely greater than or less than 0? Why?

(c) Is T (8) likely greater than or less than 0? Why?

Exercise Group. Graphs of functions f and g are given. Identify which function is the derivative of the other.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 86

15. 16.
y y
f (x) f (x)
4 5
g(x) g(x)

x x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−4 −2 2 4

−2
−5
−4

• f is the derivative of g.
• f is the derivative of g.
• g is the derivative of f .
• g is the derivative of f .
17. 18.
y 2 y
f (x)
f (x)
4 g(x) g(x)
1
2

x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4

−2
−1

−4
−2

• f is the derivative of g. • f is the derivative of g.

• g is the derivative of f . • g is the derivative of f .
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 87

2.3 Basic Differentiation Rules

The derivative is a powerful tool but is admittedly awkward given its reliance on
limits. Fortunately, one thing mathematicians are good at is abstraction. For
instance, instead of continually finding derivatives at a point, we abstracted and
found the derivative function.
Let’s practice abstraction on linear functions, y = mx + b. What is y ′ ? With-
out limits, recognize that linear functions are characterized by being functions
with a constant rate of change (the slope). The derivative, y ′ , gives the instanta-
neous rate of change; with a linear function, this is constant, m. Thus y ′ = m.
Let’s abstract once more. Let’s find the derivative of the general quadratic
function, f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Using the definition of the derivative, we have:
a(x + h)2 + b(x + h) + c − (ax2 + bx + c)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
ax2 + 2ahx + ah2 + bx + bh + c − ax2 − bx − c)
= lim
h→0 h
ah2 + 2ahx + bh
= lim
h→0 h
= lim ah + 2ax + b
h→0
= 2ax + b.

So if y = 6x2 + 11x − 13, we can immediately compute y ′ = 12x + 11.

In this section (and in some sections to follow) we will learn some of what
mathematicians have already discovered about the derivatives of certain func-
tions and how derivatives interact with arithmetic operations. We start with a
theorem.

Theorem 2.3.1 Derivatives of Common Functions.

Constant Rule d
= 0, where c is a constant.
dx (c)
Power Rule d n
= nxn−1 , where n is an integer, n >
dx (x )
0.
Other common d
dx (sin(x)) = cos(x)
functions
dx (cos(x)) = − sin(x)
d
d x x
dx (e ) = e
d 1
dx (ln(x)) = x , for x > 0.

This theorem starts by stating an intuitive fact: constant functions have zero
rate of change as they are constant. Therefore their derivative is 0 (they change
at the rate of 0). The theorem then states some fairly amazing things. The Power
Rule states that the derivatives of Power Functions (of the form y = xn ) are very [Link]/watch?v=wPJ8-zKc1n0
straightforward: multiply by the power, then subtract 1 from the power. We see Figure 2.3.2 Video explanation of The-
something incredible about the function y = ex : it is its own derivative. We orem 2.3.1
also see a new connection between the sine and cosine functions.
One special case of the Power Rule is when n = 1, i.e., when f (x) = x.
What is f ′ (x)? According to the Power Rule,
d d 1

f ′ (x) = (x) = x = 1 · x0 = 1.
dx dx
In words, we are asking “At what rate does f change with respect to x?”
Since f is x, we are asking “At what rate does x change with respect to x?”
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 88

The answer is: 1. They change at the same rate. We can also interpret the
derivative as the slope of the tangent line to the function at a point (c, f (c)).
Since f (x) = x is a linear function with constant slope 1, we can say that the
derivative of f (x) = x is f ′ (x) = 1.
Theorem 2.3.1 states that the natural exponential function has a remarkable
propery: it is equal to its own derivative! The video in Figure 2.3.3 explains why
this is the case.
Let’s practice using this theorem.

Example 2.3.4 Using common derivative rules to find, and use, deriva-
tives. [Link]/watch?v=ipKTEdQFBjw

Let f (x) = x3 . Figure 2.3.3 Determining the deriva-

tive of f (x) = ex
1. Find f ′ (x).
2. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at x = −1.
Video Solution
3. Use the tangent line to approximate (−1.1)3 .
4. Sketch f , f ′ and the tangent line from Item 2 on the same axis.

Solution.
1. The Power Rule states that if f (x) = x3 , then f ′ (x) = 3x2 .
2. To find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at x =
−1, we need a point and the slope. The point is (−1, f (−1)) =
(−1, −1). The slope is f ′ (−1) = 3. Thus the tangent line has [Link]/watch?v=lyAEJSmSr-A
equation y = 3(x − (−1)) + (−1) = 3x + 2.
3. We can use the tangent line to approximate (−1.1)3 since −1.1 is
close to −1. We have ℓ(x)
y
f ′ (x)
(−1.1)3 ≈ 3(−1.1) + 2 = −1.3. 4
f (x)
We can easily find the actual value: (−1.1)3 = −1.331. 2

4. See Figure 2.3.5. x

−2 −1 1 2

Theorem 2.3.1 gives useful information, but we will need much more. For −2

instance, using the theorem, we can easily find the derivative of y = x3 , but it
does not tell how to compute the derivative of y = 2x3 , y = x3 + sin(x) nor −4

y = x3 sin(x). The following theorem helps with the first two of these examples
(the third is answered in the next section). Figure 2.3.5 A graph of f (x) = x3 ,
along with its derivative f ′ (x) = 3x2
and its tangent line at x = −1
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 89

Theorem 2.3.6 Properties of the Derivative.

Let f and g be differentiable on an open interval I and let c be a real
number. Then:

Sum/Difference Rule
d d d
(f (x) ± g(x)) = (f (x)) ± (g(x))
dx dx dx
= f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x)

Constant Multiple
Rule d d
(c · f (x)) = c · (f (x))
dx dx
′
= c · f (x).
[Link]/watch?v=Hr0sQcVhQ9A
Figure 2.3.7 Video presentation of The-
orem 2.3.6

While we will be mainly focused on using these rules, it can also be interest-
ing to see where they come from. Fortunately, it is not too difficult to establish
these rules using the definition of the derivative. The video in Figure 2.3.8 shows
why the sum rule is true.
Theorem 2.3.6 allows us to find the derivatives of a wide variety of functions.
It can be used in conjunction with the Power Rule to find the derivatives of any
polynomial. Recall in Example 2.1.22 that we found, using the limit definition,
the derivative of f (x) = 3x2 + 5x − 7. We can now find its derivative without
expressly using limits:
d
d 2
d d
3x2 + 5x − 7 = 3 x + 5 (x) − (7)
dx dx dx dx
= 3 · 2x + 5 · 1 − 0 [Link]/watch?v=nVVpyilxZTw
= 6x + 5.
Figure 2.3.8 Proving the sum rule
We were a bit pedantic here, showing every step. Normally we would
do
d
all the arithmetic and steps in our head and readily find dx 3x2 + 5x + 7 =
6x + 5.

Example 2.3.9 Using the tangent line to approximate a function value.

Let f (x) = sin(x) + 2x + 1. Approximate f (3) using an appropriate Video Solution

tangent line.
Solution. This problem is intentionally ambiguous; we are to approxi-
mate using an appropriate tangent line. How good of an approximation
are we seeking? What does “appropriate” mean?
In the “real world,” people solving problems deal with these issues
all time. One must make a judgment using whatever seems reasonable.
In this example, the actual answer is f (3) = sin(3) + 7, where the real
problem spot is sin(3). What is sin(3)?
Since 3 is close to π, we can assume sin(3) ≈ sin(π) = 0. Thus [Link]/watch?v=a0hsWtT74jM
one guess is f (3) ≈ 7. Can we do better? Let’s use a tangent line as
instructed and examine the results; it seems best to find the tangent
line at x = π.
Using Theorem 2.3.1 we find f ′ (x) = cos(x) + 2. The slope of the
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 90

tangent line is thus f ′ (π) = cos(π)+2 = 1. Also, f (π) = 2π+1 ≈ 7.28.

So the tangent line to the graph of f at x = π is y = 1(x−π)+2π +1 =
x + π + 1 ≈ x + 4.14. Evaluated at x = 3, our tangent line gives
y = 3 + 4.14 = 7.14. Using the tangent line, our final approximation is
that f (3) ≈ 7.14.
Using a calculator, we get an answer accurate to four places after
the decimal: f (3) = 7.1411. Our initial guess was 7; our tangent line
approximation was more accurate, at 7.14.
The point is not “Here’s a cool way to do some math without a cal-
culator.” Sure, that might be handy sometime, but your phone could
probably give you the answer. Rather, the point is to say that tangent
lines are a good way of approximating, and many scientists, engineers
and mathematicians often face problems too hard to solve directly. So
they approximate.
The graphs in Figure 2.3.10 shows the graph of the function f (x)
along with the tangent line constructed at x = π. The graph in Fig-
ure 2.3.10 shows the same tangent line and function. Once zoomed in,
you can barely distinguish the tangent line from the function. This indi-
cates that the tangent line is a good a approximation of the function so
long as we are near the point of tangency.
10 y 7.4 y

8
7.2
6
l(x)
4 7

2
f (x) 6.8
x
x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4

Figure 2.3.10 A graph of f (x) = Figure 2.3.11 A graph of f (x) =

sin(x) + 2x + 1 along with its tan- sin(x) + 2x + 1 along with its tan-
gent line approximation at x = π gent line approximation at x = π,
zoomed in

2.3.1 Higher Order Derivatives

The derivative of a function f is itself a function, therefore we can take its
Note: The second derivative no-
derivative. The following definition gives a name to this concept and introduces
tation could be written as
its notation.
d2 y d2 y d2

Definition 2.3.12 Higher Order Derivatives. 2
= 2
= 2
y .
dx (dx) (dx)
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function on I. The following are defined,
That is, we take the deriva-
provided the corresponding limits exist.
tive of y twice (hence d2 ), both
1. The second derivative of f is: times with respect to x (hence
  (dx)2 = dx2 ).
d ′ d dy d2 y
f ′′ (x) = (f (x)) = = 2 = y ′′ .
dx dx dx dx
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 91

2. The third derivative of f is: Higher Order Derivative Caveat.

  Definition 2.3.12 comes with the
′′′ d ′′ d d2 y d3 y caveat “Where the correspond-
f (x) = (f (x)) = = = y ′′′ .
dx dx dx2 dx3 ing limits exist.” With f differen-
tiable on I, it is possible that f ′
3. The nth derivative of f is: is not differentiable on all of I,
  and so on.
d  (n−1)  d dn−1 y dn y
f (n) (x) = f (x) = n−1
= n = y (n) .
dx dx dx dx

In general, when finding the fourth derivative and on, we resort to the f (4) (x)
notation, not f ′′′′ (x); after a while, too many ticks is confusing.
Let’s practice using this new concept.

Example 2.3.14 Finding higher order derivatives.

Find the first four derivatives of the following functions:

1. f (x) = 4x2 2. f (x) = sin(x) 3. f (x) = 5ex [Link]/watch?v=usabSpUh65w

Figure 2.3.13 Video explanation of De-
Solution. finition 2.3.12
1. Using the Power and Constant Multiple Rules, we have: f ′ (x) =
8x. Continuing on, we have
d
f ′′ (x) = (8x) = 8 f ′′′ (x) = 0 f (4) (x) = 0.
dx
Notice how all successive derivatives will also be 0.

2. We employ Theorem 2.3.1 repeatedly.

Video Solution
f ′ (x) = cos(x) f ′′′ (x) = − cos(x)
f ′′ (x) = − sin(x) f (4) (x) = sin(x)

Note how we have come right back to f (x) again. (Can you quickly
figure what f (23) (x) is?)
3. Employing Theorem 2.3.1 and the Constant Multiple Rule, we can
see that

f ′ (x) = f ′′ (x) = f ′′′ (x) = f (4) (x) = 5ex . [Link]/watch?v=nF2-IrvHmqc

2.3.2 Interpreting Higher Order Derivatives

What do higher order derivatives mean? What is the practical interpretation?
Our first answer is a bit wordy, but is technically correct and beneficial to
understand. That is,

The second derivative of a function f is the rate of change of the

rate of change of f .
One way to grasp this concept is to let f describe a position function. Then,
as stated in Key Idea 2.2.3, f ′ describes the rate of position change: velocity.
We now consider f ′′ , which describes the rate of velocity change. Sports car
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 92

enthusiasts talk of how fast a car can go from 0 to 60 mph; they are bragging
about the acceleration of the car.
We started this chapter with amusement park riders free-falling with posi-
tion function f (t) = −16t2 + 150. It is easy to compute f ′ (t) = −32t ft/s and
f ′′ (t) = −32 (ft/s)/s. We may recognize this latter constant; it is the accelera-
tion due to gravity. In keeping with the unit notation introduced in the previous
section, we say the units are “feet per second per second.” This is usually short-
ened to “feet per second squared,” written as “ft/s2 .”
It can be difficult to consider the meaning of the third, and higher order,
derivatives. The third derivative is “the rate of change of the rate of change of
the rate of change of f .” That is essentially meaningless to the uninitiated. In
the context of our position/velocity/acceleration example, the third derivative
is the “rate of change of acceleration,” commonly referred to as “jerk.”
Make no mistake: higher order derivatives have great importance even if
their practical interpretations are hard (or “impossible”) to understand. The
mathematical topic of series makes extensive use of higher order derivatives.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 93

2.3.3 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

d n
1. What is the name of the rule which states that dx (x ) = nxn−1 , where n > 0 is an integer?
d
2. What is dx (ln(x))?

3. Give an example of a function f (x) where f ′ (x) = f (x).

4. Give an example of a function f (x) where f ′ (x) = 0.
5. The derivative rules introduced in Section 2.3 explain how to compute the derivative of which of the following
functions?
3
•
x2
• 3x2 − x + 17
2
• ex

• sin(x) cos(x)
√
• x
• 5 ln(x)
6. Explain in your own words how to find the third derivative of a function f (x).
7. Give an example of a function where f ′ (x) ̸= 0 and f ′′ (x) = 0.
8. Explain in your own words what the second derivative “means”.
9. If f (x) describes a position function, then f ′ (x) describes what kind of function? What kind of function is
f ′′ (x)?
10. Let f (x) be a function measured in pounds (lb), where x is measured in feet (ft). What are the units of f ′′ (x)?

Problems

Exercise Group. Compute the derivative of the given function.

11. f (x) = − 7x2 + 8x + 7 12. g(x) = 14x2 − 16x3 + 5x + 2


13. m(t) = 9t − 4t + 4 t − 6
5 1 3 14. f (θ) = − (3 sin(θ) + 19 cos(θ))
15. f (r) = 3e r
16. g(t) = 7t3 − 5 cos(t) − 2 sin(t)
17. f (x) = 6 ln(x) + 9x 18. p(s) = 14 s4 + 13 s3 + 12 s2 + s + 1


19. h(t) = − (et + sin(t) + cos(t)) 20. f (x) = ln 3x8

2
21. f (t) = ln(6) + e6 + sin π2 22. g(t) = (4 + 3t)
3 3
23. g(x) = (2x + 4) 24. f (x) = (3 + x)
2
25. f (x) = (7 + 2x)
logb (x)
26. A property of logarithms is that loga (x) = logb (a) , for all bases a, b > 0, ̸= 1.

(a) Rewrite this identity when b = e, i.e., using loge (x) = ln(x), with a = 10.
(b) Use part (a) to find the derivative of y = log10 (x).

(c) Find the derivative of y = loga (x) for any a > 0, ̸= 1.

Exercise Group. Compute the first four derivatives of the given function.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 94

27. f (x) = x9 28. g(x) = 8 cos(x)

29. h(t) = − 4t + 3t + e
2 t 30. p(θ) = θ2 + θ8
31. f (θ) = − (sin(θ) + cos(θ)) 32. f (x) = 692

Exercise Group. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the graph of the function at the given point.
33. f (x) = x3 + 8x at x = 2 34. f (t) = et − 2 at t = 0
35. g(x) = ln(x) at x = 1 36. f (x) = 4 sin(x) at x = π/6
37. f (x) = −2 cos(x) at x = π/6 38. f (x) = 9 − 9x at x = −9
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 95

2.4 The Product and Quotient Rules

Section 2.3 showed that, in some ways, derivatives behave nicely. The Constant
Multiple Rule and Sum/Difference Rule established that the derivative of f (x) =
5x2 + sin(x) was not complicated. We neglected computing the derivative of
5x2
things like g(x) = 5x2 sin(x) and h(x) = sin(x) on purpose; their derivatives are
not as straightforward. (If you had to guess what their respective derivatives are,
you would probably guess wrong.) For these, we need the Product and Quotient
Rules, respectively, which are defined in this section. We begin with the Product
Rule.

Theorem 2.4.2 Product Rule.

Let f and g be differentiable functions on an open interval I. Then f g
is a differentiable function on I, and [Link]/watch?v=1X3PTrkMsJ8
Figure 2.4.1 Video introduction to Sec-
d
(f (x)g(x)) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x). tion 2.4
dx

d
Warning 2.4.3 dx (f (x)g(x)) ̸= f ′ (x)g ′ (x)! While this would be simpler than
the Product Rule, it is wrong.
We practice using this new rule in an example, followed by an example that Video Solution
demonstrates why this theorem is true.

Example 2.4.4 Using the Product Rule.

Use the Product Rule to compute the derivative of y = 5x2 sin(x). Eval-
uate the derivative at x = π/2.
Solution. To make our use of the Product Rule explicit, let’s set f (x) =
5x2 and g(x) = sin(x). We easily compute/recall that f ′ (x) = 10x and
g ′ (x) = cos(x). Employing the rule, we have
[Link]/watch?v=37efDywkDyE
d
d
d
5x2 sin(x) = 5x2 sin(x) + 5x2 (sin(x))
dx dx dx
= 10x sin(x) + 5x2 cos(x).
20 y
At x = π/2, we have

π π  π 2 π 15
′
y (π/2) = 10 · sin +5 cos = 5π.
2 2 2 2
10
We graph y and its tangent line at x = π/2, which has a slope of 5π,
in Figure 2.4.5. While this does not prove that the Product Rule is the 5
correct way to handle derivatives of products, it helps validate its truth.
x
We now investigate why the Product Rule is true. π
2
π

Proof of Product Rule. We can use the definition of the derivative to prove The-
Figure 2.4.5 A graph of y = 5x2 sin(x)
orem 2.4.2.
and its tangent line at x = π/2
By the limit definition, we have

d f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
(f (x)g(x)) = lim .
dx h→0 h
We now do something a bit unexpected; add 0 to the numerator (so that
nothing is changed) in the form of − f (x)g(x + h) + f (x)g(x + h), then do
some regrouping as shown. Adding 0 in some clever form is
a common mathematical proof
technique.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 96

d f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
(f (x)g(x)) = lim
dx h→0 h
(now add 0 to the numerator)
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) + f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0 h
(regroup)
[f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h)] + [f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
(split fraction)
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
(factor) Proving the product rule.
   
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim g(x + h) + lim f (x)
h→0 h h→0 h
(apply limit properties)
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim · lim g(x + h) + f (x) · lim
h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
(apply limits)
= f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)
(by definition of the derivative). [Link]/watch?v=i791Y97O5hI

We have proven the product rule as desired. (In the last step, we also relied
on the fact that since g is differentiable, it is also continuous, which guarantees
that limh→0 g(x + h) = g(x).) ■
It is often true that we can recognize that a theorem is true through its proof
yet somehow doubt its applicability to real problems. In the following example,
we compute the derivative of a product of functions in two ways to verify that
the Product Rule is indeed “right.”

Example 2.4.6 Exploring alternate derivative methods.

Let y = (x2 + 3x + 1)(2x2 − 3x + 1). Find y ′ two ways: first, by

expanding the given product and then taking the derivative, and second,
by applying the Product Rule. Verify that both methods give the same Video Solution
answer.
Solution. We first expand the expression for y; a little algebra shows
that y = 2x4 + 3x3 − 6x2 + 1. It is easy to compute y ′ :

y ′ = 8x3 + 9x2 − 12x.

Instead, let’s apply the Product Rule to the original factored form:
d 2
d

y′ = x + 3x + 1 (2x2 − 3x + 1) + (x2 + 3x + 1) 2x2 − 3x + 1
dx dx [Link]/watch?v=-plvLFQ21Ig
= (2x + 3)(2x2 − 3x + 1) + (x2 + 3x + 1)(4x − 3)



= 4x3 − 7x + 3 + 4x3 + 9x2 − 5x − 3
= 8x3 + 9x2 − 12x.

The uninformed usually assume that “the derivative of the product

CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 97

is the product of the derivatives.” Thus we are tempted to say that y ′ =

(2x + 3)(4x − 3) = 8x2 + 6x − 9. Obviously this is not correct.

Example 2.4.7 Using the Product Rule with a product of three func-
tions.
Video Solution
Let y = x3 ln(x) cos(x). Find y ′ .
Solution. We have a product of three functions while the Product Rule
only specifies how to handle a product of two functions. Our method
of handling this problem is to simply group the latter two functions to-
gether, and consider y = x3 · [ln(x) cos(x)]. Following the Product Rule,
we have
d 3
d
y′ = x ln(x) cos(x) + (x3 ) (ln(x) cos(x))
dx dx
[Link]/watch?v=PYK64WB4JUg
d
To evaluate dx (ln(x) cos(x)),
we apply the Product Rule again:
 
1
y ′ = 3x2 [ln(x) cos(x)] + (x3 ) cos(x) + ln(x)(− sin(x))
x
1
= 3x2 ln(x) cos(x) + x3 cos(x) + x3 ln(x)(− sin(x)).
x
Recognize the pattern in our answer above: when applying the Prod-
uct Rule to a product of three functions, there are three terms added
together in the final derivative. Each term contains only one derivative
of one of the original functions, and each function’s derivative shows up
in only one term. It is straightforward to extend this pattern to finding
the derivative of a product of four or more functions.
Ultimately though, we would simplify our final computation to:

y ′ = 3x2 ln(x) cos(x) + x2 cos(x) + −x3 ln(x) sin(x)

If you check this answer with a cas, it may factor and give the answer:

y ′ = −x2 [x ln(x) sin(x) + cos(x) + 3 ln(x) cos(x)]

Now that we have the hang of the product rule pattern, it’s not much more
difficult to move on to products of four or more functions, as the video in Fig-
ure 2.4.8 demonstrates.
We consider one more example before discussing another derivative rule.

Example 2.4.9 Using the Product Rule.

[Link]/watch?v=QdQ14efmlMg
Find the derivatives of the following functions.
Figure 2.4.8 Taking the derivative of a
1. f (x) = x ln(x) product of four functions
2. g(x) = x ln(x) − x

Solution. Recalling that the derivative of ln(x) is 1/x, we use the Prod-
uct Rule to find our answers.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 98

1. Applying the Product Rule:

d
(x ln(x)) = 1 · ln(x) + x · 1/x
dx
= ln(x) + 1.

2. Using the result from above, we compute

d
(x ln(x) − x) = ln(x) + 1 − 1
dx
= ln(x).

This seems significant; if the natural log function ln(x) is an impor-

tant function (it is), it seems worthwhile to know a function whose de-
rivative is ln(x). We have found one. (We leave it to the reader to find
another; a correct answer will be very similar to this one.)

We have learned how to compute the derivatives of sums, differences, and

products of functions. We now learn how to find the derivative of a quotient of
functions.

Theorem 2.4.10 Quotient Rule.

Let f and g be differentiable functions defined on an open interval I,
where g(x) ̸= 0 on I. Then f /g is differentiable on I, and
 
d f (x) g(x)f ′ (x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
= .
dx g(x) g(x)2

The Quotient Rule is not hard to use, although it might be a bit tricky to re-
member. A useful mnemonic works as follows. Consider a fraction’s numerator
and denominator as “HI” and “LO”, respectively. Then
  [Link]/watch?v=IlsA8342GvQ
d HI LO · dHI − HI · dLO
= , Figure 2.4.11 Video presentation of The-
dx LO LOLO
orem 2.4.10
read “low dee high minus high dee low, over low low.” Said fast, that phrase can
roll off the tongue, making it easy to memorize. The “dee high” and “dee low”
parts refer to the derivatives of the numerator and denominator, respectively.
Let’s practice using the Quotient Rule.
Video Solution
Example 2.4.12 Using the Quotient Rule.

5x2
Let f (x) = sin(x) . Find f ′ (x).
Solution. Directly applying the Quotient Rule gives:
 

d 5x2 sin(x) · dx
d
5x2 − 5x2 · dxd
(sin(x))
= 2
dx sin(x) sin (x)
10x sin(x) − 5x2 cos(x)
= . [Link]/watch?v=Hr4bt6yFwPg
sin2 (x)

The Quotient Rule allows us to fill in holes in our understanding of derivatives

of the common trigonometric functions. We start with finding the derivative of
the tangent function.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 99
Video Solution
d
Example 2.4.13 Using the Quotient Rule to find dx (tan(x)).

Find the derivative of y = tan(x).

Solution. At first, one might feel unequipped to answer this question.
But recall that tan(x) = sin(x)/ cos(x), so we can apply the Quotient
Rule.
 
d d sin(x)
(tan(x)) =
dx dx cos(x) [Link]/watch?v=wslbADxDg4c
d
cos(x) dx (sin(x)) − sin(x) dx
d
(cos(x))
= 2
cos (x)
cos(x) cos(x) − sin(x)(− sin(x))
=
cos2 (x)
cos2 (x) + sin2 (x)
=
cos2 (x)
1
=
cos2 (x) 10 y
= sec2 (x).
5
This is a beautiful result. To confirm its truth, we can find the equa-
tion of the tangent line to y = tan(x) at x = π/4. The slope is sec2 (π/4) = x
2; y = tan(x), along with its tangent line, is graphed in Figure 2.4.14. − π2 − π4 π π
4 2

We include this result in the following theorem about the derivatives of the −5
trigonometric functions. Recall we found the derivative of y = sin(x) in Exam-
ple 2.1.24 and stated the derivative of the cosine function in Theorem 2.3.1. The −10
derivatives of the cotangent, cosecant and secant functions can all be computed
directly using Theorem 2.3.1 and the Quotient Rule. Figure 2.4.14 A graph of y = tan(x)
along with its tangent line at x = π/4
Theorem 2.4.15 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions.

d d
1. (sin(x)) = cos(x) 4. (cot(x)) = − csc2 (x)
dx dx
d d
2. (cos(x)) = − sin(x) 5. (sec(x)) = sec(x) tan(x)
dx dx
d d
3. (tan(x)) = sec2 (x) 6. (csc(x)) = − csc(x) cot(x)
dx dx
To remember the above, it may be helpful to keep in mind that the deriv-
atives of the trigonometric functions that start with “c” have a minus sign in
them.

Example 2.4.16 Exploring alternate derivative methods.

2
5x
In Example 2.4.12 the derivative of f (x) = sin(x) was found using the
Quotient Rule. Rewriting f as f (x) = 5x csc(x), find f ′ using Theo-
2

rem 2.4.15 and verify the two answers are the same.
10x sin(x)−5x2 cos(x)
Solution. We found in Example 2.4.12 that f ′ (x) = sin2 (x)
.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 100

We now find f ′ using the Product Rule, considering f as f (x) = 5x2 csc(x).

d

f ′ (x) = 5x2 csc(x)
dx
d d

= 5x2 (csc(x)) + 5x2 csc(x)
dx dx
= 5x2 (− csc(x) cot(x)) + 10x csc(x) (now rewrite trig functions)
−1 cos(x) 10x
= 5x2 · · +
sin(x) sin(x) sin(x)
−5x2 cos(x) 10x
= + (get common denominator)
sin2 (x) sin(x)
10x sin(x) − 5x2 cos(x)
= .
sin2 (x)

Finding f ′ using either method returned the same result. At first, the
answers looked different, but some algebra verified they are the same.
In general, there is not one final form that we seek; the immediate result
from the Product Rule is fine. Work to “simplify” your results into a form
that is most readable and useful to you.

The Quotient Rule gives other useful results, as shown in the next example.

Example 2.4.17 Using the Quotient Rule to expand the Power Rule.
Video Solution
Find the derivatives of the following functions.
1
1. f (x) =
x
1
2. f (x) = , where n > 0 is an integer.
xn
Solution. We employ the Quotient Rule.
1.
[Link]/watch?v=jPqqK-ObPm4
x·0−1·1
f ′ (x) =
x2
1
=− 2
x

2.
xn · 0 − 1 · nxn−1
f ′ (x) =
(xn )2
n−1
nx
= − 2n
x
n
= − n+1 .
x

The derivative of y = x1n turned out to be rather nice. It gets better. Con-
sider:
 
d 1 d −n

n
= x (apply result from Example 2.4.17)
dx x dx
n
= − n+1 (rewrite algebraically)
x
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 101

= −nx−(n+1)
= −nx−n−1 .

This is reminiscent of the Power Rule: multiply by the power, then subtract
1 from the power. We now add to our previous Power Rule, which had the re-
striction of n > 0.

Theorem 2.4.18 Power Rule with Integer Exponents.

Let f (x) = xn , where n ̸= 0 is an integer. Then

f ′ (x) = n · xn−1 .

Taking the derivative of many functions is relatively straightforward. It is

clear (with practice) what rules apply and in what order they should be applied.
Other functions present multiple paths; different rules may be applied depend-
ing on how the function is treated. One of the beautiful things about calculus
is that there is not “the” right way; each path, when applied correctly, leads to
the same result, the derivative. We demonstrate this concept in an example.

Example 2.4.19 Exploring alternate derivative methods.

x2 −3x+1
Let f (x) = x . Find f ′ (x) in each of the following ways:

1. By applying the Quotient Rule, Video Solution

−1
2. by viewing f as f (x) = x − 3x + 1 · x and applying the
2

Product Rule and Power Rule with Integer Exponents, and

3. by “simplifying” first through division.

Verify that all three methods give the same result.

Solution.
1. Applying the Quotient Rule gives:


d [Link]/watch?v=ESYjxNMNvh8
′ x· x2 − 3x + 1 − x2 − 3x + 1 dx
d
dx (x)
f (x) =
x2

x · (2x − 3) − x2 − 3x + 1 · 1
=
x2
x −1
2
=
x2
1
= 1 − 2.
x

2. By rewriting f , we can apply the Product Rule and Power Rule with
Integer Exponents as follows:

d −1
d 2

f ′ (x) = x2 − 3x + 1 x + x − 3x + 1 x−1

dx dx
= x2 − 3x + 1 · (−1)x−2 + (2x − 3) · x−1
x2 − 3x + 1 2x − 3
=− +
x2 x
x2 − 3x + 1 2x2 − 3x
=− +
x2 x2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 102

x2 − 1 1
= = 1 − 2,
x2 x
the same result as above.
3. As x ̸= 0, we can divide through by x first, giving f (x) = x − 3 +
x−1 . Now apply the Power Rule with Integer Exponents.
1
f ′ (x) = 1 − ,
x2
the same result as before.

Example 2.4.19 demonstrates three methods of finding f ′ . One is hard pressed

to argue for a “best method” as all three gave the same result without too much
difficulty, although it is clear that using the Product Rule required more steps.
Ultimately, the important principle to take away from this is: reduce the answer
to a form that seems “simple” and easy to interpret. In that example, we saw
different expressions for f ′ , including:
1
1−
x2

x · (2x − 3) − x2 − 3x + 1 · 1
2

x
x − 3x + 1 · (−1)x−2 + (2x − 3) · x−1 .
2

They are equal; they are all correct; only the first is “simple.” Work to make
answers simple.
In the next section we continue to learn rules that allow us to more easily
compute derivatives than using the limit definition directly. We have to memo-
rize the derivatives of a certain set of functions, such as “the derivative of sin(x)
is cos(x).” The Sum/Difference Rule, Constant Multiple Rule, Power Rule with
Integer Exponents, Product Rule and Quotient Rule show us how to find the de-
rivatives of certain combinations of these functions. The next section shows how
to find the derivatives when we compose these functions together.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 103

2.4.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) The Product Rule states that d
x2 sin(x) = 2x cos(x).
dx
 2 
cos(x)
2. (□ True □ False) The Quotient Rule states that dx
d x
sin(x) = 2x .

3. (□ True □ False) The derivatives of the trigonometric functions that start with “c” have minus signs in
them.
4. What derivative rule is used to extend the Power Rule to include negative integer exponents?
5. (□ True □ False) Regardless of the function, there is always exactly one right way of computing its deriv-
ative.
6. In your own words, explain what it means to make your answers “clear.”

Problems

Exercise Group.
(a) Use the Product Rule to differentiate the function.
(b) Manipulate the function algebraically and differentiate without using the Product Rule.

(c) Show that the two derivatives are equivalent.

7. f (x) = x x2 + 3x 8. f (x) = 2x2 · 5x3



9. f (s) = (2s − 1) (s + 4) 10. f (x) = x2 + 5 3 − x3

Exercise Group.

(a) Use the Quotient Rule to differentiate the function.

(b) Manipulate the function algebraically and differentiate without using the Quotient Rule.
(c) Show that the two derivatives are equivalent.
x2 +3 x3 −2x2
11. f (x) = x 12. f (x) = 2x2
13. f (x) = 3 t2 −1
4s3 14. f (x) = t+1

Exercise Group. Compute the derivative of the given function.

15. k(y) = y sin(y) 16. k(t) = t3 cos(t)
17. q
p(q) = e ln(q) 18. f (y) = 1
y 6 (csc(y) − 5)
t+8 q3
19. f (t) = t−4 20. g(q) = sin(q)−8q 2

21. h(y) = csc(y) − ey 22. h(t) = tan(t) ln(t)

23. j(q) = 7q − 6q − 6
2
24. k(y) = y 6 +9y 5
y+9


25. k(r) = 5r2 + 7r + 3 er z 9 +z 5
26. p(z) = ez


27. p(x) = 8x3 − 22x2 + 5x 3x−25
8x3 −22x2 +5x
28. f (r) = r (tan(r) + er )
5

csc(z) sec(θ)
29. g(z) = cos(z)+2 30. g(θ) = θ4 sec(θ) + θ4

31. h(r) = cot(r)

+ r 32. j(z) = e3 (cos(π/6) − 1)
r tan(r)

33. j(x) = 7x5 ex − sin(x) cos(x) 34. k(r) = r 2 sin(r)−7

r 2 cos(r)−9
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 104

35. p(z) = z 4 ln(z) cos(z) 36. p(x) = 9x cos(x) tan(x)

Exercise Group. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the graph of g at the indicated point.



37. g(x) = ex x2 − 7 at (0, −7) 38. g(x) = x cos(x) at 5π 5π
3 , 6
x2 sin(x)−2x
39. g(x) = x−(−4) at (−5, −25) 40. g(x) = x−8 at (0, 0)

Exercise Group. Find the x-values where the graph of the function has a horizontal tangent line.
41. f (x) = x2 − 17x − 29 42. f (x) = x sin(x) on [−1, 1]
2x 3x2
43. f (x) = −3x+3 44. f (x) = x−2

Exercise Group. Find the requested higher order derivative.

45. f ′′ (x), where f (x) = x sin(x) 46. f (4) (x), where f (x) = x sin(x)
47. f ′′ (x), where f (x) = csc(x) 48. f (9) (x), where


f (x) = x3 − 4x − 3 x2 − 9x − 2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 105

2.5 The Chain Rule

We have covered almost all of the derivative rules that deal with combinations of
two (or more) functions. The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
(including by a constant) and division led to the Sum/Difference Rule, the Con-
stant Multiple Rule, the Power Rule with Integer Exponents, the Product Rule
and the Quotient Rule. To complete the list of differentiation rules, we look at
the last way two (or more) functions can be combined: the process of composi-
tion (i.e. one function “inside” another).
One example of a composition of functions is f (x) = cos(x2 ). We currently
[Link]/watch?v=k7wX-kxd7Kw
do not know how to compute this derivative. If forced to guess, one might guess
f ′ (x) = − sin(2x), where we recognize − sin(x) as the derivative of cos(x) and Figure 2.5.1 Video introduction to Sec-
2x as the derivative of x2 . However, this is not the case; f
′ (x) ̸= − sin(2x). One tion 2.5
way to see this is to examine the graph of y = cos x2 in Figure 2.5.2 and its
tangent line at x = π/2. Clearly the slope of the tangent line there is nonzero,
but −2 sin(2 · π/2) = 0. So it can’t be correct to say that y ′ = − sin(2x).
In
Example 2.5.9 we’ll see the correct way to compute the derivative of
sin x2 , which employs the new rule this section introduces, the Chain Rule.
Before we define this new rule, recall the notation for composition of func-
tions. We write (f ◦g)(x) or f (g(x)), read as “f of g of x,” to denote composing
f with g. In shorthand, we simply write f ◦ g or f (g) and read it as “f of g.” Be- y

fore giving the corresponding differentiation rule, we note that the rule extends 1
to multiple compositions like f (g(h(x))) or f (g(h(j(x)))), etc.
To motivate the rule, let’s look at three derivatives we can already compute.
x
Example 2.5.3 Exploring similar derivatives. 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Find the derivatives of F1 (x) = (1 − x)2 , F2 (x) = (1 − x)3 , and

−1
F3 (x) = (1 − x)4 . (We’ll see later why we are using subscripts for dif-
ferent functions and an uppercase F .)
Solution. In order to use the rules we already have, we must first ex- Figure 2.5.2 A graph of y = cos(x2 )
pand each function as and a tangent line at π/2
F1 (x) = 1 − 2x + x2
F2 (x) = 1 − 3x + 3x2 − x3
F3 (x) = 1 − 4x + 6x2 − 4x3 + x4
It is not hard to see that:
F1′ (x) = −2 + 2x
F2′ (x) = −3 + 6x − 3x2
F3′ (x) = −4 + 12x − 12x2 + 4x3
An interesting fact is that these can be rewritten as:
F1′ (x) = −2(1 − x)
F2′ (x) = −3(1 − x)2
F3′ (x) = −4(1 − x)3
A pattern might jump out at you; note how the we end up multiplying
by the old power and the new power is reduced by 1. We also always
multiply by (−1).
Recognize that each of these functions is a composition, letting g(x) =
1 − x:
F1 (x) = f1 (g(x)), where f1 (x) = x2 ,
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 106

When composing functions, we

F2 (x) = f2 (g(x)), where f2 (x) = x , 3 need to make sure that the new
function is actually defined. √For
F3 (x) = f3 (g(x)), where f3 (x) = x4 . instance, consider f (x) = x
and g(x) = −x2 − 1. The do-
We’ll come back to this example after giving the formal statements
main of f excludes all negative
of the Chain Rule; for now, we are just illustrating a pattern.
numbers, but the range of g is
only negative numbers. There-
Theorem 2.5.4 The Chain Rule. fore
√ the composition f (g(x)) =
−x2 − 1 is not defined for any
Let g be a differentiable function on an interval I, let the range of g be x, and hence is not differentiable.
a subset of the interval J, and let f be a differentiable function on J. The statement of Theorem 2.5.4
Then y = f (g(x)) is a differentiable function on I, and takes care to ensure this problem
does not arise, but our focus is
y ′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x). more on the derivative result than
on the domain/range conditions.
Here is the Chain Rule in words:
The derivative of the outside function, evaluated at the inside func-
tion, multiplied by the derivative of the inside function.
To help understand the Chain Rule, we return to Example 2.5.3.

Example 2.5.6 Using the Chain Rule.

Use the Chain Rule to find the derivatives of the functions F1 (x), F2 (x),
and F3 (x), as given in Example 2.5.3.
Solution. Example 2.5.3 ended with the recognition that each of the
given functions was actually a composition of functions. To avoid confu-
sion, we ignore most of the subscripts here.

F1 (x) = (1 − x)2 We found that

[Link]/watch?v=1_Lp-ONIMuc
y = (1 − x)2 = f (g(x)), Figure 2.5.5 Video presentation of The-
orem 2.5.4
where f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 1 − x. To find
y ′ , we apply the The Chain Rule. We need to
note that f ′ (x) = 2x and g ′ (x) = −1.
Part of the The Chain Rule uses f ′ (g(x)). This
means substitute g(x) for x in the equation
for f ′ (x). That is, f ′ (x) = 2(1 − x). Finishing
out the The Chain Rule we have

y ′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
= 2(1 − x) · (−1)
= −2(1 − x)
= 2x − 2.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 107

F2 (x) = (1 − x)3 Let y = (1−x)3 = f (g(x)), where f (x) = x3

and g(x) = (1 − x). We have f ′ (x) = 3x2 ,
so f ′ (g(x)) = 3(1 − x)2 . The The Chain Rule
then states

y ′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
= 3(1 − x)2 · (−1)
= −3(1 − x)2 .
F3 (x) = (1 − x)4 Finally, when y = (1−x)4 , we have f (x) = x4
and g(x) = (1 − x). Thus f ′ (x) = 4x3 and
f ′ (g(x)) = 4(1 − x)3 . Thus

y ′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
= 4(1 − x)3 · (−1)
= −4(1 − x)3 .

Example 2.5.6 demonstrated a particular pattern: when f (x) = xn , then

y ′ = n · (g(x))n−1 · g ′ (x). This is called the Generalized Power Rule.

Theorem 2.5.7 Generalized Power Rule.

Let g(x) be a differentiable function and let n ̸= 0 be an integer. Then

d
· g ′ (x).
n−1
(g(x)n ) = n · (g(x))
dx

This allows us to quickly find the derivative of functions like y = (3x2 − 5x +

7 + sin(x))20 . While it may look intimidating, the Generalized Power Rule states
that
y ′ = 20(3x2 − 5x + 7 + sin(x))19 · (6x − 5 + cos(x)).
Treat the derivative-taking process step-by-step. In the example just given,
first multiply by 20, then rewrite the inside of the parentheses, raising it all to
the 19th power. Then think about the derivative of the expression inside the
parentheses, and multiply by that.
We now consider more examples that employ the The Chain Rule.

Example 2.5.8 Using the Chain Rule.

Find the derivatives of the following functions:

3. y = e−x .
2
1. y = sin(2x). 2. y = ln(4x3 −
2x2 ). Video Solution

Solution.
1. Consider y = sin(2x). Recognize that this is a composition of
functions, where f (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = 2x. Thus

y ′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
d
= cos(2x) · (2x)
dx
[Link]/watch?v=yW1BbOeDFcM
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 108

= cos(2x) · 2
= 2 cos(2x).


2. Recognize that y = ln 4x3 − 2x2 is the composition of f (x) =
ln(x) and g(x) = 4x3 − 2x2 . Also, recall that

d 1
(ln(x)) = .
dx x
This leads us to:
1 d

y′ = · 4x3 − 2x2
4x3 − 2x2 dx
1

= 3 · 12x2 − 4x
4x − 2x 2

12x2 − 4x
= 3
4x − 2x2
4x(3x − 1)
=
2x(2x2 − x)
2(3x − 1)
= .
2x2 − x



Note that ln 4x3 − 2x2 = ln 4x2 (x − 1/2) was only defined
for x > 1/2, so the result of y ′ = 2(3x−1)
2x2 −x is only valid for x > 1/2
as well.

3. Recognize that y = e−x is the composition of f (x) = ex and

2

g(x) = −x2 . Remembering that f ′ (x) = ex , we have

d

y ′ = e−x ·
2
−x2
dx
= e−x
2
· (−2x)
= −2xe−x .
2

Example 2.5.9 Using the Chain Rule to find a tangent line.

Let f (x) = cos(x2 ). Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph
of f at x = 1.
Solution. The tangent line goes through the point (1, f (1)) ≈ (1, 0.54)
with slope f ′ (1). To find f ′ , we need the The Chain Rule.
f ′ (x) = − sin(x2 ) · (2x) = −2x sin(x2 ). Evaluated at x = 1, we
have f ′ (1) = −2 sin(1) ≈ −1.68. Thus the equation of the tangent line 1 y
is approximated by
0.5
y ≈ −1.68(x − 1) + 0.54.
x
The tangent line is sketched along with f in Figure 2.5.10. −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

The The Chain Rule is used often in taking derivatives. Because of this, one −0.5
can become familiar with the basic process and learn patterns that facilitate find-
−1

Figure 2.5.10 f (x) = cos(x2 ) sketched

along with its tangent line at x = 1
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 109

ing derivatives quickly. For instance,

d
d 1 d dx (anything)
(ln(anything)) = · (anything) = .
dx anything dx anything
A concrete example of this is
d
45x14 + sin(x) + ex
ln(3x15 − cos(x) + ex ) = .
dx 3x15 − cos(x) + ex
While the derivative may look intimidating at first, look for the pattern. The
denominator is the same as what was inside the natural log function; the numer-
ator is simply its derivative.
This pattern recognition process can be applied to lots of functions. In gen-
eral, instead of writing “anything”, we use u as a generic function of x. We then
say
d u′
(ln(u)) = .
dx u
The following is a short list of how the The Chain Rule can be quickly applied
to familiar functions.

1. d n
dx (u ) = n · un−1 · u′ . 4. d
dx (cos(u)) = − sin(u) · u′ .
2. d u
dx (e ) = e u · u′ .
3. d
dx (sin(u)) = cos(u) · u′ . 5. d
dx (tan(u)) = sec2 (u) · u′ .

Of course, the The Chain Rule can be applied in conjunction with any of the
other rules we have already learned. We practice this next.

Example 2.5.11 Using the Product, Quotient and Chain Rules.

Find the derivatives of the following functions.

1. f (x) = x5 sin(2x3 ). 5x3

2. f (x) = . Video Solution
e−x2

Solution.
1. We must use the Product Rule and The Chain Rule. Do not think
that you must be able to “see” the whole answer immediately;
rather, just proceed step-by-step.
d


d 5

f ′ (x) = x5 · sin 2x3 + sin 2x3 · x
dx  dx

d


[Link]/watch?v=2QJLR-Y-Ht8
= x5 cos 2x3 · 2x3 + 5x4 sin 2x3
dx
5 2 3





= x 6x cos 2x + 5x4 sin 2x3



= 6x7 cos 2x3 + 5x4 sin 2x3 .

2. We must employ the Quotient Rule along with the The Chain Rule.
Again, proceed step-by-step.

 
e−x · dx e−x
2 2
d
5x3 − 5x3 · dx
d

f ′ (x) =
2
e−x2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 110

e−x · 15x2 − 5x3 · e−x · dx
2 2
d
−x2
=
2
e−x 2

 
e−x 15x2 − 5x3 (−2x)e−x
2 2

=
2
e−x2


e−x 10x4 + 15x2
2

=
e−2x2
2

= ex 10x4 + 15x2 .

A key to correctly working these problems is to break the problem down

into smaller, more manageable pieces. For instance, when using the Product
Rule and The Chain Rule together, just consider the first part of the Product Rule
at first: f (x)g ′ (x). Just rewrite f (x), then find g ′ (x). Then move on to the
f ′ (x)g(x) part. Don’t attempt to figure out both parts at once.
Likewise, using the Quotient Rule, approach the numerator in two steps and
handle the denominator after completing that. Only simplify afterward.
We can also employ the The Chain Rule itself several times, as shown in the
next example.

Example 2.5.12 Using the Chain Rule multiple times.

Video Solution
Find the derivative of y = tan5 (6x3 − 7x).


Solution. Recognize that we have the g(x) = tan 6x3 − 7x function


5
“inside” the f (x) = x5 function; that is, we have y = tan 6x3 − 7x .
We begin using the Generalized Power Rule; in this first step, we do not
fully compute the derivative. Rather, we are approaching this step-by-
step.


4 ′
y ′ = 5 tan 6x3 − 7x · g (x).
We now find g ′ (x). We again need the The Chain Rule;
[Link]/watch?v=JeLuSDqqFPA

d

g ′ (x) = sec2 6x3 − 7x · 6x3 − 7x .

dx

= sec2 6x3 − 7x · 18x2 − 7 .

Combine this with what we found above to give

4


y ′ = 5 tan 6x3 − 7x · sec2 6x3 − 7x · 18x2 − 7




= 90x2 − 35 sec2 6x3 − 7x tan4 6x3 − 7x .

This function is frankly a ridiculous function, possessing no real prac-

tical value. It is very difficult to graph, as the tangent function has many
vertical asymptotes and 6x3 − 7x grows so very fast. The important
thing to learn from this is that the derivative can be found. In fact, it is
not “hard”; one can take several simple steps and should be careful to
keep track of how to apply each of these steps.

It is a traditional mathematical exercise to find the derivatives of arbitrarily

complicated functions just to demonstrate that it can be done. Just break every-
thing down into smaller pieces.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 111

Example 2.5.13 Using the Product, Quotient and Chain Rules.

x cos(x−2 )−sin2 (e4x )

Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(x2 +5x4 ) .
Solution. This function likely has no practical use outside of demon-
strating derivative skills. The answer is given below without simplifica-
tion. It employs the Quotient Rule, the Product Rule, and the The Chain
Rule three times.

f ′ (x)






= ln x2 + 5x4 · x · − sin x−2 · −2x−3






+ 1 · cos x−2 − 2 sin e4x · cos e4x · 4e4x
!
−2



2x + 20x3
− x cos x − sin e
2 4x
· 2
x + 5x4
.

2
ln x2 + 5x4 .

The reader is highly encouraged to look at each term and recognize

why it is there. (i.e., the Quotient Rule is used; in the numerator, identify
the “LOdHI” term, etc.) This example demonstrates that derivatives can
be computed systematically, no matter how arbitrarily complicated the
function is.

The The Chain Rule also has theoretic value. That is, it can be used to find the
derivatives of functions that we have not yet learned as we do in the following
example.

Example 2.5.14 The Chain Rule and exponential functions.

Use the Chain Rule to find the derivative of y = 2x .

Solution. We only know how to find the derivative of one exponential
function, y = ex . We can accomplish our goal by rewriting 2 in terms of e.
Recalling that ex and ln(x) are inverse functions, we can write 2 = eln 2
and so
x
y = 2x = eln 2 = ex(ln(2)) ,
using the “power to a power” property of exponents.
The function is now the composition y = f (g(x)), with f (x) = ex
and g(x) = x(ln(2)). Since f ′ (x) = ex and g ′ (x) = ln(2), the The
Chain Rule gives
y ′ = ex(ln(2)) · ln 2.
Recall that the ex(ln(2)) term on the right hand side is just 2x , our
original function. Thus, the derivative contains the original function it-
self. We have
y ′ = y · ln(2) = 2x · ln(2).
We can extend this process to use any base a, where a > 0 and
a ̸= 1. All we need to do is replace each “2” in our work with “a.” The
Chain Rule, coupled with the derivative rule of ex , allows us to find the
derivatives of all exponential functions.

The comment at the end of previous example is important and is restated

CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 112

formally as a theorem.

Theorem 2.5.15 Derivatives of Exponential Functions.

Let f (x) = ax , for a > 0, a ̸= 1. Then f is differentiable for all real

numbers (i.e., differentiable everywhere) and

f ′ (x) = ln(a) · ax .

Alternate Chain Rule Notation. It is instructive to understand what the The

dy
Chain Rule “looks like” using “ dx ” notation instead of y ′ notation. Suppose that
[Link]/watch?v=LnmwxZ5w30w
y = f (u) is a function of u, where u = g(x) is a function of x, as stated in
Theorem 2.5.4. Then, through the composition f ◦ g, we can think of y as a Figure 2.5.16 Derivatives of exponen-
function of x, as y = f (g(x)). Thus the derivative of y with respect to x makes tial and general power functions
dy
sense; we can talk about dx . This leads to an interesting progression of notation:

y ′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dy
= y ′ (u) · u′ (x) since y = f (u) and u = g(x)
dx
dy dy du
= · (using “fractional notation” for the derivative)
dx du dx
Here the “fractional” aspect of the derivative notation stands out. On the
right hand side, it seems as though the “du” terms cancel out, leaving
dy dy
= .
dx dx
It is important to realize that we are not canceling these terms; the derivative
dy
notation of du is one symbol. It is equally important to realize that this notation
was chosen precisely because of this behavior. It makes applying the The Chain
Rule easy with multiple variables. For instance,
dy dy d⃝ d△
= · · .
dt d⃝ d△ dt
where ⃝ and △ are any variables you’d like to use.
One of the most common ways of “visualizing” the The Chain Rule is to con-
sider a set of gears, as shown in Figure 2.5.17. The gears have 36, 18, and 6 teeth,
respectively. That means for every revolution of the x gear, the u gear revolves
twice. That is, the rate at which the u gear makes a revolution is twice as fast as
the rate at which the x gear makes a revolution.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 113

Using the terminology of calculus, the

rate of u-change, with respect to x, is
du
dx = 2.
Likewise, every revolution of u causes
dy
3 revolutions of y: du = 3. How does
y change with respect to x? For each x
revolution of x, y revolves 6 times;
that is,
dy dy du
= · = 2 · 3 = 6.
dx du dx dy
du =6
=2 dx
We can then extend the The Chain dx
Rule with more variables by adding
more gears to the picture. u y

dy
=3
du

Figure 2.5.17 A series of gears to

demonstrate the Chain Rule. Note
dy
how dx · dx
dy du
= du
It is difficult to overstate the importance of the The Chain Rule. So often the
functions that we deal with are compositions of two or more functions, requir-
ing us to use this rule to compute derivatives. It is also often used in real life
when actual functions are unknown. Through measurement, we can calculate
dy
(or, approximate) du and du
dx . With our knowledge of the The Chain Rule, we can
dy
find dx .
In Section 2.6, we use the The Chain Rule to justify another differentiation
technique. There are many curves that we can draw in the plane that fail the
“vertical line test.” For instance, consider x2 + y 2 = 1, which describes the unit
circle. We may still be interested in finding slopes of tangent lines to the circle
dy
at various points. Section 2.6 shows how we can find dx without first “solving
for y.” While we can in this instance, in many other instances solving for y is
impossible. In these situations, implicit differentiation is indispensable.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 114

2.5.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) The Chain Rule describes how to evaluate the derivative of a composition of functions.
n−1
2. (□ True □ False) The Generalized Power Rule states that d n
dx (g(x) ) = n (g(x)) .



3. (□ True □ False) dx
d
ln x2 = x12 .
4. (□ True □ False) d x
dx (3 ) ≈ 1.1 · 3x .
5. (□ True □ False) dx
dy = dx
dt · dt
dy .

6. (□ True □ False) Taking the derivative of f (x) = x2 sin(5x) requires the use of both the Product and
Chain Rules.

Problems

Exercise Group. Compute the derivative of the given function.

10
7. f (x) = 4x3 − x 8. f (t) = (3t − 2)5
9. g(θ) = (sin(θ) + cos(θ))3 10. h(t) = e3t
2
+t−1

4 5
11. j(x) = ln(x) − x4 12. j(q) = 2q +4q

 5
14. p(t) = cos(5t)
13. k(y) = y + y1


15. p(q) = tan(2q) 16. f (θ) = cot θ2 + 3


17. g(t) = sin t6 + 1
t3
18. g(q) = cos5 (7q)


19. h(y) = cos3 y 2 + 3y − 3 20. j(t) = ln(cos(t))


21. j(q) = ln q 8 22. k(y) = 3 ln(y)
23. p(t) = 6t 24. p(z) = 2csc(z)
25. f (x) = 810 4t
26. g(t) = 9t
6w +5 y
27. h(w) = 5w +6 28. h(y) = 7 5+8
y

2 3
29. j(r) = 5r −r 30. k(w) = w cot(5w)
6r 2

6
3

31. p(x) = x2 + 4x 7x4 + x 32. m(r) = sin(8 − 4r) cos 6r + r2


33. m(w) = cos(4w − 5) sin(9 + 7w) 34.
2
f (x) = e8x sin x1
cos(6r+4) (3z+5)2
35. g(r) = (3r+1)3 36. h(z) = sin(9z)

Exercise Group. Find the equations of tangent and normal lines to the graph of the function at the given point. Note:
the functions here are the same as in Exercises 2.5.7 through Exercise 2.5.10.

10
37. f (x) = 4x3 − x at x = 0 38. f (x) = (3x − 2)5 at x = 1
39. g(x) = (sin(x) + cos(x))3 at x = π/2. 40. h(x) = e3x
2
+x−1
at x = −1
d
41. Compute dx (ln(kx)) two ways. First by using the Chain Rule. Second, by using the logarithm rule ln(ab) =
ln(a) + ln(b) and then taking the derivative.
Show the work for both parts.
d



42. Compute dx ln xk two ways. First by using the Chain Rule. Second, by using the logarithm rule ln(ap ) =
p ln(a) (for positive a) and then taking the derivative.
Show the work for both parts.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 115

2.6 Implicit Differentiation

In the previous sections we learned to find the derivative, dx dy
, or y ′ , when y is
given explicitly as a function of x. That is, if we know y = f (x) for some function
f , we can find y ′ . For example, given y = 3x2 − 7, we can easily find y ′ = 6x.
(Here we explicitly state how y depends on x. Knowing x, we can directly find
y.)
Sometimes the relationship between y and x is not explicit; rather, it is im-
plicit. For instance, we might know that x2 − y = 4. This equality defines a
relationship between x and y; if we know x, we could figure out y. Can we still
find y ′ ? In this case, sure; we solve for y to get y = x2 − 4 (hence we now know [Link]/watch?v=E0mQbLG3Pjo
y explicitly) and then differentiate to get y ′ = 2x. Figure 2.6.1 Video introduction to Sec-
Sometimes the implicit relationship between x and y is complicated. Sup- tion 2.6
pose we are given sin(y) + y 3 = 6 − x3 . A graph of this implicit relationship
is given in Figure 2.6.2. In this case there is absolutely no way to solve for y in
terms of elementary functions. The surprising thing is, however, that we can
still find y ′ via a process known as implicit differentiation.

y
2.6.1 The method of implicit differentiation
2
Implicit differentiation is a technique based on the The Chain Rule that is used to
find a derivative when the relationship between the variables is given implicitly
rather than explicitly (solved for one variable in terms of the other). x
We begin by reviewing the Chain Rule. Let f and g be functions of x. Then −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

d
(f (g(x))) = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x).
dx −2

Suppose now that y = g(x). We can rewrite the above as

d d dy Figure 2.6.2 A graph of the implicit re-
(f (y)) = f ′ (y) · y ′ , or (f (y)) = f ′ (y) · . (2.6.1)
dx dx dx lationship sin(y) + y 3 = 6 − x3
These equations look strange; the key concept to learn here is that we can
find y ′ even if we don’t exactly know how y and x relate.
We demonstrate this process in the following example.

Example 2.6.3 Using Implicit Differentiation.

Video Solution
Find y ′ given that sin(y) + y 3 = 6 − x3 .
Solution. We start by taking the derivative of both sides (thus main-
taining the equality.) We have:
d
d

sin(y) + y 3 = 6 − x3 .
dx dx
The right hand side is easy; it returns −3x2 .
The left hand side requires more consideration. We take the deriv-
ative term-by-term. Using the technique derived from Equation (2.6.1) [Link]/watch?v=0baXlbhup0o
above, we can see that
d
(sin(y)) = cos(y) · y ′ .
dx
We apply the same process to the y 3 term.
d 3
d
y = (=)3(y)2 · y ′ .
dx d(y)3
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 116

Putting this together with the right hand side, we have

cos(y)y ′ + 3y 2 y ′ = −3x2 .

Now solve for y ′ . It’s important to treat y ′ as an algebraically inde-

pendent variable from y and x.

cos(y)y ′ + 3y 2 y ′ = −3x2


cos(y) + 3y 2 y ′ = −3x2
−3x2
y′ =
cos(y) + 3y 2

This equation for y ′ probably seems unusual for it contains both x

and y terms. How is it to be used? We’ll address that next.

Implicit functions are generally harder to deal with than explicit functions.
With an explicit function, given an x value, we have an explicit formula for com-
puting the corresponding y value. With an implicit function, one often has to
find x and y values at the same time that satisfy the equation. It is much eas-
ier to demonstrate that a given point satisfies the equation than to actually find
such a point. √

For instance, we can affirm easily that the point 3 6, 0 lies on the graph of
the implicit function sin(y)√+ y 3 = 6 − x3 . Plugging in 0 for y, we see the left
hand side is 0. Setting x = 3 6, we see the right hand side is also 0; the equation
is satisfied. The following example finds the equation of the tangent line to this
function at this point.

Example 2.6.4 Using implicit differentiation to find a tangent line.

Video Solution
Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve√of the

implicitly de-
fined function sin(y) + y 3 = 6 − x3 at the point 3 6, 0 .
Solution. In Example 2.6.3 we found that

−3x2
y′ = .
cos(y) + 3y 2
√

We find the slope of the tangent line at the point 3 6, 0 by substi-
√ √

tuting 3 6 for x and 0 for y. Thus at the point 3 6, 0 , we have the slope [Link]/watch?v=qYrcm4ObwOM
as √
2 √
′ −3 3 6 −3 3 36
y = = ≈ −9.91.
cos(0) + 3 · 02 1
y
Therefore the equation of the tangent line
√ to the

implicitly defined
function sin(y) + y 3 = 6 − x3 at the point 3 6, 0 is 2

√  √ 
y = −3 36 x − 6 + 0 ≈ −9.91x + 18.
3 3

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
The curve and this tangent line are shown in Figure 2.6.5.

This suggests a general method for implicit differentiation. For the steps be-
−2
low assume y is a function of x.

1. Take the derivative of each term in the equation. Treat the x terms like
normal. When taking the derivatives of y terms, the usual rules apply Figure 2.6.5 The function sin(y)+y 3 =
3
6−x
√ and its tangent line at the point
3
( 6, 0)
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 117

except that, because of the Chain Rule 2.5.4, we need to multiply each
term by y ′ .
2. Get all the y ′ terms on one side of the equal sign and put the remaining
terms on the other side.

3. Factor out y ′ ; solve for y ′ by dividing.

(Practical Note: when working by hand, it may be beneficial to use the sym-
dy ′ 1
bol dx instead of y , as the latter can be easily confused for y or y .)

Example 2.6.6 Using Implicit Differentiation.

Video Solution
Given the implicitly defined function y 3 + x2 y 4 = 1 + 2x, find y ′ .
Solution. We will take the implicit derivatives term by term. The deriv-
ative of y 3 is 3y 2 y ′ .
The second term, x2 y 4 , is a little tricky. It requires the Product Rule
as it is the product of two functions of x: x2 and y 4 . Its derivative is
x2 (4y 3 y ′ ) + 2xy 4 . The first part of this expression requires a y ′ because
we are taking the derivative of a y term. The second part does not re-
quire it because we are taking the derivative of x2 .
The derivative of the right hand side is easily found to be 2. In all, we [Link]/watch?v=O5OqJ7a_Ovo
get:
3y 2 y ′ + 4x2 y 3 y ′ + 2xy 4 = 2.
Move terms around so that the left side consists only of the y ′ terms
and the right side consists of all the other terms:
2 y
3y 2 y ′ + 4x2 y 3 y ′ = 2 − 2xy 4 .
x
Factor out y ′ from the left side and solve to get 2 4 6 8 10
−2
′ 2 − 2xy 4
y = 2 . −4
3y + 4x2 y 3
−6
To confirm the validity of our work, let’s find the equation of a tan-
gent line to this function at a point. It is easy to confirm that the point −8
(0, 1) lies on the graph of this function. At this point, y ′ = 2/3. So the
−10
equation of the tangent line is y = 2/3(x − 0) + 1. The function and its
tangent line are graphed in Figure 2.6.7. Figure 2.6.7 A graph of the implicitly
Notice how our curve looks much different than for functions we defined function y 3 + x2 y 4 = 1 + 2x
have seen. For one, it fails the vertical line test, and so the complete along with its tangent line at the point
curve is not truly representing y as a function of x. But when we indicate (0, 1)
we are interested in the derivative at (0, 1), we are indicating that we
want the function defined by the small portion of the curve that passes
through (0, 1), and that small portion does pass the vertical line test.
Such functions are important in many areas of mathematics, so develop-
ing tools to deal with them is also important.
Video Solution
Example 2.6.8 Using Implicit Differentiation.


Given the implicitly defined function sin x2 y 2 + y 3 = x + y, find y ′ .
Solution. Differentiating term by term, we find the most difficulty in

[Link]/watch?v=BMn-BU6VTQU
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 118

the first term. It requires both the The Chain Rule and Product Rule.
d


d 2 2

sin x2 y 2 = cos x2 y 2 · x y
dx
dx

= cos x2 y 2 · x2 (2yy ′ ) + 2xy 2



= 2 x2 yy ′ + xy 2 cos x2 y 2 .

We leave the derivatives of the other terms to the reader. After tak-
ing the derivatives of both sides, we have



2 x2 yy ′ + xy 2 cos x2 y 2 + 3y 2 y ′ = 1 + y ′ .

We now have to be careful to properly solve for y ′ , particularly be-

cause of the product on the left. It is best to multiply out the product.
y
Doing this, we get



2x2 y cos x2 y 2 y ′ + 2xy 2 cos x2 y 2 + 3y 2 y ′ = 1 + y ′ . 1

From here we can safely move around terms to get the following:
x


−1
2x2 y cos x2 y 2 y ′ + 3y 2 y ′ − y ′ = 1 − 2xy 2 cos x2 y 2 . 1

Then we can solve for y ′ to get −1

′ 1 − 2xy 2 cos x2 y 2
y = 2 .
2x y cos(x2 y 2 ) + 3y 2 − 1
Figure 2.6.9 A graph of
the implicitly
A graph of this implicit function is given in Figure 2.6.9. defined curve sin x2 y 2 +y 3 = x+y
It is easy to verify that the points (0, 0), (0, 1) and (0, −1) all lie on
the graph. We can find the slopes of the tangent lines at each of these
points using our formula for y ′ .
• At (0, 0), the slope is −1. y

• At (0, 1), the slope is 1/2.

1
• At (0, −1), the slope is also 1/2.
The tangent lines have been added to the graph of the function in Fig- x
ure 2.6.10. −1 1

Quite a few “famous” curves have equations that are given implicitly. We can −1
use implicit differentiation to find the slope at various points on those curves.
We investigate two such curves in the next examples.

Example 2.6.11 Finding slopes of tangent lines to a circle. Figure 2.6.10 A graph of
the implicitly
defined curve sin x2 y 2 +y 3 = x+y
2 2
Find the
√ slope

of the tangent line to the circle x + y = 1 at the point and certain tangent lines
1/2, 3/2 .
Solution. Taking derivatives, we get 2x+2yy ′ = 0. Solving for y ′ gives:
−x
y′ = .
y
This is a clever formula. Recall that the slope of the line through the
origin and the point (x, y) on the circle will be y/x. We have found that
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 119

the slope of the tangent line to the circle at that point is the opposite
reciprocal of y/x, namely, −x/y. Hence these two lines are always per-
pendicular. √

At the point 1/2, 3/2 , we have the tangent line’s slope as

−1/2 −1
y′ = √ = √ ≈ −0.577. y √

3/2 3 1 1/2, 3/2
√

A graph of the circle and its tangent line at 1/2, 3/2 is given in
0.5
Figure 2.6.12, along with a thin dashed line from the origin that is per-
pendicular to the tangent line. (It turns out that all normal lines to a x
circle pass through the center of the circle.) −1 −0.5 0.5 1

This section has shown how to find the derivatives of implicitly defined func- −0.5
tions, whose graphs include a wide variety of interesting and unusual shapes.
Implicit differentiation can also be used to further our understanding of “regu- −1
lar” differentiation.
One hole in our current understanding of derivatives is this: what is the de- Figure 2.6.12 The unit
√ circle with its
rivative of the square root function? That is, tangent line at (1/2, 3/2)
d √
d  1/2 
x = x =?
dx dx
We allude to a possible solution, as we can write the square root function as
a power function with a rational (or, fractional) power. We are then tempted to
apply the Power Rule with Integer Exponents and obtain
d  1/2  1 −1/2 1
x = x = √ .
dx 2 2 x

The trouble with this is that the Power Rule with Integer Exponents was ini-
tially defined only for positive integer powers, n > 0. While we did not justify
this at the time, generally the Power Rule with Integer Exponents is proved us-
ing something called the Binomial Theorem, which deals only with positive in-
tegers. The Quotient Rule allowed us to extend the Power Rule with Integer Ex-
ponents to negative integer powers. Implicit Differentiation allows us to extend
the Power Rule with Integer Exponents to rational powers, as shown below.
Let y = xm/n , where m and n are integers with no common factors (so
m = 2 and n = 5 is fine, but m = 2 and n = 4 is not). We can rewrite this
explicit function implicitly as y n = xm . Now apply implicit differentiation.

y = xm/n
y n = xm
d n d m
(y ) = (x )
dx dx
n · y n−1 · y ′ = m · xm−1
m xm−1
y′ = (now substitute xm/n for y)
n y n−1
m xm−1
= (apply lots of algebra)
n (xm/n )n−1
m (m−n)/n
= x
n
m
= xm/n−1 .
n
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 120

The above derivation is the key to the proof extending the Power Rule with
Integer Exponents to rational powers. Using limits, we can extend this once
more to include all powers, including irrational (even transcendental!) powers,
giving the following theorem.

Theorem 2.6.13 Power Rule for Differentiation.

Let f (x) = xn , where n ̸= 0 is a real number. Then f is differentiable
on its domain, except possibly at x = 0, and f ′ (x) = n · xn−1 .

This theorem allows us to say the derivative of xπ is πxπ−1 .

We now apply this final version of the Power Rule for Differentiation in the
next example, the second investigation of a “famous” curve.
y
Example 2.6.14 Using the Power Rule. 20

Find the slope of x2/3 + y 2/3 = 8 at the point (8, 8). 10

Solution. This is a particularly interesting curve called an astroid. It
is the shape traced out by a point on the edge of a circle that is rolling x
around inside of a larger circle, as shown in Figure 2.6.15. −20 −10 10 20
To find the slope of the astroid at the point (8, 8), we take the deriv- −10
ative implicitly.
2 −1/3 2 −1/3 ′ −20
x + y y =0
3 3
2 −1/3 ′ 2 Figure 2.6.15 An astroid, traced out
y y = − x−1/3 by a point on the smaller circle as it
3 3
x−1/3 rolls inside the larger circle
y ′ = − −1/3
y
r
′ y 1/3 y
y = − 1/3 = − 3 .
x x y
20
Plugging in x = 8 and y = 8, we get a slope of −1. The astroid, with
its tangent line at (8, 8), is shown in Figure 2.6.16. 10 (8, 8)

x
−20 −10 10 20
2.6.2 Implicit Differentiation and the Second Derivative
−10
We can use implicit differentiation to find higher order derivatives. In theory,
dy
this is simple: first find dx , then take its derivative with respect to x. In practice,
−20
it is not hard, but it often requires a bit of algebra. We demonstrate this in an
example.
Figure 2.6.16 An astroid with a tangent
Example 2.6.17 Finding the second derivative. line

d2 y
Given x2 + y 2 = 1, find dx2 = y ′′ .
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 121 Video Solution

Solution. We found that y ′ = dx dy

= −x/y in Example 2.6.11. To find
y , we apply implicit differentiation to y ′ .
′′

d ′
y ′′ = (y )
dx  
d x
= − (Now use the Quotient Rule.)
dx y
y · 1 − x(y ′ ) [Link]/watch?v=V6piqsjn2mk
=− replace y ′ with − x/y:
y2
y − x(−x/y)
=−
y2
y + x2 /y
=− .
y2
While this is not a particularly simple expression, it is usable. We can
see that y ′′ > 0 when y < 0 and y ′′ < 0 when y > 0. In Section 3.4, we
will see how this relates to the shape of the graph. In calculus the expression 00 is
Also, if we remember that we are only considering points on the also considered well-defined and
curve x2 + y 2 = 1, then we know that x2 = 1 − y 2 . So we can re- equal to 1. This is easily confused
place the x2 in the expression for y ′′ to get with a limit of the form 00 , which

is indeterminate. We skirt the is-
′′ y + 1 − y 2 /y 1 sue here.
y =− =− 3
y2 y
which is a simpler expression. Recognizing when simplifications like this 4 y
are possible is not always easy.
3

2.6.3 Logarithmic Differentiation

2
Consider the function y = xx ; it is graphed in Figure 2.6.18. It is well-defined
for x > 0 and we might be interested in finding equations of lines tangent and 1
normal to its graph. How do we take its derivative?
The function is not a power function: it has a “power” of x, not a constant. x
It is not an exponential function either: it has a “base” of x, not a constant. 0.5 1 1.5 2
A differentiation technique known as logarithmic differentiation becomes
useful here. The basic principle is this: take the natural log of both sides of an Figure 2.6.18 A plot of y = xx
equation y = f (x), then use implicit differentiation to find y ′ . We demonstrate
this in the following example.

Example 2.6.19 Using Logarithmic Differentiation.

Given y = xx , use logarithmic differentiation to find y ′ .

Video Solution
Solution. As suggested above, we start by taking the natural log of
both sides then applying implicit differentiation.

y = xx
ln(y) = ln(xx ) (apply logarithm rule)
[Link]/watch?v=6eL6WBlmItk
ln(y) = x ln(x) (now use implicit differentiation)
Figure 2.6.20 Two approaches to solv-
d d
(ln(y)) = (x ln(x)) ing Example 2.6.19. First, taking the
dx dx log of both sides. Second, using the
inverse relationship eln(x) = x.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 122

y′ 1
= ln(x) + x · 4 y
y x
y′
= ln(x) + 1 3
y
y ′ = y (ln(x) + 1) (substitute y = xx )
′ x 2
y = x (ln(x) + 1) .

1.5, 1.51.5

To “test” our answer, let’s use it to find the equation of the tangent 1
line at x = 1.5. The
point on the graph our tangent line must pass
through is 1.5, 1.51.5 ≈ (1.5, 1.837). Using the equation for y ′ , we x
find the slope as 0.5 1 1.5 2

y ′ = 1.51.5 (ln(1.5) + 1) ≈ 1.837(1.405) ≈ 2.582. Figure 2.6.21 A graph of y = xx and

its tangent line at x = 1.5
Thus the equation of the tangent line is (approximately) y ≈ 2.582(x−
1.5) + 1.837. Figure 2.6.21 graphs y = xx along with this tangent line.

We would not have been able to compute the derivative of the function in
Example 2.6.19 without logarithmic differentiation. But the method is also use-
ful in cases where the product and quotient rules could be used, but logarithmic
differentiation is simpler. The video in Figure 2.6.22 provides such an example.
Implicit differentiation proves to be useful as it allows us to find the instan-
taneous rates of change of a variety of functions. In particular, it extended the
Power Rule for Differentiation to rational exponents, which we then extended
to all real numbers. In Section 2.7, implicit differentiation will be used to find
the derivatives of inverse functions, such as y = sin−1 (x).
[Link]/watch?v=3Cv2EgjH9ZE
Figure 2.6.22 Using logarithmic differ-
entiation
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 123

2.6.4 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. In your own words, explain the difference between implicit functions and explicit functions.
2. Implicit differentiation is based on what other differentiation rule?
√
3. (□ True □ False) Implicit differentiation can be used to find the derivative of y = x.
4. (□ True □ False) Implicit differentiation can be used to find the derivative of y = x3/4 .

Problems

Exercise Group. Compute the derivative of the given function.

√ √
5. j(w) = w − √1w 6. k(y) = y + y( 6 )
6
5

√ √
7. p(t) = 9 + t 2 8. m(w) = w tan(w)
9. m(y) = y 1.2 10. f (r) = rπ + r3.8 + π 3.8
√
11. g(w) = w+(−8)
√ 12. h(x) = 6 x(cos(x) + ex )
w

dy
Exercise Group. Find dx using implicit differentiation.
13. x4 + y 2 + y = 7 14. x2/5 + y 2/5 = 1
Show your work using implicit differentiation. Show your work using implicit differentiation.
15. cos(x) + sin(y) = 1 x
16. = 10
Show your work using implicit differentiation. y
Show your work using implicit differentiation.
y 18. x2 ex + 2 y = 5
17. = 10
x Show your work using implicit differentiation.
Show your work using implicit differentiation.

4
19. x2 tan(y) = 50 20. 3x2 + 2y 3 = 2
Show your work using implicit differentiation. Show your work using implicit differentiation.

2 x2 +y
21. y 2 + 2y − x = 200 22. x+y 2 = 17
Show your work using implicit differentiation. Show your work using implicit differentiation.
sin(x)+y


23. =1 24. ln x2 + y 2 = e
cos(y)+x
Show your work using implicit differentiation. Show your work using implicit differentiation.


25. ln x2 + xy + y 2 = 1
Show your work using implicit differentiation.
dy
26. Show that dx is the same for each of the following implicitly defined functions.

(a) xy = 1
(b) x2 y 2 = 1
(c) sin(xy) = 1

(d) ln(xy) = 1

Exercise Group. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the implicitly defined function at the indicated
points. As a visual aid, the function is graphed.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 124

27. On the curve x2/5 + y 2/5 = 1. 28. On the curve x4 + y 4 = 1.

1 y 1 y
√ √
( 0.6, 0.8)

0.5 0.5
(0.1, 0.281)

x x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0.5 1

−0.5 −0.5

−1 −1

(a) At (1, 0). (a) At (1, 0).

√ √

(b) At (0.1, 0.2811) (which does not exactly (b) At 0.6, 0.8 .
lie on the curve, but is very close).
29. On the curve (x2 + y 2 − 4)3 = 108y 2 . 30. On the curve (x2 + y 2 + x)2 = x2 + y 2 .
y
4 y  √ 
− 34 , 3 4 3 1

x
x
−2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5
−4 −2 2 4

−2 −1

√
−4 (2, − 4 108)
(a) At (0, 1).
 √ 
(a) At (0, 4).
(b) At − 34 , 3 4 3 .
√

(b) At 2, − 4 108 .
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 125

31. On the curve (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 9. 32. On the curve x2 + y 3 + 2xy = 0.

y y
6 2
 √ 
3.5, 6+32 3
(−1, 1)
1
√
4  
−1, −1+2 5

x
−2 −1 1 2
2  √ 
4+3 3
, 1.5 −1
2  √ 
−1, −1−2 5

x −2
2 4 6
 √  (a) At (−1, 1).
7 6+3 3
(a) At 2, 2 . √

  (b) At −1, 12 (−1 + 5) .
√
(b) At 4+3 3 3
,2 . √

2 (c) At −1, 12 (−1 − 5) .

d2 y
Exercise Group. An implicitly defined function is given. Find dx2 . Note: these are the same functions used in
Exercises 2.6.13 through 2.6.16.
33. x4 + y 2 + y = 7 34. x2/5 + y 2/5 = 1
35. cos(x) + sin(y) = 1 x
36. = 10
y

dy
Exercise Group. Use logarithmic differentiation to find dx , then find the equation of the tangent line at the indicated
x-value.
2
37. y = (1 + x)1/x at x = 1 38. y = (2x)x at x = 1
Show your work using logarithmic Show your work using logarithmic
differentiation. differentiation.
xx 40. y = xsin(x)+2 at x = π/2
39. y = at x = 1
x+1 Show your work using logarithmic
Show your work using logarithmic differentiation.
differentiation.
x+1 (x + 1)(x + 2)
41. y = at x = 1 42. y= at x = 0
x+2 (x + 3)(x + 4)
Show your work using logarithmic Show your work using logarithmic
differentiation. differentiation.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 126

2.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions

Recall that a function y = f (x) is said to be one-to-one if it passes the
horizontal line test; that is, for two different x values x1 and x2 , we do not have
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). In some cases the domain of f must be restricted so that it
is one-to-one. For instance, consider f (x) = x2 . Clearly, f (−1) = f (1), so [Link]/watch?v=rBIBiDXbWf8
f is not one-to-one on its regular domain, but by restricting f to (0, ∞), f is Figure 2.7.1 Video introduction to Sec-
one-to-one. tion 2.7
Now recall that one-to-one functions have inverses. That is, if f is one-to-
one, it has an inverse function, denoted by f −1 , such that if f (a) = b, then
f −1 (b) = a. The domain of f −1 is the range of f , and vice-versa. For ease of
notation, we set g = f −1 and treat g as a function of x.
Since f (a) = b implies g(b) = a, when we compose f and g we get a nice
result:

f g(b) = f (a) = b.



In general, f g(x) = x and g f (x) = x. This gives us a convenient way
to check if two functions are inverses of each other: compose them and if the
result is x (on the appropriate domains), then they are inverses.
When the point (a, b) lies on the graph of f , the point (b, a) lies on the graph
[Link]/watch?v=1g9gAQC301Q
of g. This leads us to discover that the graph of g is the reflection of f across the
line y = x. In Figure 2.7.3 we see a function graphed along with its inverse. See Figure 2.7.2 Properties of inverse func-
how the point (1, 1.5) lies on one graph, whereas (1.5, 1) lies on the other. Be- tions
cause of this relationship, whatever we know about f can quickly be transferred
into knowledge about g.
For example, consider Figure 2.7.4 where the tangent line to f at the point 2 y
(1, 1.5) is drawn. That line has slope 3. Through reflection across y = x, we can (1, 1.5)
see that the tangent line to g at the point (1.5, 1) has slope 1/3. Their slopes
are reciprocals. This should make sense since reflecting a line (such as a tangent 1
(1.5, 1)
line) across the line y = x switches the x and y values. Also consider the point (−0.5, 0.375)
(0, 0.5) on the graph of f , where the tangent line is horizontal. At the point
x
(0.5, 0) on g, the tangent line is vertical.
−1 1 2
More generally, consider the tangent line to f at the point (a, b). That line
has slope f ′ (a). Through reflection across y = x, we can extend our above (0.375, −0.5)
observation to say that the tangent line to g at the point (b, a) should have slope −1
1/f ′ (a). This then tells us that g ′ (b) = 1/f ′ (a).
The information from these two graphs is summarized in Table 2.7.5 below: Figure 2.7.3 A function f along with
Table 2.7.5 its inverse f −1 . (Note how it does not
matter which function we refer to as
Information about f Information about g = f −1 f ; the other is f −1 .)
(1, 1.5) lies on f (1.5, 1) lies on g
Slope of tangent line to Slope of tangent line to
f at x = 1 is 3 g at x = 1.5 is 1/3 y
(1, 1.5)
f ′ (1) = 3 g ′ (1.5) = 1/3
We have discovered a relationship between f ′ and g ′ in a mostly graphical 1
(1.5, 1)
way. We can realize this relationship analytically as well. Let y = g(x), where
(−0.5, 0.375)
again g = f −1 . We want to find y ′ . Since y = g(x), we know that f (y) = x.
Using the The Chain Rule and Implicit Differentiation, take the derivative of both x
sides of this last equality. −1 1

(0.375, −0.5)
d d
(f (y)) = (x) −1
dx dx
′ ′
f (y) · y = 1
Figure 2.7.4 Corresponding tangent lines
1 drawn to f and f −1
y′ = ′
f (y)
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 127

1
y′ = .
f ′ (g(x))
This leads us to the following theorem.

Theorem 2.7.6 Derivatives of Inverse Functions.

Let f be differentiable and one-to-one on an open interval I, where f ′ (x) ̸=
0 for all x in I, let J be the range of f on I, let g be the inverse function [Link]/watch?v=dOtVBJd75h8
of f , and let f (a) = b for some a in I. Then g is a differentiable function Figure 2.7.7 Video presentation of The-
on J, and in particular, orem 2.7.6

′
′
1. f −1 (b) = g ′ (b) =
1 2. f −1 (x) = g ′ (x) =
′
f (a) 1
f ′ (g(x))
The results of Theorem 2.7.6 are not trivial; the notation may seem confusing
at first. Careful consideration, along with examples, should earn understanding.
In the next example we apply Theorem 2.7.6 to the arcsine function.
A word of caution is required here. The function sin(x) is clearly not one-
to-one. How can we say that arcsin(x) is the inverse of sin(x)? To make sense
of this, we employ a technique known as restriction of domain: instead of con-
sidering the entire domain of the sine function, we consider a portion of it, on [Link]/watch?v=lCNZPbfiono
which the function is one-to-one, as explained in Figure 2.7.8.
Figure 2.7.8 Restricting the domain of
Example 2.7.9 Finding the derivative of an inverse trigonometric func- sin(x)
tion.

Let y = arcsin(x) = sin−1 (x). Find y ′ using Theorem 2.7.6. Video Solution
Solution. Adopting our previously defined notation, let g(x) = arcsin(x)
and f (x) = sin(x). Thus f ′ (x) = cos(x). Applying the theorem, we
have
1
g ′ (x) = ′
f (g(x))
1
= .
cos(arcsin(x))
This last expression is not immediately illuminating. Drawing a figure
will help, as shown in Figure 2.7.10. Recall that the sine function can [Link]/watch?v=xBZqkvQRSG4
be viewed as taking in an angle and returning a ratio of sides of a right
triangle, specifically, the ratio “opposite over hypotenuse.” This means
that the arcsine function takes as input a ratio of sides and returns an
angle. The equation y = arcsin(x) can be rewritten as y = arcsin(x/1);
1
that is, consider a right triangle where the hypotenuse has length 1 and x
the side opposite of the angle
√ with measure y has length x. This means
the final side has length 1 − x2 , using the Pythagorean Theorem.
Therefore

y
cos sin−1 (x) = cos(y) √
√ 1 − x2
1 − x2
=
Figure 2.7.10 A right triangle defined
p 1
= 1 − x2 , by y = sin−1 (x/1) with the length of
the third leg found using the Pythagorean
resulting in Theorem
d 1
(arcsin(x)) = √ .
dx 1 − x2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 128

Remember that the input x of the arcsine function is a ratio of a side of a

right triangle to its hypotenuse; the absolute value of this ratio will never be
greater than 1. Therefore the inside of the square root will never be negative.
In order to make y = sin(x) one-to-one, we restrict its domain to [−π/2, π/2];
on this domain, the range is [−1, 1]. Therefore the domain of y = arcsin(x) is
[−1, 1] and the range is [−π/2, π/2]. When x = ±1, note how the derivative of
the arcsine function is undefined; this corresponds to the fact that as x → ±1,
the tangent lines to arcsine approach vertical lines with undefined slopes.

y π
2
y
 √ 
π 3
1 3, 2 √ 
π 3 π
4 2 , 3

)
)

(x
(x

1
−
sin x x

sin
= −2 −1

=
− π2 − π4 y π π 1 2

y
4 2

− π4
−1
− π2

Figure 2.7.11 Graphs of sin(x) and sin−1 (x) along with corresponding tangent
lines
In Figure 2.7.11 we see f (x) = sin(x) and f −1 (x) = sin−1 (x) graphed
√ on

their respective domains. The line tangent to sin(x) at the point π/3, 3/2
has slope cos(π)/3
√ =
1/2. The slope of the corresponding point on sin−1 (x),
the point 3/2, π/3 , is

1 1
q √
2 = p1 − 3/4
1− 3/2
1
=p
1/4
1
= = 2,
1/2

verifying yet again that at corresponding points, a function and its inverse have
reciprocal slopes.
Using similar techniques, we can find the derivatives of all the inverse trigono-
metric functions. In Table 2.7.12 we show the restrictions of the domains of the
standard trigonometric functions that allow them to be invertible.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 129

Table 2.7.12 Domains and ranges of the trigonometric and inverse trigonomet-
ric functions
Function Domain Range
sin(x) [−π/2, π/2] [−1, 1]
sin−1 (x) [−1, 1] [−π/2, π/2]
cos(x) [0, π] [−1, 1]
cos−1 (x) [−1, 1] [0, π]
tan(x) (−π/2, π/2) (−∞, ∞)
tan−1 (x) (−∞, ∞) (−π/2, π/2)
csc(x) [−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2] (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
csc−1 (x) (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) [−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2]
sec(x) [0, π/2) ∪ (π/2, π] (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
sec−1 (x) (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) [0, π/2) ∪ (π/2, π]
cot(x) (0, π) (−∞, ∞)
cot−1 (x) (−∞, ∞) (0, π)

Theorem 2.7.13 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

The inverse trigonometric functions are differentiable on all open sets
contained in their domains (as listed in Table 2.7.12) and their derivatives
are as follows:
d
1
1. sin−1 (x) = √
dx 1 − x2
d
1
2. cos−1 (x) = − √
dx 1 − x2
d
1
3. tan−1 (x) =
dx 1 + x2
d
1
4. csc−1 (x) = − √
dx |x| x2 − 1
d
1
5. sec−1 (x) = √
dx |x| x2 − 1
d
1
6. cot−1 (x) = −
dx 1 + x2

Note how each derivative is the negative of the derivative of its “co” function.
Because of this, derivatives of sin−1 (x), tan−1 (x), and sec−1 (x) are used almost
exclusively throughout this text.
d
In Section 2.3, we stated without proof or explanation that dx (ln(x)) = x1 .
We can justify that now using Theorem 2.7.6, as shown in the example.

Example 2.7.15 Finding the derivative of y = ln(x). [Link]/watch?v=yO-BT5vEZ9A

d Figure 2.7.14 Computing the deriva-

Use Theorem 2.7.6 to compute dx (ln(x)). tive of arctan(x)
Solution. View y = ln(x) as the inverse of y = ex . Therefore, using
our standard notation, let f (x) = ex and g(x) = ln(x). We wish to find
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 130

g ′ (x). Theorem 2.7.6 gives:

1
g ′ (x) =
f ′ (g(x))
1
= ln(x)
e
1
= .
x

In this chapter we have defined the derivative, given rules to facilitate its
computation, and given the derivatives of a number of standard functions. We
restate the most important of these in the following theorem, intended to be a
reference for further work.

Theorem 2.7.16 Glossary of Derivatives of Elementary Functions.

Let f and g be differentiable functions, and let a, c and n be real numbers,
a > 0, n ̸= 0.

d d
1. (c) = 0 14. (cos(x)) = − sin(x)
dx dx
d d
2. (x) = 1 15. (tan(x)) = sec2 (x)
dx dx
d n d
3. (x ) = nxn−1 16. (csc(x)) = − csc(x) cot(x)
dx dx
d
4. (f (x) ± g(x)) = d
dx 17. (sec(x)) = sec(x) tan(x)
f (x) ± g ′ (x)
′ dx

d d
5. (c · f (x)) = c · f ′ (x) 18. (cot(x)) = − csc2 (x)
dx dx
d d
1
6. (f (x) · g(x)) = f ′ (x) · 19. sin−1 (x) = √
dx dx 1 − x2
g(x) + f (x) · g ′ (x)
d

d ′ 20. cos−1 (x) =
7. (f (g(x))) = f (g(x)) · dx
dx 1
g ′ (x) −√
1 − x2
  ′ ′
d f (x) f (x) · g(x) − f (x) · g (x)

8. = d 1
dx g(x) (g(x))221. tan−1 (x) =
dx 1 + x2
d x

9. (e ) = ex d
dx 22. csc−1 (x) =
dx
d 1 1
10. (ln(x)) = − √
dx x |x| x2 − 1
d x d

11. (a ) = ln(a) · ax 23. sec−1 (x) =
dx dx
1
12.
d
(loga x) =
1
·
1 √
dx ln(a) x |x| x2 − 1

d d
1
13. (sin(x)) = cos(x) 24. cot−1 (x) = −
dx dx 1 + x2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES 131

2.7.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) Every function has an inverse.

2. In your own words explain what it means for a function to be “one-to-one.”
3. If (1, 10) lies on the graph of y = f (x), what can be said about the graph of y = f −1 (x)?
4. If (1, 10) lies on the graph of y = f (x) and f ′ (1) = 5, what can be said about y = f −1 (x)?

Problems

Exercise Group. Verify that the given functions are inverses.

5. f (x) = 2x + 6 and g(x) = 21 x − 3
√
6. f (x) = x2 + 6x + 11, x ≥ 3 and g(x) = x − 2 − 3, x ≥ 2
7. f (x) = 3
x−5 , x ̸= 5 and g(x) = 3+5x
x , x ̸= 0
8. f (x) = x+1
x−1 , x ̸= 1 and g(x) = f (x)

Exercise Group. An invertible function f (x) is given along with a point that lies on its graph. Using Theorem 2.7.6,

′
evaluate f −1 (x) at the indicated value.

′
9. The point (9, 65) is on the graph of f (x) = 7x + 2. Find f −1 (65).

′
10. The point (−6, 51) is on the graph of f (x) = x2 − 2x + 3, x ≥ 1. Find f −1 (51).
 √ 
′  √3 
11. The point 24 π
, 23 is on the graph of f (x) = cos(4x), 0 ≤ x ≤ π4 . Find f −1 2 .

′
12. The point (3, 576) is on the graph of f (x) = x3 − 27x2 + 267x − 9. Find f −1 (576).



−1 ′ 1


13. The point 2, 15 is on the graph of f (x) = 1+x 2 , x ≥ 0. Find f
1
5 .

′
14. The point (0, 3) is on the graph of f (x) = 3e4x . Find f −1 (3).

Exercise Group. Compute the derivative of the given function.

15. h(w) = cos−1 (4w) 16. h(x) = csc−1 (7x)
17. j(r) = tan−1 (2r) 18. k(w) = w cos−1 (w)
19. p(x) = tan(x) cos−1 (x) 20. f (t) = ln(t)et
√
tan−1 (z) 22. f (x) = tan( 4 x)
21. m(z) = sin−1 (z)
 

23. g(q) = csc q13 24. g(z) = sin sin−1 (z)

Exercise Group. Compute the derivative of the given function in two ways:
(a) By simplifying first, then taking the derivative, and
(b) by using the Chain Rule first then simplifying.
Verify that the two answers are the same.
25. f (x) = sin(sin−1 (x)) 26. f (x) = tan−1 (tan(x))
27. f (x) = sin(cos−1 (x)) 28. f (x) = sin(2 sin−1 (x))

Exercise Group. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at the indicated x value.
√ √
29. f (x) = sin−1 (x) at x = − 3
2 30. f (x) = cos−1 (2x) at x = 4
3
Chapter 3

The Graphical Behavior of Func-

tions

Our study of limits led to continuous functions, a certain class of functions that
behave in a particularly nice way. Limits then gave us an even nicer class of
functions, functions that are differentiable.
This chapter explores many of the ways we can take advantage of the infor-
mation that continuous and differentiable functions provide.

3.1 Extreme Values

Given any quantity described by a function, we are often interested in the largest
and/or smallest values that quantity attains. For instance, if a function describes
the speed of an object, it seems reasonable to want to know the fastest/slowest
the object traveled. If a function describes the value of a stock, we might want
to know the highest/lowest values the stock attained over the past year. We call
such values extreme values.

Definition 3.1.1 Extreme Values.

Let f be defined on an interval I containing c.
[Link]/watch?v=srE7xUmQtCQ
1. f (c) is the minimum (also, absolute minimum) of f on I if f (c) ≤
f (x) for all x in I. Figure 3.1.2 Video presentation of De-
finition 3.1.1
2. f (c) is the maximum (also, absolute maximum) of f on I if f (c) ≥
f (x) for all x in I.
Note: The extreme values of a
The maximum and minimum values are the extreme values, or ex- function are “y” values, values
trema, of f on I. the function attains, not the in-
put values. However we often
Consider Figure 3.1.3. The function displayed in Figure 3.1.3(a) has a max- say there is an extreme value at
imum, but no minimum, as the interval over which the function is defined is certain input values. For exam-
open. In Figure 3.1.3(b), the function has a minimum, but no maximum; there ple, “sin(x) has a maximum at
is a discontinuity in the “natural” place for the maximum to occur. Finally, the π/2, and the maximum of sin(x)
function shown in Figure 3.1.3(c)has both a maximum and a minimum; note that is 1.”
the function is continuous and the interval on which it is defined is closed.

132
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 133

y y y

4 4 4

2 2 2

x x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.1.3 Graphs of functions with and without extreme values
It is possible for discontinuous functions defined on an open interval to have
both a maximum and minimum value, but we have just seen examples where
they did not. On the other hand, continuous functions on a closed interval al-
ways have a maximum and minimum value.

Theorem 3.1.4 The Extreme Value Theorem.

Let f be a continuous function defined on a closed interval I = [a, b].
Then f has both a maximum and minimum value on I. [Link]/watch?v=GIcjxu8dTnY

This theorem states that f has extreme values, but it does not offer any ad- Figure 3.1.5 Video presentation of The-
vice about how/where to find these values. The process can seem to be fairly orem 3.1.4
easy, as the next example illustrates. After the example, we will draw on lessons
learned to form a more general and powerful method for finding extreme val-
y (5, 25)
ues.
20
Example 3.1.6 Approximating extreme values.

Consider f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 on I = [−1, 5], as graphed in Figure 3.1.7. (0, 0) x
Approximate the extreme values of f . −2 2 4

Solution. The graph is drawn in such a way to draw attention to certain (−1, −11)
points. It certainly seems that the smallest y-value is −27, found when −20
x = 3. It also seems that the largest y-value is 25, found at the endpoint
of I, x = 5. We use the word seems, for by the graph alone we cannot (3, −27)
be sure the smallest value is not less than −27. Since the problem asks
Figure 3.1.7 A graph of f (x) = 2x3 −
for an approximation, we approximate the extreme values to be 25 and
9x2 as in Example 3.1.6
−27.

Notice how the minimum value came at “the bottom of a hill,” and the maxi- Alternative Vocabulary. The terms
mum value came at an endpoint. Also note that while 0 is not an extreme value, local minimum and local maximum
it would be if we narrowed our interval to [−1, 4]. The idea that the point (0, 0) are often used as synonyms for
is the location of an extreme value for some interval is important, leading us to relative minimum and relative max-
a definition of a relative maximum. In short, a “relative max” is a y-value that’s imum.
the largest y-value “nearby.” As it makes intuitive sense that
an absolute maximum is also a
Definition 3.1.8 Relative Minimum and Relative Maximum.
relative maximum, Definition 3.1.8
Let f be defined on an interval I containing c. allows a relative maximum to oc-
cur at an interval’s endpoint.
1. If there is a δ > 0 such that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in I where
|x − c| < δ, then f (c) is a relative minimum of f . We also say
that f has a relative minimum at (c, f (c)).
2. If there is a δ > 0 such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in I where
|x − c| < δ, then f (c) is a relative maximum of f . We also say
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 134

that f has a relative maximum at (c, f (c)).

The relative maximum and minimum values comprise the relative
extrema of f .
[Link]/watch?v=nBZTnxn0vqQ
We briefly practice using these definitions.
Figure 3.1.9 Video presentation of De-
Example 3.1.10 Approximating relative extrema. finition 3.1.8 y
6
Consider f (x) = (3x − 4x − 12x + 5)/5, as shown in Figure 3.1.11.
4 3 2
4
Approximate the relative extrema of f . At each of these points, evaluate
f ′. 2
Solution. We still do not have the tools to exactly find the relative ex- x
trema, but the graph does allow us to make reasonable approximations. −2 −1 1 2 3
It seems f has relative minima at x = −1 and x = 2, with values of −2
f (−1) = 0 and f (2) = −5.4. It also seems that f has a relative maxi- −4
mum at the point (0, 1).
We approximate the relative minima to be 0 and −5.4; we approxi- −6
mate the relative maximum to be 1.
Figure 3.1.11 A graph of f (x) = (3x4 −
It is straightforward to evaluate f ′ (x) = 15 12x3 − 12x2 − 24x at
4x3 −12x2 +5)/5 as in Example 3.1.10
x = 0, 1 and 2. In each case, f ′ (x) = 0.

Example 3.1.12 Approximating relative extrema. y

3

Approximate the relative extrema of f (x) = (x − 1)2/3 + 2, shown in

Figure 3.1.13. At each of these points, evaluate f ′ . 2
Solution. The figure implies that f does not have any relative maxima,
but has a relative minimum at (1, 2). In fact, the graph suggests that not 1
only is this point a relative minimum, y = f (1) = 2 is the minimum
value of the function.
x
We compute f ′ (x) = 23 (x − 1)−1/3 . When x = 1, f ′ is undefined. −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

What can we learn from the previous two examples? We were able to vi- Figure 3.1.13 A graph of f (x) = (x −
sually approximate relative extrema, and at each such point, the derivative was 1)2/3 + 2 as in Example 3.1.12
either 0 or it was not defined. This observation holds for all functions, leading
to a definition and a theorem.
In this text we use “critical num-
Definition 3.1.14 Critical Numbers and Critical Points. ber” and “critical value” interchange-
Let f be defined at c. The value c is a critical number (or critical value) ably. Other textbooks reserve the
of f if f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) is not defined. term critical value for the func-
If c is a critical number of f , then the point (c, f (c)) is a critical point tion value f (c), when c is a criti-
of f . cal number.

Theorem 3.1.15 Relative Extrema and Critical Points.

Let a function f be defined on an open interval I containing c, and let
f have a relative extremum at the point (c, f (c)). Then c is a critical
number of f .

Be careful to understand that this theorem states “Relative extrema on open

intervals occur at critical points.” It does not say “All critical numbers produce
relative extrema.” For instance, consider f (x) = x3 . Since f ′ (x) = 3x2 , it is
[Link]/watch?v=WsBGpi006X0
Figure 3.1.16 Video presentation of De-
finition 3.1.14 and Theorem 3.1.15
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 135

straightforward to determine that x = 0 is a critical number of f . However, f

has no relative extrema, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.17.
Theorem 3.1.4 states that a continuous function on a closed interval will have
1 y
both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum. Common sense tells us
“extrema occur either at the endpoints or somewhere in between.” It is easy
to check for extrema at endpoints, but there are infinitely many points to check 0.5
that are “in between.” Theorem 3.1.15 tells us we need only check at the critical
points that are in between the endpoints. We combine these concepts to offer x
a strategy for finding extrema. −1 −0.5 0.5 1

Key Idea 3.1.18 Finding Extrema on a Closed Interval. −0.5

Let f be a continuous function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. To find

−1
the maximum and minimum values of f on [a, b]:
Figure 3.1.17 A graph of f (x) = x3
1. Evaluate f at the endpoints a and b of the interval.
which has a critical value of x = 0, but
2. Find the critical numbers of f in [a, b]. no relative extrema

3. Evaluate f at each critical number.

4. The absolute maximum of f is the largest of these values, and the
absolute minimum of f is the least of these values. y
40
We practice these ideas in the next examples.
30
Example 3.1.19 Finding extreme values.
20
Find the extreme values of f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x on [0, 3], graphed
in Figure 3.1.20. 10
Solution. We follow the steps outlined in Key Idea 3.1.18. We first eval-
x
uate f at the endpoints:
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

f (0) = 0 f (3) = 45.

Figure 3.1.20 A graph of f (x) = 2x3 +
Next, we find the critical values of f on [0, 3]. f ′ (x) = 6x2 + 6x − 3x2 −12x on [0, 3] as in Example 3.1.19
12 = 6(x + 2)(x − 1); therefore the critical values of f are x = −2
and x = 1. Since x = −2 does not lie in the interval [0, 3], we ignore it.
Evaluating f at the only critical number in our interval gives: f (1) = −7. Video Solution
Figure 3.1.21 gives f evaluated at the “important” x values in [0, 3].
We can easily see the maximum and minimum values of f : the maximum
value is 45 and the minimum value is −7.

Note that all this was done without the aid of a graph; this work followed an
analytic algorithm and did not depend on any visualization. Figure 3.1.20 shows
f and we can confirm our answer, but it is important to understand that these
answers can be found without graphical assistance.
We practice again. [Link]/watch?v=LyhHlreZvhc
Example 3.1.22 Finding extreme values.

Find the maximum and minimum values of f on [−4, 2], where

( x f (x)
(x − 1)2 x ≤ 0
f (x) = . 0 0
x+1 x>0 1 −7
3 45

Figure 3.1.21 Finding the extreme val-

ues of f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x in
Example 3.1.19
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 136

Solution. Here f is piecewise-defined, but we can still apply Key Idea 3.1.18
as it is continuous on [−4, 2] (one should check to verify that lim f (x) =
x→0
f (0)). Video Solution
Evaluating f at the endpoints gives:

f (−4) = 25 f (2) = 3.

We now find the critical numbers of f . We have to define f ′ in a

piecewise manner; it is
(
′ 2(x − 1) x < 0
f (x) = .
1 x>0
[Link]/watch?v=zn--ShSSMqk
′
Note that while f is defined for all of [−4, 2], f is not, as the de-
rivative of f does not exist when x = 0. (From the left, the derivative
approaches −2; from the right the derivative is 1.) Thus one critical num-
ber of f is x = 0.
We now set f ′ (x) = 0. When x > 0, f ′ (x) is never 0. When x < 0,
f (x) is also never 0, so we find no critical values from setting f ′ (x) = 0.
′

So we have three important x-values to consider: x = −4, 2 and

0. Evaluating f at each gives, respectively, 25, 3 and 1, shown in Fig-
ure 3.1.23. Thus the absolute minimum of f is 1, the absolute maximum
of f is 25. Our answer is confirmed by the graph of f in Figure 3.1.24.
25 y

20

15

x f (x) 10
−4 25
0 1 5

2 3 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
Figure 3.1.23 Finding the extreme
values of a piecewise-defined Figure 3.1.24 A graph of f (x) on
function in Example 3.1.22 [−4, 2] as in Example 3.1.22

Example 3.1.25 Finding extreme values.

Video Solution
Find the extrema of f (x) = cos x2 on [−2, 2].
Solution. We again use Key Idea 3.1.18. Evaluating f at the endpoints
of the interval gives: f (−2) = f (2) = cos(4) ≈ −0.6536. We now find
the critical values of f .

Applying the The Chain Rule, we find f ′ (x) = −2x sin x2 . Set
f ′ (x) = 0 and solve for x to find the critical values of f .

We have f ′ (x) = 0 when x = 0 and when sin x2
. In general,
sin(t) = 0 when t = . . . − 2π, −π, 0, π, . . . Thus sin x2 = 0 when
x2 = 0, 2

π, 2π, . . . (x is always
√ nonnegative
√ so we ignore −π, etc.) So [Link]/watch?v=sT_3kVSsbz4
sin x = 0 when x = 0, ± π, ± 2π,
2
√ . . .. The only
√ values to fall in
the given interval of [−2, 2] are 0 and ± π, where π ≈ 1.77.
We again construct a table of important values in Figure 3.1.26. In
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 137

√
this example we have five values to consider: x = 0, ±2, ± π. From
the table it is clear that the maximum value of f on [−2, 2] is 1; the
minimum value is −1. The graph in Figure 3.1.27 confirms our results.
1 y

0.5
x f (x)
−2 −0.65 x
√ −2 −1 1 2
− π −1
0 1 −0.5
√
π −1
2 −0.65 −1

Figure 3.1.26 Finding the

extrema Figure
3.1.27 A graph of f (x) =
of f (x) = cos x2 in Exam- cos x2 on [−2, 2] as in Exam-
ple 3.1.25 ple 3.1.25

We consider one more example.

Example 3.1.28 Finding extreme values.

√
Find the extreme values of f (x) = 1 − x2 .
Solution. A closed interval is not given, so we find the extreme values
of f on its domain. f is defined whenever 1 − x2 ≥ 0; thus the domain
of f is [−1, 1]. Evaluating f at either endpoint returns 0.
y
1

0.5

x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1

−0.5 x f (x)
−1 0
−1 Circle Revisited. We implicitly found
0 1
1 0 the derivative of x2 + y 2 = 1,
Figure
√ 3.1.29 A graph of f (x) = the unit circle, in Section 2.6 Ex-
1 − x2 on [−1, 1] as in Exam- Figure 3.1.30 Finding the extrema ample 2.6.11 as dx dy
= −x/y. In
ple 3.1.28 of the half-circle in Example 3.1.28 Example 3.1.28, half of the unit
√ circle is given as y = f (x) =
Using the The Chain Rule, we find f ′ (x) = −x 1 − x2 . The critical √
points of f are found when f ′ (x) = 0 or when f ′ is undefined. It is 1 − x2 . √
straightforward to find that f ′ (x) = 0 when x = 0, and f ′ is undefined We found f ′ (x) = −x 1 − x2 .
when x = ±1, the endpoints of the interval (which are in the domain of Recognize that the denominator
f .) The table of important values is given in Figure 3.1.30. The maximum of this fraction is y; that is, we
value is 1, and the minimum value is 0. again found f ′ (x) = dx
dy
= −x/y.

We have seen that continuous functions on closed intervals always have a

maximum and minimum value, and we have also developed a technique to find
these values. In Section 3.2, we further our study of the information we can
glean from “nice” functions with the Mean Value Theorem. On a closed interval,
we can find the average rate of change of a function (as we did at the beginning
of Chapter 2). We will see that differentiable functions always have a point at
which their instantaneous rate of change is same as the average rate of change.
This is surprisingly useful, as we’ll see.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 138

3.1.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. Describe what an “extreme value” of a function is in your own words.

2. Sketch the graph of a function f on (−1, 1) that has both a maximum and minimum value.
3. Describe the difference between absolute and relative maxima in your own words.
4. Sketch the graph of a function f where f has a relative maximum at x = 1 and f ′ (1) is undefined.
5. (□ True □ False) If c is a critical value of a function f , then f has either a relative maximum or relative
minimum at x = c.
6. Fill in the blanks: The critical points of a function f are found where f ′ (x) is equal to or where f ′ (x)
is .

Problems

Exercise Group. Identify each of the marked points as being an absolute maximum or minimum, a relative maximum
or minimum, or none of the above.
7. 8.
y B y C
2
G
D
2
1 B D
E
C x
x 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
E
F
A
−2 A −2

Exercise Group. Evaluate f ′ (x) at the points indicated in the graph.

√
9. f (x) = 2
x2 +1 10. f (x) = x2 6 − x2
y y
6 √
(0, 2) (2, 4 2)
2

1
2

x
x
−4 −2 2 4
−3 −2 −1 (0, 0)1 2 3
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 139
√
11. f (x) = sin(x) 12. f (x) = x2 4 − x
y y

16 512

5 , 25 5
√
(π/2, 1) 10
1
8

6
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 4

2
−1 (4, 0) x
(3π/2, −1)
−2 −1 (0, 0)1 2 3 4
√
x4 − 2x2 + 1
2 3
13. f (x) = 1 + (x−2) 3 14. f (x) =
x
y y
6 3

4 2

 √
3
 1
2
2 6, 1 + 3

(−1, 0) (1, 0) x
(2, 1)
x −2 −1 1 2
2 4 6 8 10
( (
x2 , x≤0 x2 , x≤0
15. f (x) = 16. f (x) =
5
x , x>0 x, x>0
y y
1 1

0.5 0.5

x x
−1 −0.5 (0, 0) 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 (0, 0) 0.5 1

−0.5 −0.5

Exercise Group. Find the extreme values of the function on the given interval.


17. f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 on [−5, 1] 18. f (x) = x3 + 23 x2 − 18x − 6 on [0, 3]
  √
19. f (x) = 4 cos(x) on 3π 7π
4 , 6 20. f (x) = x6 4 − x2 on [−2, 2]
2 x2
21. f (x) = x + x on [1, 4] 22. f (x) = on [−2, 2]
x2 +7
x x
23. f (x) = e cos(x) on [0, π] 24. f (x) = e sin(x) on [0, π]
ln(x)
f (x) = x( 4 ) − x3 on [0, 2]
3
25. f (x) = x2 on [1, 7] 26.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 140

3.2 The Mean Value Theorem

We motivate this section with the following question: Suppose you leave your
house and drive to your friend’s house in a city 100 miles away, completing the
trip in two hours. At any point during the trip do you necessarily have to be going
50 miles per hour?
In answering this question, it is clear that the average speed for the entire
trip is 50 mph (i.e. 100 miles in 2 hours), but the question is whether or not your
instantaneous speed is ever exactly 50 mph. More simply, does your speedome-
ter ever read exactly 50 mph?. The answer, under some very reasonable assump-
tions, is “yes.”
Let’s now see why this situation is in a calculus text by translating it into
mathematical symbols.
First assume that the function y = f (t) gives the distance (in miles) traveled
from your home at time t (in hours) where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. In particular, this gives [Link]/watch?v=GvdxKh6RpT0
f (0) = 0 and f (2) = 100. The slope of the secant line connecting the starting Figure 3.2.1 Video introduction to Sec-
and ending points (0, f (0)) and (2, f (2)) is therefore tion 3.2
∆f f (2) − f (0)
=
∆t 2−0
100 − 0
=
2
= 50 mph.

The slope at any point on the graph itself is given by the derivative f ′ (t). So,
since the answer to the question above is “yes,” this means that at some time
during the trip, the derivative takes on the value of 50 mph. Symbolically,

f (2) − f (0)
f ′ (c) = = 50
2−0
for some time 0 ≤ c ≤ 2.
How about more generally? Given any function y = f (x) and a range a ≤
x ≤ b does the value of the derivative at some point between a and b have to
match the slope of the secant line connecting the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b))?
Or equivalently, does the equation f ′ (c) = f (b)−f
b−a
(a)
have to hold for some
a < c < b?
Let’s look at two functions in an example.

Example 3.2.2 Comparing average and instantaneous rates of change.

Consider functions
1
f1 (x) = f2 (x) = |x|
x2
with a = −1 and b = 1 as shown in Figure 3.2.3. Both functions have a
value of 1 at a and b. Therefore the slope of the secant line connecting
the end points is 0 in each case. But if you look at the plots of each, you
can see that there are no points on either graph where the tangent lines
have slope zero. Therefore we have found that there is no c in [−1, 1]
such that
f (1) − f (−1)
f ′ (c) = = 0.
1 − (−1)
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 141

y y
3 3

2 2

1 1

x x
−1 1 −1 1

(a) A graph of f1 (x) = 1/x2 (b) A graph of f2 (x) = |x|

Figure 3.2.3 Graphs of two “misbehaving” functions

So what went “wrong”? It may not be surprising to find that the discontinuity
of f1 and the corner of f2 play a role. If our functions had been continuous and
differentiable, would we have been able to find that special value c? This is our
motivation for the following theorem.

Theorem 3.2.4 The Mean Value Theorem of Differentiation.

Let y = f (x) be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and
differentiable on the open interval (a, b). There exists a value c, a < c <
b, such that
f (b) − f (a) [Link]/watch?v=E05H1f8TByI
f ′ (c) = .
b−a Figure 3.2.6 Video presentation of The-
That is, there is a value c in (a, b) where the instantaneous rate of orem 3.2.5
change of f at c is equal to the average rate of change of f on [a, b].
8 y

Note that the reasons that the functions in Example 3.2.2 fail are indeed that 6
f1 has a discontinuity on the interval [−1, 1] and f2 is not differentiable at the
4
origin.
We will give a proof of the Mean Value Theorem below. To do so, we use a 2
fact, called Rolle’s Theorem, stated here. x
−1 a c 1 b 2
Theorem 3.2.5 Rolle’s Theorem.
−2
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), where f (a) =
−4
f (b). There is some c in (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

Consider Figure 3.2.7 where the graph of a function f is given, where f (a) = Figure 3.2.7 A graph of f (x) = x3 −
f (b). It should make intuitive sense that if f is differentiable (and hence, con- 5x2 + 3x + 5, where f (a) = f (b).
tinuous) that there would be a value c in (a, b) where f ′ (c) = 0; that is, there Note the existence of c, where a <
would be a relative maximum or minimum of f in (a, b). Rolle’s Theorem guar- c < b, where f ′ (c) = 0.
antees at least one; there may be more.
Rolle’s Theorem is presented here as a stepping stone toward the Mean
Value Theorem, but it’s a useful result in its own right. It often turns up as a
tool in mathematical problem solving. The video in Figure 3.2.8 illustrates one
such use of Rolle’s Theorem.
Rolle’s Theorem is really just a special case of the Mean Value Theorem. If
f (a) = f (b), then the average rate of change on (a, b) is 0, and the theorem
guarantees some c where f ′ (c) = 0. We will prove Rolle’s Theorem, then use it
to prove the Mean Value Theorem.

[Link]/watch?v=le-5zsb6O7o
Figure 3.2.8 Using Rolle’s Theorem to
show a polynomial has at most one
real root
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 142

Proof of Rolle’s Theorem. Let f be differentiable on (a, b) where f (a) = f (b).

We consider two cases.
Case. Consider the case when f is constant on [a, b]; that is, f (x) = f (a) =
f (b) for all x in [a, b]. Then f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in [a, b], showing there is at least
one value c in (a, b) where f ′ (c) = 0.
Case. Now assume that f is not constant on [a, b]. The Extreme Value Theorem
guarantees that f has a maximal and minimal value on [a, b], found either at
the endpoints or at a critical value in (a, b). Since f (a) = f (b) and f is not
constant, it is clear that the maximum and minimum cannot both be found at
the endpoints. Assume, without loss of generality, that the maximum of f is
not found at the endpoints. Therefore there is a c in (a, b) such that f (c) is the
maximum value of f . By Theorem 3.1.15, c must be a critical number of f ; since
f is differentiable, we have that f ′ (c) = 0, completing the proof of the theorem.
■
We can now prove the Mean Value Theorem.
Proving the Mean Value Theorem.
Proof of the Mean Value Theorem. Define the function
f (b) − f (a)
g(x) = f (x) − x.
b−a
We know g is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous on [a, b] since f is. We
can show g(a) = g(b) (it is actually easier to show g(b) − g(a) = 0, which
suffices). We can then apply Rolle’s theorem to guarantee the existence of c in
(a, b) such that g ′ (c) = 0. But note that

f (b) − f (a) [Link]/watch?v=1b9af8q5JMg

0 = g ′ (c) = f ′ (c) − ;
b−a
hence
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = ,
b−a
which is what we sought to prove. ■
Going back to the very beginning of the section, we see that the only assump-
tion we would need about our distance function f (t) is that it be continuous and
differentiable for t from 0 to 2 hours (both reasonable assumptions). By the The-
orem 3.2.4, we are guaranteed a time during the trip where our instantaneous
speed is 50 mph. This fact is used in practice. Some law enforcement agencies
monitor traffic speeds while in aircraft. They do not measure speed with radar,
but rather by timing individual cars as they pass over lines painted on the high-
way whose distances apart are known. The officer is able to measure the aver-
age speed of a car between the painted lines; if that average speed is greater
than the posted speed limit, the officer is assured that the driver exceeded the
speed limit at some time.
Note that the Theorem 3.2.4 is an existence theorem. It states that a special
value c exists, but it does not give any indication about how to find it. It turns Video Solution
out that when we need the Theorem 3.2.4, existence is all we need.

Example 3.2.9 Using the Mean Value Theorem.

Consider f (x) = x3 + 5x + 5 on [−3, 3]. Find c in [−3, 3] that satisfies

the Theorem 3.2.4.

[Link]/watch?v=ON7WYLJY2tE
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 143

Solution. The average rate of change of f on [−3, 3] is:

f (3) − f (−3) 47 − (−37)

=
3 − (−3) 6
84
=
6
= 14.

We want to find c such that f ′ (c) = 14. We find f ′ (x) = 3x2 + 5.

We set this equal to 14 and solve for x.

f ′ (x) = 14 y
2 40
3x + 5 = 14
x2 = 3 20
√
x = ± 3 ≈ ±1.732
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
We have found two values c in [−3, 3] where the instantaneous rate
of change is equal to the average rate of change; the Theorem 3.2.4 guar- −20
anteed at least one. In Figure 3.2.10, f is graphed with a line represent-
√
ing the average rate of change; the lines tangent to f at x = ± 3 are −40
also given. Note how these lines are parallel (i.e., have the same slope)
to the secant line. Figure 3.2.10 Demonstrating the Mean
Value Theorem in Example 3.2.9
While the Theorem 3.2.4 has practical use (for instance, the speed monitor-
ing application mentioned before), it is mostly used to advance other theory.
We will use it in the next section to relate the shape of a graph to its derivative.
Before ending this section, we give two important consequences of the Mean
Value Theorem. Each of these consequences has important applications to math-
ematical theory, and can be easily understood in the context of the position and
velocity of objects in motion.
First, we recall that the derivative of any constant function is zero. Is the
converse true? That is, are constant functions the only ones whose derivative is
zero? The Mean Value Theorem says yes. This officially establishes our intuition
about objects in (or, actually, not in) motion: if the velocity of an object is 0, then
the object’s position is unchanged; it is constant. Second, if two functions f and
g have the same derivative, what does this tell us about f and g? The Mean
Value Theorem implies that these functions must only differ by a constant; that
is, f (x) = g(x) + C, for some constant C.
This has an application to motion that is not intuitive to some. Suppose two
objects start moving while 5 ft apart, and always move with the same velocity.
Then the two objects will always be 5 ft apart. (If two pennies are dropped from
the 30th and 31st stories of a tall building at the same time, they will always be
1 story apart as they fall.)

Theorem 3.2.11 Consequences of the Mean Value Theorem.

Let f , g, and h be differentiable (and therefore continuous) functions on
an in terval I.
1. If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in the interval I, then f is a constant function
on I.

2. If g ′ (x) = g ′ (x) for all x in I, then there is a constant C such that

CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 144

g(x) = h(x) + C for all x in I.

Proof.

1. Choose any two points a and b in the interval I. By the Mean Value Theo-
rem, we must have
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
for some c between a and b. But f ′ (c) = 0, so f (b) − f (a) = 0, or
f (a) = f (b). Since a and b were any two points, this tells us that f must
have the same value at every point; that is, f must be constant.

2. Suppose g ′ (x) = h′ (x) for each point x in I, and consider the function
f (x) = g(x) − h(x). By the difference rule for derivatives, we have

f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) − h′ (x) = 0, [Link]/watch?v=PVMLAKYehgs

since g ′ (x) = h′ (x). Figure 3.2.12 Showing that a function
with zero derivative is constant
By the previous result, this means that f (x) is a constant function. That is,
f (x) = C for each x in I, giving us g(x) − h(x) = C, or g(x) = h(x) + C.
■
Using this result, we can establish another result which will be useful when
we study antiderivatives: if two functions have the same derivative, then they
differ by a constant.
We end this section with one more proof involving the Mean Value Theorem;
this time, establishing a property of the sine function.

[Link]/watch?v=BzvxKeZMNtE
Figure 3.2.13 Showing that two func-
tions with the equal derivatives differ
by a constant

[Link]/watch?v=CGBTZtM9mFY
Figure 3.2.14 Demonstrating a prop-
erty of the sine function
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 145

3.2.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. Explain in your own words what the Mean Value Theorem states.
2. Explain in your own words what Rolle’s Theorem states.

Problems

Exercise Group. A function f (x) and interval [a, b] are given. Check if Rolle’s Theorem can be applied to f on [a, b];
if so, find c in (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
3. f (x) = 6 on [−1, 1] 4. f (x) = 6x on [−1, 1]
Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be
applied. applied.
5. f (x) = x2 + x − 6 on [−3, 2] 6. f (x) = x2 + x − 2 on [−3, 2]
Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be
applied. applied.
7. f (x) = x2 + x on [−2, 2] 8. f (x) = sin(x) on [π/6, 5π/6]
Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be
applied. applied.
9. f (x) = cos(x) on [0, π] 1
10. f (x) = x2 −2x+1 on [0, 2]
Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be Explain why Rolle’s Theorem can or cannot be
applied. applied.

Exercise Group. A function f (x) and interval [a, b] are given. Check if The Mean Value Theorem of Differentiation
can be applied to f on [a, b]; if so, find c in (a, b) guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem.
11. f (x) = x2 + 3x − 1 on [−2, 2] 12. f (x) = 5x2 − 6x + 8 on [0, 5]
Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or
cannot be applied. cannot be applied.
√ √
13. f (x) = 9 − x2 on [0, 3] 14. f (x) = 25 − x on [0, 9]
Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or
cannot be applied. cannot be applied.
f (x) = xx2 −9
2
15. 16. f (x) = ln(x) on [1, 5]
−1 on [0, 2]
Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or
cannot be applied. cannot be applied.
17. f (x) = tan(x) on [−π/4, π/4] 18. f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + x + 1 on [−2, 2]
Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or
cannot be applied. cannot be applied.
19. f (x) = 2x3 − 5x2 + 6x + 1 on [−5, 2] 20. f (x) = sin−1 (x) on [−1, 1]
Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or Explain why the Mean Value Theorem can or
cannot be applied. cannot be applied.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 146
5 y

3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 4

Our study of “nice” functions f in this chapter has so far focused on individual 3
points: points where f is maximal/minimal, points where f ′ (x) = 0 or f ′ does
not exist, and points c where f ′ (c) is the average rate of change of f on some 2

interval.
1
In this section we begin to study how functions behave between special
points; we begin studying in more detail the shape of their graphs. x
We start with an intuitive concept. Given the graph in Figure 3.3.1, where 1 2 3
would you say the function is increasing? Decreasing? Even though we have
Figure 3.3.1 A graph of a function f
not defined these terms mathematically, one likely answered that f is increasing
used to illustrate the concepts of in-
when x > 1 and decreasing when x < 1. We formally define these terms here.
creasing and decreasing
Definition 3.3.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions.
Let f be a function defined on an interval I.
1. f is increasing on I if for every a < b in I, f (a) < f (b).

2. f is decreasing on I if for every a < b in I, f (a) > f (b).

Informally, a function is increasing if as x gets larger (i.e., looking left to right)

f (x) gets larger.
Our interest lies in finding intervals in the domain of f on which f is either
increasing or decreasing. Such information should seem useful. For instance, if
f describes the speed of an object, we might want to know when the speed was
increasing or decreasing (i.e., when the object was accelerating vs. decelerat- [Link]/watch?v=NtV0R-JxrmM
ing). If f describes the population of a city, we should be interested in when the Figure 3.3.3 Video presentation of De-
population is growing or declining. finition 3.3.2
To find such intervals, we again consider secant lines. Let f be an increas-
ing, differentiable function on an open interval I, such as the one shown in Fig-
ure 3.3.4, and let a < b be given in I. The secant line on the graph of f from
x = a to x = b is drawn; it has a slope of (f (b) − f (a))/(b − a).
But note, since b > a and f is increasing, f (b) > f (a). And these facts Caution: the definition we give
imply b − a > 0 and f (b) − f (a) > 0. Therefore: in Definition 3.3.2 is not the one
you will find in formal mathemat-
ics textbooks. Such texts define
y (b, f (b))
2 a function to be increasing on I
f (b) − f (a)
>0 if, for every a < b in I, f (a) ≤
b−a 1.5
f (b). (Notice how equality is al-
=⇒ slope of the secant line > 0 lowed.) The condition f (a) <
1
=⇒ Average rate of change of f f (b) is then referred to as strictly
on [a, b] is > 0. 0.5 increasing. Similar definitions are
(a, f (a)) made for decreasing and strictly
x
decreasing.
a 0.5 1 1.5 b 2
While this definition has cer-
−0.5 tain technical advantages in a proof-
Figure 3.3.4 Examining the secant line of an increasing function based course, it is also concep-
tually counterintuitive for many
We have shown mathematically what may have already been obvious: when students. For example, with this
f is increasing, its secant lines will have a positive slope. Now recall the Mean definition a constant function would
Value Theorem 3.2.4 guarantees that there is a number c, where a < c < b, be both increasing and decreas-
such that ing!
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = > 0.
b−a
By considering all such secant lines in I, we strongly imply that f ′ (x) > 0 on
I. A similar statement can be made for decreasing functions.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 147

Our above logic can be summarized as “If f is increasing, then f ′ is probably

positive.” Theorem 3.3.5 below turns this around by stating “If f ′ is positive,
then f is increasing.” This leads us to a method for finding when functions are
increasing and decreasing.

Theorem 3.3.5 Test For Increasing/Decreasing Functions.

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).

1. If f ′ (c) > 0 for all c in (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].

2. If f ′ (c) < 0 for all c in (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].
3. If f ′ (c) = 0 for all c in (a, b), then f is constant on [a, b].

The conclusions of Item 1 and Item 2 also hold if f ′ (c) = 0 for a finite
number of nonadjacent values of c in I.

Let f be differentiable on an interval I and let a and b be in I where f ′ (a) > 0

and f ′ (b) < 0. If f ′ is continuous on [a, b], it follows from the Intermediate Value
Theorem that there must be some value c between a and b where f ′ (c) = 0. (It
turns out that this is still true even if f ′ is not continuous on [a, b].) This leads us [Link]/watch?v=SjF3vslBqOA
to the following method for finding intervals on which a function is increasing or Figure 3.3.6 Video presentation of The-
decreasing. orem 3.3.5
Key Idea 3.3.7 Finding Intervals on Which f is Increasing or Decreasing.
Let f be a continuous function on an interval I. To find intervals on which
f is increasing and decreasing:

1. If not stated, find the domain of f , D. Begin a number line that

only includes D.
2. Find the critical values of f . That is, find all c in the domain of
f where f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ is not defined. (Note: Any values of c
not in the domain of f where f ′ (c) is undefined should already
be marked on your number line from Step 1).
3. Use the critical values to divide D into subintervals.
4. Pick any point p in each subinterval, and find the sign of f ′ (p).

(a) If f ′ (p) > 0, then f is increasing on that subinterval.

(b) If f ′ (p) < 0, then f is decreasing on that subinterval.

Note that although Theorem 3.3.5 allows us to use determine that

a function is increasing or decreasing on a closed interval, it is conven-
tional to state the intervals of increase and decrease as open intervals.
We will follow this convention in the examples that follow, but it is also
acceptable to answer using closed intervals.
In particular, one should note the following:
• If f ′ (x) > 0 on (a, b) and on (b, c), with f ′ (b) = 0, then we
should say that f is increasing on (a, c) (or on [a, c]) — the zero of
the derivative should be included.
• If f ′ (x) > 0 on (a, b) and on (b, c), but f (b) is undefined (or f is
discontinuous at b), then we should not include the point b in our
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 148

interval. Instead, we say that f is increasing on (a, b) and (b, c), or

on [a, b) and (b, c].

We demonstrate using this process in the following example.

Example 3.3.8 Finding intervals of increasing/decreasing.

Let f (x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1. Find intervals on which f is increasing or Video Solution

decreasing.
Solution. Since an interval was not specified for us to consider, using
Key Idea 3.3.7, the domain of f is R or (−∞, ∞). Next, we find the
critical values of f . We have f ′ (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 1 = (3x − 1)(x + 1),
so f ′ (x) = 0 when x = −1 and when x = 1/3. f ′ is never undefined.
We thus break the domain (in this case the (−∞, ∞)) into three
subintervals based on the two critical values we just found: (−∞, −1),
(−1, 1/3) and (1/3, ∞). This is shown in Figure 3.3.9.
We now pick a value p in each subinterval and find the sign of f ′ (p). [Link]/watch?v=DW6qcgE1TZ0
All we care about is the sign, so we do not actually have to fully compute
f ′ (p); pick “nice” values that make this simple.

Subinterval 1: We (arbitrarily) pick p = −2. We can compute

(−∞, −1) f ′ (−2) directly: f ′ (−2) = 3(−2)2 + 2(−2) −
1 = 7 > 0. We conclude that f is increasing
on (−∞, −1). −1 1/3
Note we can arrive at the same conclusion
Figure 3.3.9 Number line for f in Ex-
without computation. For instance, we could
ample 3.3.8
choose p = −100. The first term in f ′ (−100),
i.e., 3(−100)2 is clearly positive and very large.
The other terms are small in comparison, so
we know f ′ (−100) > 0. All we need is the
sign.
Subinterval 2: We pick p = 0 since that value seems easy to
(−1, 1/3) deal with. f ′ (0) = −1 < 0. We conclude f is
decreasing on (−1, 1/3).
Subinterval 3: Pick an arbitrarily large value for p > 1/3 and f′ > 0 f′ < 0 f′ > 0
(1/3, ∞) note that f ′ (p) = 3p2 + 2p − 1 > 0. We f incr f decr f incr
conclude that f is increasing on (1/3, ∞). −1 1/3

Figure 3.3.10 summarizes our work. Figure 3.3.10 Completed number line
We can verify our calculations by considering Figure 3.3.11, where for f in Example 3.3.8
f is graphed. The graph also presents f ′ ; note how f ′ > 0 when f is
increasing and f ′ < 0 when f is decreasing.
y
One is justified in wondering why so much work is done when the graph 10
seems to make the intervals very clear. We give three reasons why the above
work is worthwhile.
First, the points at which f switches from increasing to decreasing are not
precisely known given a graph. The graph shows us something significant hap- 5 f (x)
f ′ (x)
pens near x = −1 and x = 0.3, but we cannot determine exactly where from
the graph.
One could argue that just finding critical values is important; once we know x
the significant points are x = −1 and x = 1/3, the graph shows the increasing/ −2 −1 1/3 1 2
decreasing traits just fine. That is true. However, the technique prescribed here

Figure 3.3.11 A graph of f (x) in Exam-

ple 3.3.8, showing where f is increas-
ing and decreasing
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 149

helps reinforce the relationship between increasing/decreasing and the sign of

f ′ . Once mastery of this concept (and several others) is obtained, one finds that
either (a) just the critical points are computed and the graph shows all else that
is desired, or (b) a graph is never produced, because determining increasing/
decreasing using f ′ is straightforward and the graph is unnecessary. So our sec-
ond reason why the above work is worthwhile is this: once mastery of a subject
is gained, one has options for finding needed information. We are working to
develop mastery.
Finally, our third reason: many problems we face “in the real world” are very
complex. Solutions are tractable only through the use of computers to do many
calculations for us. Computers do not solve problems “on their own,” however;
they need to be taught (i.e., programmed) to do the right things. It would be
beneficial to give a function to a computer and have it return maximum and
minimum values, intervals on which the function is increasing and decreasing,
the locations of relative maxima, etc. The work that we are doing here is easily
programmable. It is hard to teach a computer to “look at the graph and see if it
is going up or down.” It is easy to teach a computer to “determine if a number
is greater than or less than 0.”
In Section 3.1 we learned the definition of relative maxima and minima and
found that they occur at critical points. We are now learning that functions can
switch from increasing to decreasing (and vice-versa) at critical points. This new
understanding of increasing and decreasing creates a great method of determin-
ing whether a critical point corresponds to a maximum, minimum, or neither.
Imagine a function increasing until a critical point at x = c, after which it de-
creases. A quick sketch helps confirm that f (c) must be a relative maximum. A
similar statement can be made for relative minimums. We formalize this con-
cept in a theorem.

Theorem 3.3.12 First Derivative Test.

Let f be continuous on an interval I, and differentiable on I, except pos-
sibly at c, where c is a critical number in I.
[Link]/watch?v=_HjE4urOM4Y
1. If the sign of f ′ switches from positive to negative at c, then f (c)
is a relative maximum of f . Figure 3.3.13 Video presentation of The-
orem 3.3.12
2. If the sign of f ′ switches from negative to positive at c, then f (c)
is a relative minimum of f .
3. If f ′ is positive (or, negative) before and after c, then f (c) is not a 4 y

relative extrema of f .
2
Remark 3.3.14 Importance of Continuity. The continuity of f when using the
first derivative test is very important. Without continuity, almost anything can x
happen at a critical number. For example, we can construct a piecewise function −1 1 2 3
where the sign of f ′ switches to positive to negative at c and f (c) is not a local
maximum. This is shown in Figure 3.3.15.
−2

Example 3.3.16 Using the First Derivative Test.

Figure 3.3.15 A discontinuous function
Find the intervals on which f is increasing and decreasing, and use the
where f ′ changes sign at 1, but f (1) is
First Derivative Test 3.3.12 to determine the relative extrema of f , where
not a local maximum
x2 + 3
f (x) = .
x−1
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 150

Solution. We start by noting the domain of f : (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

Since f is not defined at x = 1 (it has a vertical asymptote), the
increasing/decreasing nature of f could switch at this value. We know
that f ′ (1) will be undefined since f is discontinuous at 1. We do not
formally consider x = 1 to be a critical value of f , but we will use 1 to
subdivide the real number line.
Using the Quotient Rule 2.4.10, we find

x2 − 2x − 3
f ′ (x) = .
(x − 1)2
We need to find the critical values of f ; we want to know when Video Solution
f ′ (x) = 0 and when f ′ is not defined. That latter is straightforward:
when the denominator of f ′ (x) is 0, f ′ is undefined. That occurs when
x = 1, which we’ve already recognized as an important value, but not a
critical number.
f ′ (x) = 0 when the numerator of f ′ (x) is 0. That occurs when
x − 2x − 3 = (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0; i.e., when x = −1, 3.
2

We have found that f has two critical numbers, x = −1, 3, and at

x = 1 something important might also happen. These three numbers
divide the real number line into four subintervals:
[Link]/watch?v=94iCiIX07R0
(−∞, −1), (−1, 1), (1, 3), and (3, ∞).

Pick a number p from each subinterval and test the sign of f ′ at p to

determine whether f is increasing or decreasing on that interval. Again,
we do well to avoid complicated computations; notice that the denomi-
nator of f ′ is always positive so we can ignore it during our work.

Interval 1: Choosing a very small number (i.e., a nega-

(−∞, −1) tive number with a large magnitude) p returns
p2 −2p− 3 in the numerator of f ′ ; that will be
positive. Hence f is increasing on (−∞, −1).
rel rel
Interval 2: (−1, 1) Choosing 0 seems simple: f ′ (0) = −3 < 0. max VA min
We conclude f is decreasing on (−1, 1). f′ > 0 f′ < 0 f′ < 0 f′ > 0
f incr f decr f decr f incr
Interval 3: (1, 3) Choosing 2 seems simple: f ′ (2) = −3 < 0.
−1 1 3 5
Again, f is decreasing.
Interval 4: (3, ∞) Choosing an very large number p from this Figure 3.3.17 Number line for f in Ex-
subinterval will give a positive numerator and ample 3.3.16
(of course) a positive denominator. So f is in-
creasing on (3, ∞).
20 y
In summary, f is increasing on the intervals (−∞, −1) and (3, ∞)
and is decreasing on the intervals (−1, 1) and (1, 3). Since at x = −1, f (x)

the sign of f ′ switched from positive to negative, Theorem 3.3.12 states 10

that f (−1) is a relative maximum of f . At x = 3, the sign of f ′ switched
f ′ (x)
from negative to positive, meaning f (3) is a relative minimum. At x = 1, x
f is not defined, so there is no relative extremum at x = 1. As previously −4 −2 2 4
stated, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of f .
This is summarized in the number line shown in Figure 3.3.17. Also, −10
Figure 3.3.18 shows a graph of f , confirming our calculations. This figure
also shows f ′ , again demonstrating that f is increasing when f ′ > 0 and −20
decreasing when f ′ < 0.
Figure 3.3.18 A graph of f (x) in Ex-
ample 3.3.16, showing where f is in-
creasing and decreasing
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 151

One is often tempted to think that functions always alternate “increasing, de-
creasing, increasing, decreasing,…” around critical values. Our previous example
demonstrated that this is not always the case. While x = 1 was not technically
a critical value, it was an important value we needed to consider. We found that
f was decreasing on “both sides of x = 1.”
We examine one more example.

Example 3.3.19 Using the First Derivative Test.

Find the intervals on which f (x) = x8/3 − 4x2/3 is increasing and de- Video Solution
creasing and identify the relative extrema.
Solution. The domain of f is R (you can take the odd root of both pos-
itive and negative nubmers). Next, we take the first derivative. Since we
know we want to solve f ′ (x) = 0, we will do some algebra after taking
the derivative.
8 2
f (x) = x 3 − 4x 3
8 5 8 1
f ′ (x) = x 3 − x− 3
3 3 [Link]/watch?v=T4RxcQnNotc
8 −1  6 
= x 3 x3 − 1
3
8 1

= x− 3 x2 − 1
3
8 1
= x− 3 (x − 1)(x + 1).
3
This derivation of f ′ shows that f ′ (x) = 0 when x = ±1 and f ′ is
not defined when x = 0. Thus we have three critical values, breaking
the number line into four subintervals as shown in Figure 3.3.20.

Interval 1: (∞, −1) We choose p = −2; we can easily verify that

f ′ (−2) < 0. So f is decreasing on (−∞, −1).
Interval 2: (−1, 0) Choose p = −1/2. Once more we prac-
tice finding the sign of f ′ (p) without com-
puting an actual value. We have f ′ (p) =
(8/3)p−1/3 (p−1)(p+1); find the sign of each
of the three terms at the chosen value of p.
8 −1
f ′ (p) = · p 3 · (p − 1) (p + 1) .
3 |{z} | {z } | {z }
<0 <0 >0

We have a “negative × negative × positive”

giving a positive number; f is increasing on
(−1, 0).
Interval 3: (0, 1) We do a similar sign analysis as before, using
p in (0, 1).
8 −1
f ′ (p) = · p 3 · (p − 1) (p + 1) .
3 |{z} | {z } | {z }
>0 <0 >0

We have two positive factors and one negative

factor; f ′ (p) < 0 and so f is decreasing on
(0, 1).
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 152

Interval 4: (1, ∞) Similar work to that done for the other three rel rel rel
intervals shows that f ′ (x) > 0 on (1, ∞), so min max min
f is increasing on this interval. f′ < 0 f′ > 0 f′ < 0 f′ > 0
f decr f incr f decr f incr
We conclude by stating that f is increasing on the intervals (−1, 0)
−1 0 1
and (1, ∞) and decreasing on the intervals (−∞, −1) and (0, 1). The
sign of f ′ changes from negative to positive around x = −1 and x = 1, Figure 3.3.20 Number line for f in Ex-
meaning by Theorem 3.3.12 that f (−1) and f (1) are relative minima of ample 3.3.19
f . As the sign of f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = 0, we have a
relative maximum at f (0). Figure 3.3.21 shows a graph of f , confirming
our result. We also graph f ′ , highlighting once more that f is increasing
when f ′ > 0 and is decreasing when f ′ < 0.
y
We have seen how the first derivative of a function helps determine when f (x) 10
the graph of a function is going “up” or “down.” In the next section, we will see
how the second derivative helps determine how the graph of a function curves.
5
f ′ (x)

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−5

Figure 3.3.21 A graph of f (x) in Ex-

ample 3.3.19, showing where f is in-
creasing and decreasing
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 153

3.3.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. In your own words describe what it means for a function to be increasing.

2. What does a decreasing function “look like”?
3. Sketch a graph of a function on [0, 2] that is increasing, where it is increasing “quickly” near x = 0 and increasing
“slowly” near x = 2.
4. Give an example of a function describing a situation where it is “bad” to be increasing and “good” to be decreas-
ing.
5. (□ True □ False) Functions always switch from increasing to decreasing, or decreasing to increasing, at
critical points.
A function f has derivative f ′ (x) = (sin x + 2)ex +1 , where f ′ (x) > 1 for all x. Is f increasing, decreasing, or
2
6.
can we not tell from the given information? Why or why not?

Problems

Exercise Group. A function f (x) is given. Graph f and f ′ on the same axes (using technology is permitted) and verify
Theorem 3.3.5.
7. f (x) = 2x + 3 8. f (x) = x2 − 3x + 5
9. f (x) = cos(x) 10. f (x) = tan(x)
11. f (x) = x − 5x + 7x − 1
3 2
12. f (x) = 2x3 − x2 + x − 1
13. f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4 14. f (x) = 1
x2 +1

Exercise Group. A function f (x) is given.

(a) Give the domain of f .
(b) Find the critical numbers of f .

(c) Find the intervals on which f is increasing.

(d) Find the intervals on which f is decreasing.
(e) Use the First Derivative Test to determine which critical points are a relative maximum.

(f) Use the First Derivative Test to determine which critical points are a relative minimum.
15. f (x) = x2 + 4x 16. f (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 9
17. f (x) = 7x3 − 17x2 − 35x + 1 18. f (x) = x3 − 9x2 + 27x − 27
19. f (x) = 1 x2 −1
x2 −10x+34 20. f (x) = x2 −36
x 2
21. f (x) = x2 +12x+35 (x−(−5)) 3
22. f (x) = x
23. f (x) = sin(x) cos(x) on (−π, π) 6
24. f (x) = x + 192x
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 154

3.4 Concavity and the Second Derivative

Our study of “nice” functions continues. The previous section showed how
the first derivative of a function, f ′ , can relay important information about f .
We now apply the same technique to f ′ itself, and learn what this tells us about
f.
The key to studying f ′ is to consider its derivative, namely f ′′ , which is the
second derivative of f . When f ′′ > 0, f ′ is increasing. When f ′′ < 0, f ′ is
decreasing. f ′ has relative maxima and minima where f ′′ = 0 or is undefined.
This section explores how knowing information about f ′′ gives information
about f . [Link]/watch?v=0uCjI5J4ew4
Figure 3.4.1 Video introduction to Sec-
tion 3.4
3.4.1 Concavity
We begin with a definition, then explore its meaning.

Definition 3.4.2 Concave Up and Concave Down.

Let f be continuous on an interval I. The graph of f is concave up on I
if for any a < b in I,
 
a+b f (a) + f (b)
f < . (3.4.1)
2 2

The graph of f is concave down on I if for any a < b in I,

 
a+b f (a) + f (b)
f > . (3.4.2)
2 2

Geometrically, the condition in (3.4.1) states that a graph is concave up if the

midpoint of the secant line from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)) (and hence, the secant line
itself) is above the graph y = f (x). Similarly, (3.4.2) states that the secant line
lies below the graph.
In order for equality to hold instead of (3.4.1) or (3.4.2), the function would
have to be of the form f (x) = mx + c, in which case the graph is a straight line.
Straight lines are considered to have no concavity.

y y
6 6

4 4

2 2

x x
−1 1 2 −1 1 2

(a) A graph that is concave up. No- (b) A graph that is concave down. No-
tice how the secant line lies above the tice how the secant line lies below the Loose Language. We often state
graph. graph. that “f is concave up” instead of
“the graph of f is concave up” for
Figure 3.4.3 Illustrating the nature of concave up and concave down simplicity.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 155

Consider a function f such that f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable

on (a, b). Note that a+b
2 is the midpoint of the interval [a, b]. By theThe Mean
Value Theorem of Differentiation, there must be a point c1 in a, a+b 2 such that

   
′ f a+b
− f (a) 2 a+b
f (c1 ) = 2
= f − f (a) .
a+b
2 −a b−a 2
 a+b  As with Theorem 3.3.5, Theorem 3.4.4
Similarly, there must be a point c2 in 2 , b such that lets us conclude that the graph

   of a function is concave up (or
′ f (b) − f a+b
2 a+b down) on a closed interval, assum-
f (c2 ) = 2
= f (b) − f .
b− a+b
2
b−a 2 ing that the function is continu-
ous on that interval. Again, we
But then we have follow the convention that when
      a problem asks us to give the in-
′ ′ 2 a+b a+b
f (c2 ) − f (c1 ) = f (b) − f −f + f (a) tervals on which the graph is con-
b−a 2 2 cave up or down, we give open
  
4 f (a) + f (b) a+b intervals, even if a closed inter-
= −f .
b−a 2 2 val is technically correct.
If a function has the same con-
Now, let us suppose that f ′ (x) is an increasing function on (a, b). In that cavity on adjacent intervals (a, b)
case, f ′ (c2 ) − f ′ (c1 ) > 0, and since b − a > 0, this implies that and (b, c), and the function is con-
  tinuous at b, we should combine
f (a) + f (b) a+b
−f > 0, the intervals, and state the result
2 2 as (a, c). However, if b is a point
which, by Definition 3.4.2 means that the graph of f is concave up. of discontinuity, we must omit it
Similarly, if f ′ (x) is a decreasing function on (a, b), then the graph of f will from our intervals.
be concave down. Using Theorem 3.3.5, we arrive at the following theorem.

Theorem 3.4.4
y
Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). 30

1. If f ′′ (c) > 0 for all c in (a, b), then f is concave up on [a, b].
20
2. If f ′′ (c) < 0 for all c in (a, b), then f is concave down on [a, b].
3. If f ′′ (c) = 0 for all c in (a, b), then f is linear on [a, b].
10
′
The graph of a function f is concave up when f is increasing. That means as
one looks at a concave up graph from left to right, the slopes of the tangent lines x
will be increasing. Consider Figure 3.4.5, where a concave up graph is shown −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
along with some tangent lines. Notice how the tangent line on the left is steep,
downward, corresponding to a lesser (large negative) value of f ′ . On the right, Figure 3.4.5 A function f with a con-
the tangent line is steep, upward, corresponding to a greater (large positive) cave up graph. Notice how the slopes
value of f ′ . of the tangent lines, when looking from
If a function is decreasing and concave up, then its rate of decrease is slowing; left to right, are increasing. (The slope
it is “leveling off.” You can see this in the left side of Figure 3.4.5. If the function is values pictured are −12, −6, 6 and 12).
increasing and concave up, then the rate of increase is increasing. The function
is increasing at a faster and faster rate. You can see this in the right side of
Figure 3.4.5.
Now consider a function which is concave down. We essentially repeat the
above paragraphs with slight variation.
The graph of a function f is concave down when f ′ is decreasing. That means
as one looks at a concave down graph from left to right, the slopes of the tangent
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 156 y
30

lines will be decreasing. Consider Figure 3.4.6, where a concave down graph is
shown along with some tangent lines. Notice how the tangent line on the left
20
is steep, upward, corresponding to a greater (large positive) value of f ′ . On
the right, the tangent line is steep, downward, corresponding to a lesser (large
negative) value of f ′ . 10
If a function is increasing and concave down, then its rate of increase is slow-
ing; it is “leveling off.” If the function is decreasing and concave down, then the
rate of decrease is decreasing. The function is decreasing at a faster and faster x
rate. −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Our definition of concave up and concave down is given in terms of when Figure 3.4.6 A function f with a con-
the first derivative is increasing or decreasing. We can apply the results of the cave down graph. Notice how the slopes
previous section to find intervals on which a graph is concave up or down. That of the tangent lines, when looking from
is, we recognize that f ′ is increasing when f ′′ > 0, etc. left to right, are decreasing.
Theorem 3.4.7 Test for Concavity.
Let f be twice differentiable on an interval I. The graph of f is concave
up if f ′′ > 0 on I, and is concave down if f ′′ < 0 on I.

Concavity Depravity. A mnemonic

for remembering what concave
up/down means is: “Concave up
is like a cup; concave down is like
a frown.” It is admittedly terri-
ble, but it works.

(a) f ′ > 0, f in- (b) f ′ < 0, f de-

creasing; f ′′ < creasing; f ′′ <
0, f is concave 0, f is concave
down down

Geometric Concavity. Geomet-

rically speaking, a function is con-
cave up if its graph lies above its
tangent lines and below secant
(c) f ′ < 0, f de- (d) f ′ > 0, f in- line segments. A function is con-
creasing; f ′′ > creasing; f ′′ > cave down if its graph lies below
0, f is concave 0, f is concave its tangent lines and above secant
up up line segments.
Figure 3.4.8 Demonstrating the four ways that concavity interacts with increas-
ing/decreasing, along with the relationships with the first and second derivatives
If knowing where a graph is concave up/down is important, it makes sense 15 y f ′′ < 0,
f ′′ > 0, f is f ′′ > 0,
that the places where the graph changes from one to the other is also important. f is concave f is
This leads us to a definition. concave down concave
10 up up
Definition 3.4.9 Point of Inflection.
A point of inflection is a point on the graph of f at which the concavity
of f changes. 5

Figure 3.4.10 shows a graph of a function with inflection points labeled. x

If the concavity of f changes at a point (c, f (c)), then f ′ is changing from 1 2 3 4
increasing to decreasing (or, decreasing to increasing) at x = c. That means
Figure 3.4.10 A graph of a function with
its inflection points marked. The in-
tervals where concave up/down are
also indicated.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 157

that the sign of f ′′ is changing from positive to negative (or, negative to positive)
at x = c. A sign change may occur when f ′′ = 0 or f ′′ is undefined. This leads
to the following theorem.

Theorem 3.4.11 Points of Inflection.

If (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection on the graph of f , then either f ′′ (c) = 0
or f ′′ is not defined at c.

We have identified the concepts of concavity and points of inflection. It is Video Solution
now time to practice using these concepts; given a function, we should be able
to find its points of inflection and identify intervals on which it is concave up or
down. We do so in the following examples.

Example 3.4.12 Finding intervals of concave up/down, inflection points.

Let f (x) = x3 − 3x + 1. Find the inflection points of f and the intervals

on which it is concave up/down.
Solution. We start by finding f ′ (x) = 3x2 −3 and f ′′ (x) = 6x. To find [Link]/watch?v=n8TRVD_8sY0
the inflection points, we use Theorem 3.4.11 and find where f ′′ (x) = 0
or where f ′′ is undefined. We find f ′′ is always defined, and is 0 only
when x = 0. So the point (0, f (0)) = (0, 1) is the only possible point of f ′′ < 0 f ′′ > 0
inflection. f is concave down f is concave up
This possible inflection point divides the real line into two intervals, 0
(−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). We use a process similar to the one used in the
previous section to determine increasing/decreasing. Pick any c < 0; Figure 3.4.13 A number line determin-
f ′′ (c) < 0 so f is concave down on (−∞, 0). Pick any c > 0; f ′′ (c) > 0 ing the concavity of f in Example 3.4.12
so f is concave up on (0, ∞). Since the concavity changes at x = 0, the
point (0, 1) is an inflection point.
The number line in Figure 3.4.13 illustrates the process of determin- y
ing concavity; Figure 3.4.14 shows a graph of f and f ′′ , confirming our f ′′ (x)
results. Notice how f is concave down precisely when f ′′ (x) < 0 and 2
concave up when f ′′ (x) > 0.
f (x) x
Example 3.4.15 Finding intervals of concave up/down, inflection points. −2 −1 1 2

Let f (x) = x/(x2 − 1). Find the inflection points of f and the intervals
−2
on which it is concave up/down.
Solution. We need to find f ′ and f ′′ . Using the Quotient Rule 2.4.10
and simplifying, we find
Figure 3.4.14 A graph of f (x) used in
−(1 + x2 ) 2x(x2 + 3) Example 3.4.12
f ′ (x) = f ′′ (x) = .
(x2 − 1)2 (x2 − 1)3
Video Solution
To find the possible points of inflection, we seek to find where f ′′ (x) =
0 and where f ′′ is not defined. Solving f ′′ (x) = 0 reduces to solving
2x(x2 + 3) = 0; we find x = 0. We find that f ′′ is not defined when
x = ±1, for then the denominator of f ′′ is 0. We also note that f itself is
not defined at x = ±1, having a domain of (−∞, −1)∪(−1, 1)∪(1, ∞).
Since the domain of f is the union of three intervals, it makes sense that
the concavity of f could switch across intervals. We technically cannot
say that f has a point of inflection at x = ±1 as they are not part of the
domain, but we must still consider these x-values to be important and
will include them in our number line. [Link]/watch?v=eC6QLbsuRVs
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 158

The important x-values at which concavity might switch are x = −1,

x = 0 and x = 1, which split the number line into four intervals as f ′′ < 0 f ′′ > 0 f ′′ < 0 f ′′ > 0
f conc f conc f conc f conc
shown in Figure 3.4.16. We determine the concavity on each. Keep in down up down up
mind that all we are concerned with is the sign of f ′′ on the interval.
−1 0 1

Interval 1: Select a number c in this interval with a large Figure 3.4.16 Number line for f in Ex-
(−∞, −1) magnitude (for instance, c = −100). The de- ample 3.4.15
nominator of f ′′ (x) will

be positive. In the nu-
merator, the c2 + 3 factor will be positive
and the 2c factor will be negative. Thus the nu-
merator is negative and f ′′ (c) is negative. We
conclude f is concave down on (−∞, −1). 10 y
f (x) f ′′ (x)
Interval 2: (−1, 0) For any number c in this interval, the factor
2c in the numerator will be negative, the fac- 5


tor c2 + 3 in the numerator will be positive,

3 x
and the factor c2 − 1 in the denominator −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
will be negative. Thus f ′′ (c) > 0 and f is con-
cave up on this interval. −5
Interval 3: (0, 1) Any number c in this interval will be posi-
tive and “small.” Thus the numerator is pos- −10
itive while the denominator is negative. Thus
f ′′ (c) < 0 and f is concave down on this in- Figure 3.4.17 A graph of f (x) and f ′′ (x)
terval. in Example 3.4.15
Interval 4: (1, ∞) Choose a large value for c. It is evident that
f ′′ (c) > 0, so we conclude that f is concave
up on (1, ∞).
We conclude that f is concave up on (−1, 0) and (1, ∞) and con-
cave down on (−∞, −1) and (0, 1). There is only one point of inflection,
(0, 0), as f is not defined at x = ±1. Our work is confirmed by the graph
20 y
of f in Figure 3.4.17. Notice how f is concave up whenever f ′′ is positive,
and concave down when f ′′ is negative. The inflection in f occurs where
f ′′ changes sign. 15

S(t)
Recall that relative maxima and minima of f are found at critical points of 10
f ; that is, they are found when f ′ (x) = 0 or when f ′ is undefined. Likewise,
the relative maxima and minima of f ′ are found when f ′′ (x) = 0 or when f ′′ is
5
undefined; note that these are the inflection points of f .
What does a “relative maximum of f ′ ” mean? The derivative measures the t
rate of change of f ; maximizing f ′ means finding where f is increasing the most 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
— where f has the steepest tangent line. A similar statement can be made for
minimizing f ′ ; it corresponds to where f has the steepest negatively-sloped tan- Figure 3.4.19 A graph of S(t) in Ex-
gent line. ample 3.4.18, modeling the sale of a
We utilize this concept in the next example. product over time

Example 3.4.18 Understanding inflection points.

The sales of a certain product over a three-year span are modeled by Video Solution
S(t) = t4 −8t2 +20, where t is the time in years, shown in Figure 3.4.19.
Over the first two years, sales are decreasing. Find the point at which
sales are decreasing at their greatest rate.
Solution. We want to maximize the rate of decrease, which is to say,
we want to find where S ′ has a minimum. To do this, we find where S ′′

[Link]/watch?v=yjcSXaGkL5Y
 20 y
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 159
S(t)
10
is 0 and S ′′ changes from negative to positive. We find S ′ (t) = 4t3 −16t
′′ ′′
p S (t) = 12t − 16. Setting S (t) = 0 and solving, we get t =
2
and t
4/3 ≈ 1.16 (we ignore the negative solution for t since it does not lie 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
in the domain of our function S). p
Since S ′′ (1) = −4 < 0 and S ′′ (2) = 32 > 0, we can say S ′ ( 4/3) −10 S ′ (t)
is a local minimum of S ′ . This is both the inflection point and the point
of maximum decrease. This is the point at which things first start looking
up for the company. After the inflection point, sales are still decreasing, Figure 3.4.20 A graph of S(t) in Exam-
but not decreasing quite as quickly as they had been. ple 3.4.18, along with S ′ (t)
A graph of S(t) and S ′ (t) is given in Figure 3.4.20. When S ′ (t) < 0,
sales are decreasing; note how at t ≈ 1.16, S ′ (t) is minimized. That y
1
is, sales are decreasing at the fastest rate at t ≈ 1.16. On the interval
of (1.16, 2), S is decreasing but concave up, so the decline in sales is 0.8
“leveling off.”
0.6
Not every critical point corresponds to a relative extrema; f (x) = x3 has a
critical point at (0, 0) but no relative maximum or minimum. Likewise, just be- 0.4
cause f ′′ (x) = 0 we cannot conclude concavity changes at that point. We were
0.2
careful before to use terminology “possible point of inflection” since we needed
to check to see if the concavity changed. The canonical example of f ′′ (x) = 0 x
without concavity changing is f (x) = x4 . At x = 0, f ′′ (x) = 0 but f is always −1 −0.5 0.5 1
concave up, as shown in Figure 3.4.21.
Figure 3.4.21 A graph of f (x) = x4 .
Clearly f is always concave up, despite
3.4.2 The Second Derivative Test the fact that f ′′ (x) = 0 when x = 0.
The first derivative of a function gave us a test to find if a critical value corre- It this example, the possible point of
sponded to a relative maximum, minimum, or neither. The second derivative inflection (0, 0) is not a point of inflec-
gives us another way to test if a critical point is a local maximum or minimum. tion.
The following theorem officially states something that is intuitive: if a critical 10 y
value occurs in a region where a function f is concave up, then that critical value concave down
must correspond to a relative minimum of f , etc. See Figure 3.4.22 for a visual- =⇒ rel max
5
ization of this.
x
Theorem 3.4.23 The Second Derivative Test.
−2 −1 1 2
Let c be a critical value of f where f ′′ (c) is defined.
−5
1. If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at (c, f (c)). concave up
=⇒ rel min
−10
2. If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at (c, f (c)).
Figure 3.4.22 Demonstrating the fact
The Second Derivative Test relates to the First Derivative Test in the following that relative maxima occur when the
way. If f ′′ (c) > 0, then the graph is concave up at a critical point c and f ′ itself graph is concave down and relative min-
is growing. Since f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′ is growing at c, then it must go from negative ima occur when the graph is concave
to positive at c. This means the function goes from decreasing to increasing, up
indicating a local minimum at c.

Example 3.4.25 Using the Second Derivative Test.

Let f (x) = 100/x + x. Find the critical points of f and use the The
Second Derivative Test to label them as relative maxima or minima.
Solution. We find f ′ (x) = −100/x2 + 1 and f ′′ (x) = 200/x3 . We
set f ′ (x) = 0 and solve for x to find the critical values (note that f ′ is
not defined at x = 0, but neither is f so this is not a critical value.) We

[Link]/watch?v=4hWldEUoG2U
Figure 3.4.24 Video presentation of The-
orem 3.4.23
 Video Solution
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 160

find the critical values are x = ±10. We now evaluate the second deriv-
ative at these critical numbers. Evaluating f ′′ (10) = 0.1 > 0, so there
is a local minimum at x = 10. Evaluating f ′′ (−10) = −0.1 < 0, deter-
mining a relative maximum at x = −10. These results are confirmed in
Figure 3.4.26.
[Link]/watch?v=_DhmPXRZfi8
We have been learning how the first and second derivatives of a function
relate information about the graph of that function. We have found intervals of
increasing and decreasing, intervals where the graph is concave up and down,
y
along with the locations of relative extrema and inflection points. In Chapter 1 40
we saw how limits explained asymptotic behavior. In the next section we com-
bine all of this information to produce accurate sketches of functions. 20
f ′′ (10) > 0
x
−20 −10 10 20
f ′′ (−10) < 0
−20

−40

Figure 3.4.26 A graph of f (x) in Exam-

ple 3.4.25. The second derivative is
evaluated at each critical point. When
the graph is concave up, the critical
point represents a local minimum; when
the graph is concave down, the criti-
cal point represents a local maximum.

Use Wisely. The second deriva-

tive test can only be used on a
function that is twice differentiable
at c. For functions that are not
twice differentiable at c, you will
need to use the First Derivative
Test. If you’ve already determined
the sign diagram for f ′ , the First
Derivative Test is usually easier
to apply, and it applies in cases
when First Derivative Test does
not.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 161

3.4.3 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) that is concave up on (0, 1) and is concave down on (1, 2).
2. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) that is:

• increasing, concave up on (0, 1),

• increasing, concave down on (1, 2),

• decreasing, concave down on (2, 3), and

• increasing, concave down on (3, 4).
3. Is is possible for a function to be increasing and concave down on (0, ∞) with a horizontal asymptote of y = 1?
If so, give a sketch of such a function.
4. Is is possible for a function to be increasing and concave up on (0, ∞) with a horizontal asymptote of y = 1? If
so, give a sketch of such a function.

Problems

Exercise Group. A function f (x) is given. Graph f and f ′′ on the same axes (using technology is permitted) and
verify Theorem 3.4.7.
5. f (x) = −7x + 3 6. f (x) = −4x2 + 3x − 8
7. f (x) = 4x2 + 3x − 8 8. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + x − 1
9. f (x) = −x3 + x2 − 2x + 5 10. f (x) = sin(x)
11. f (x) = tan(x) 1
12. f (x) = 2
x +1
1
13. f (x) = x 14. f (x) = x12

Exercise Group. A function f (x) is given.

(a) Find the possible points of inflection of f .
(b) Find the intervals on which the graph of f is concave up.
(c) Find the intervals on which the graph of f is concave down.
15. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 4 16. f (x) = −x2 + 4x − 1
17. f (x) = x3 − 8x − 7 18. f (x) = 8x3 + 6x2 + 9x − 5
19. f (x) = x 4 3
+ 16 x3 − 72x − 6 20. f (x) = 2x4 − 40x3 + 296x2 − 960x + 7
4
21. f (x) = x + 8x3 + 24x2 + 32x + 16
4 22. f (x) = sec(x) on (−3π/2, 3π/2)
1 1
23. f (x) = x2 +1 24. f (x) = x2 −7x+10
25. f (x) = sin(x) + cos(x) on (−π, π) 2 x
26. f (x) = x e
f (x) = e−x
2 2
27. f (x) = x ln(x) 28.

Exercise Group. A function f (x) is given. Find the critical points of f and use the Second Derivative Test, when
possible, to determine the relative extrema. (Note: these are the same functions as in Exercise Group 15–28.)
29. f (x) = x2 + 14x + 49 30. f (x) = −x2 − 5x + 3
31. f (x) = x3 − 4x − 4 32. f (x) = −x3 + 8x2 − 25x − 3
33. f (x) = x 4
+ 64x − 9 34. f (x) = 2x4 − 8x3 − 16x2 + 96x + 9
4
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 162

35. f (x) = x4 − 12x3 + 54x2 − 108x + 81 36. f (x) = sec(x) on (−3π/2, 3π/2)
1 1
37. f (x) = x2 +18x+83 38. f (x) = x2 −49
39. f (x) = sin(x) + cos(x) on (−π, π) 2 x
40. f (x) = x e
f (x) = x2 ln(x) f (x) = e−x
2
41. 42.

Exercise Group. A function f (x) is given. Find the x values where f ′ (x) has a relative maximum or minimum. (Note:
these are the same functions as in Exercise Group 15–28.)
43. f (x) = x2 − 8x + 16 44. f (x) = −x2 + 6x + 4
45. f (x) = x − 9x − 2
3
46. f (x) = −9x3 − 8x2 − 7x − 1
47. f (x) = x4 3
+ 14 x3 + 7 48. f (x) = 3x4 − 24x3 + 66x2 − 72x − 6
4
49. f (x) = x + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 1
4 50. f (x) = sec(x) on (−3π/2, 3π/2)
1 1
51. f (x) = x2 −2x+4 52. f (x) = x2 −13x+36
53. f (x) = sin(x) + cos(x) on (−π, π) 2 x
54. f (x) = x e
f (x) = e−x
2 2
55. f (x) = x ln(x) 56.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 163

3.5 Curve Sketching

We have been learning how we can understand the behavior of a function based
on its first and second derivatives. While we have been treating the properties
of a function separately (increasing and decreasing, concave up and concave
down, etc.), we combine them here to produce an accurate graph of the function
without plotting lots of extraneous points.
Why bother? Graphing utilities are very accessible, whether on a computer,
a hand-held calculator, or a smartphone. These resources are usually very fast
and accurate. We will see that our method is not particularly fast — it will require
time (but it is not hard). So again: why bother?
We are attempting to understand the behavior of a function f based on the
information given by its derivatives. While all of a function’s derivatives relay
information about it, it turns out that “most” of the behavior we care about is
explained by f ′ and f ′′ . Understanding the interactions between the graph of f
and f ′ and f ′′ is important. To gain this understanding, one might argue that all
that is needed is to look at lots of graphs. This is true to a point, but is somewhat
similar to stating that one understands how an engine works after looking only
at pictures. It is true that the basic ideas will be conveyed, but “hands-on” access
increases understanding.
Key Idea 3.5.1 summarizes what we have learned so far that is applicable to
sketching graphs of functions and gives a framework for putting that information
together. It is followed by several examples.

Key Idea 3.5.1 Curve Sketching.

To produce an accurate sketch a given function f , consider the following
steps.
1. Find the domain of f . Generally, we assume that the domain is the
entire real line then find restrictions, such as where a denominator
is 0 or where negatives appear under the radical.
2. Find the critical values of f .

3. Find the possible points of inflection of f .

4. Find the location of any vertical asymptotes of f (usually done in
conjunction with Item 1).
5. Consider the limits lim f (x) and lim f (x) to determine the
x→−∞ x→∞
end behavior of the function.
6. Create a number line that includes all critical points, possible points
of inflection, and locations of vertical asymptotes. For each inter-
val created, determine whether f is increasing or decreasing, con-
cave up or down.
7. Evaluate f at each critical point and possible point of inflection.
Plot these points on a set of axes. Connect these points with curves
exhibiting the proper concavity. Sketch asymptotes and x and y
intercepts where applicable.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 164

Example 3.5.2 Curve sketching.

Video Solution
Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch f (x) = 3x3 − 10x2 + 7x + 5.
Solution. We follow the steps outlined in Key Idea 3.5.1.
1. The domain of f is the entire real line; there are no values x for
which f (x) is not defined.
2. Find the critical values of f . We compute f ′ (x) = 9x2 − 20x + 7.
Use the Quadratic Formula to find the roots of f ′ :
p
20 ± (−20)2 − 4(9)(7)
x= [Link]/watch?v=41XMvSHgl-Y
2(9)
1 √ 
= 10 ± 37
9
x ≈ 0.435, 1.787.

3. Find the possible points of inflection of f . Compute f ′′ (x) =

18x − 20. We have
f ′′ (x) = 0
18x − 20 = 0
x = 10/9
≈ 1.111.

4. There are no vertical asymptotes.

5. We determine the end behavior using limits as x approaches ±∞.
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = ∞.
x→−∞ x→∞

We do not have any horizontal asymptotes.

√
6. We place the values x = (10 ± 37)/9 and x = 10/9 on a num-
ber line, as shown in Figure 3.5.3. We mark each subinterval as in-
creasing or decreasing, concave up or down, using the techniques
used in Sections 3.3–3.4.
7. Evaluate f at each critical number and possible inflection point.
f (0.435) ≈ 6.400 f (1.111) ≈ 4.547 f (1.787) ≈ 2.695

We plot the appropriate points on axes as shown in Figure 3.5.4(a)

and connect the points with straight lines (to show increasing/
decreasig behavior). In Figure 3.5.4(b) we adjust these lines to
demonstrate the proper concavity. In Figure 3.5.4(c) we show a
graph of f drawn with a computer program, verifying the accu-
racy of our sketch.

f ′ > 0, f ′ < 0, f ′ < 0, f ′ > 0,

f incr f decr f decr f incr
f ′′ < 0, f ′′ < 0, f ′′ > 0, f ′′ > 0,
f c. down f c. down f c. up f c. up

 √   √ 
1
10 − 37
10
9 ≈ 1
10 + 37
9 9
1.111
≈ 0.435 ≈ 1.787

Figure 3.5.3 Number line for f in Example 3.5.2

CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 165

10 y 10 y
10
8
5 5 6
4
x x
2
−1 1 2 3 −1 1 2 3 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
2
4
−5 −5

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.5.4 Sketching f in Example 3.5.2

Example 3.5.5 Curve sketching.

x2 − x − 2 Video Solution
Sketch f (x) = .
x2 − x − 6
Solution. We again follow the steps outlined in Key Idea 3.5.1.

1. In determining the domain, we assume it is all real numbers and

look for restrictions. We find that at x = −2 and x = 3, f (x) is
not defined. So the domain of f is D = {x | x ̸= −2, 3}.
2. To find the critical values of f , we first find f ′ (x). Using the Quo-
tient Rule, we find
[Link]/watch?v=t3VI2oTmOiA
−8x + 4 −8x + 4
f ′ (x) = = .
(x2 + x − 6)2 (x − 3)2 (x + 2)2

We get f ′ (x) = 0 when x = 1/2, and f ′ is undefined when x =

−2, 3. Since f ′ is undefined only when f is also undefined, these
are not critical values. The only critical value is x = 1/2.
3. To find the possible points of inflection, we find f ′′ (x), again em-
ploying the Quotient Rule:

24x2 − 24x + 56
f ′′ (x) = .
(x − 3)3 (x + 2)3

We find that f ′′ (x) is never 0 (setting the numerator equal to 0 and

solving for x, we find the only roots to this quadratic are not real
numbers) and f ′′ is undefined when x = −2, 3. Thus concavity
will possibly only change at x = −2 and x = 3 (which are not in
the domain of f , so these won’t be inflection points).

4. The vertical asymptotes of f are at x = −2 and x = 3, the places

where f is undefined.
5. There is a horizontal asymptote of y = 1, as lim f (x) = 1 and
x→−∞
lim f (x) = 1.
x→∞

6. We place the values x = 1/2, x = −2 and x = 3 on a number

line as shown in Figure 3.5.6. We mark in each interval whether
f is increasing or decreasing, concave up or down. We see that f
has a relative maximum at x = 1/2; concavity changes only at the
vertical asymptotes.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 166

7. Evaluate f at each critical number.

f (0) = 1/3 f (1/2) = 9/25

In Figure 3.5.7(a), we plot the points from the number line on a set
of axes and connect the points with straight lines to get a general
idea of what the function looks like (these lines effectively only
convey increasing/decreasing information). In Figure 3.5.7(b), we
adjust the graph with the appropriate concavity. We also show f
crossing the x-axis at x = −1 and x = 2 and crossing the y-axis
at y = 1/3. Finally, Figure 3.5.7(c) shows a computer generated
graph of f , which verifies the accuracy of our sketch.

f ′ > 0, f ′ > 0, f ′ < 0, f ′ < 0,

f incr f incr f decr f incr
f ′′ > 0, f ′′ < 0, f ′′ < 0, f ′′ < 0,
f c. up f c. down f c. down f c. down

−2 1 3
2

Figure 3.5.6 Number line for f in Example 3.5.5

y y
4 4
4
2 2
2
x x
−4 −2 −4 −2
2 4 2 4
4 2 2 4
−2 −2 2
−4 −4 4

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.5.7 Sketching f in Example 3.5.5

Example 3.5.8 Curve sketching.

5(x − 2)(x + 1)
Sketch f (x) = .
x2 + 2x + 4
Solution. We again follow Key Idea 3.5.1.

1. We assume that the domain of f is all real numbers and consider

restrictions. The only restrictions could come when the denom-
inator is 0, but this never occurs because the denominator is a
quadratic polynomial with no real roots. Therefore the domain of
f is all real numbers, R.
2. We find the critical values of f by setting f ′ (x) = 0 and solving
for x. We find
15x(x + 4)
f ′ (x) =
(x2 + 2x + 4)2
15x(x + 4)
0= 2
(x + 2x + 4)2
x = −4, 0.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 167

Since the denominator of f ′ is just the square of the denominator

of f , there are no values of x for which f ′ is undefined.

3. We find the possible points of inflection by solving f ′′ (x) = 0 for

x (again, there are no values of x for which f ′′ is undefined.) We
find
30x3 + 180x2 − 240
f ′′ (x) = − .
(x2 + 2x + 4)3
The cubic in the numerator does not factor very “nicely.” We in-
stead approximate the roots (using a cas) at x = −5.759, x =
−1.305 and x = 1.064.

4. There are no vertical asymptotes as the denominator never equals

zero.
5. We have a horizontal asymptote of y = 5, as lim f (x) = lim f (x) =
x→−∞ x→∞
5.
6. We place the critical points and possible points on a number line
as shown in Figure 3.5.9 and mark each interval as increasing/
decreasing, concave up/down appropriately.

7. Evaluate f at each critical number, possible inflection point.

f (−5.759) ≈ 7.200 f (−4) = 7.5

f (−1.305) ≈ 1.630 f (0) = 2.5
f (1.064) ≈ −1.331

In Figure 3.5.10(a) we plot the significant points from the num-

ber line as well as the x- and y-intercepts, and connect the points
with straight lines to get a general impression about the graph
(this graph only includes increasing/decreasing information). In
Figure 3.5.10(b), we add concavity, drawing the function so that
it is smooth (since f is differentiable everywhere, there should be
no kinks or corners). Figure 3.5.10(c) shows a computer generated
graph of f , affirming our results.

f ′ > 0, f ′ > 0, f ′ < 0, f ′ < 0, f ′ > 0, f ′ > 0,

f incr f incr f decr f decr f incr f incr
f ′′ > 0, f ′′ < 0, f ′′ < 0, f ′′ > 0, f ′′ > 0, f ′′ < 0,
f c. up f c. down f c. down f c. up f c. up f c. down

−5.579 −4 −1.305 0 1.064

Figure 3.5.9 Number line for f in Example Example 3.5.8

CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 168

8 y 8 y

8
6 6
6
4 4
4
2 2
2
x x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 6 4 2 2 4 6
−2 −2 2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.5.10 Sketching f in Example 3.5.8

To get some more practice with curve sketching, we include a few more
video examples to illustrate the process. (The last of these could be considered
“archival footage”: it was from a first run at using our new lightboard.)
In each of our examples, we found a few significant points on the graph of
f that corresponded to changes in increasing/decreasing or concavity. We con-
nected these points with straight lines, then adjusted for concavity, and finished
by showing a very accurate, computer generated graph. [Link]/watch?v=S3j-vuUZPjE
Why are computer graphics so good? It is not because computers are “smarter” Figure 3.5.11 Sketching the polynomial
than we are. Rather, it is largely because computers are much faster at comput- f (x) = x2 (5 − x)3
ing than we are. In general, computers graph functions much like most students
do when first learning to draw graphs: they plot equally spaced points, then con-
nect the dots using lines. By using lots of points, the connecting lines are short
and the graph looks smooth.
This does a fine job of graphing in most cases (in fact, this is the method used
for many graphs in this text). However, in regions where the graph is very “curvy,”
this can generate noticeable sharp edges on the graph unless a large number of
points are used. High quality computer algebra systems, such as Mathematica
and Sage, use special algorithms to plot lots of points only where the graph is
“curvy.”
In Figure 3.5.14, two graph of y = sin(x) is given, generated by Sage and
Mathematica. The small points represent each of the places where each cas
sampled the function. Notice how at the “bends” of sin(x), lots of points are
used; where sin(x) is relatively straight, fewer points are used. (In the Math- [Link]/watch?v=fdnoec_9Yw4
ematica plot, many points are also used at the endpoints to ensure the “end Figure 3.5.12 Sketching the graph of
behavior” is accurate.) the trigonometric function f (x) = sin(2x)−
2 sin(x)
1.0

0.5

1 2 3 4 5 6
0.5

1.0
(a) Sage output (b) Mathematica output
Figure 3.5.14 CAS plots of y = sin(x) illustrating the sample points
How does Sage know where the graph is “curvy”? Calculus. When we study [Link]/watch?v=JR31YX5N3M8
curvature in a later chapter, we will see how the first and second derivatives of a Figure 3.5.13 Sketching the graph of
f (x) = x4/3 − 4x1/3
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 169

function work together to provide a measurement of “curviness.” Sage employs

algorithms to determine regions of “high curvature” and plots extra points there.
Again, the goal of this section is not “How to graph a function when there
is no computer to help.” Rather, the goal is “Understand that the shape of the
graph of a function is largely determined by understanding the behavior of the
function at a few key places.” In Example 3.5.8, we were able to accurately sketch
a complicated graph using only five points and knowledge of asymptotes!
There are many applications of our understanding of derivatives beyond
curve sketching. The next chapter explores some of these applications, demon-
strating just a few kinds of problems that can be solved with a basic knowledge
of differentiation.
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 170

3.5.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. Why is sketching curves by hand beneficial even though technology is ubiquitous?

2. What does “ubiquitous” mean?
3. T/F: When sketching graphs of functions, it is useful to find the critical points. (□ True □ False)
4. T/F: When sketching graphs of functions, it is useful to find the possible points of inflection. (□ True □ False)
5. T/F: When sketching graphs of functions, it is useful to find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes. (□ True
□ False)

Problems

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, practice using Key Idea 3.5.1 by applying the principles to the given
functions with familiar graphs.
6. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = 2x + 4
7. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = −x2 + 1
8. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = sin(x)
9. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = ex
1
10. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) =
x
1
11. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = 2
x

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, sketch a graph of the given function using Key Idea 3.5.1. Show all work;
check your answer with technology.
12. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
13. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = −x3 + 5x2 − 3x + 2
14. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1
15. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = x3 − x2 − x + 1
16. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = (x − 2) ln(x − 2)
17. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = (x − 2)2 ln(x − 2)
x2 − 4
18. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) =
x2
x2 − 4x + 3
19. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = 2
x − 6x + 8
x2 − 2x + 1
20. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) =
x2 − 6x + 8
√
21. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = x x + 1
22. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = x2 ex
23. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = sin(x) cos(x) on [−π, π]
24. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) = (x − 3)2/3 + 2
(x − 1)2/3
25. Use Key Idea 3.5.1 to sketch a graph of f (x) =
x
CHAPTER 3. THE GRAPHICAL BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS 171

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, a function with the parameters a and b are given. Describe the critical
points and possible points of inflection of f in terms of a and b.
a
26. f (x) = 2
x + b2
(a) Find the critical points of f .
(b) Find the inflection points of f .
27. f (x) = sin(ax + b)

(a) Find the critical points of f .

(b) Find the inflection points of f .
28. f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)

(a) Find the critical points of f .

(b) Find the inflection points of f .
dy d2 y
29. Given x2 + y 2 = 1, use implicit differentiation to find dx and dx2 . Use this information to justify the sketch
of the unit circle.
Chapter 4

Applications of the Derivative

In Chapter 3, we learned how the first and second derivatives of a function influ-
ence its graph. In this chapter we explore other applications of the derivative.

4.1 Newton’s Method

Solving equations is one of the most important things we do in mathematics,
yet we are surprisingly limited in what we can solve analytically. For instance,
equations as simple as x5 + x + 1 = 0 or cos(x) = x cannot be solved by
algebraic methods in terms of familiar functions. Fortunately, there are methods
that can give us approximate solutions to equations like these. These methods
can usually give an approximation correct to as many decimal places as we like.
In Section 1.5 we learned about the Bisection Method. This section focuses on
another technique (which generally works faster), called Newton’s Method.
Newton’s Method is built around tangent lines. The main idea is that if x is
sufficiently close to a root of f (x), then the tangent line to the graph at (x, f (x))
will cross the x-axis at a point closer to the root than x.
We start Newton’s Method with an initial guess about roughly where the
root is. Call this x0 . (See Figure 4.1.1(a).) Draw the tangent line to the graph
at (x0 , f (x0 )) and see where it meets the x-axis. Call this point x1 . Then re-
peat the process — draw the tangent line to the graph at (x1 , f (x1 )) and see
where it meets the x-axis. (See Figure 4.1.1(b).) Call this point x2 . Repeat the
process again to get x3 , x4 , etc. This sequence of points will often converge
rather quickly to a root of f .

1 y 1 y 1 y

0.5 0.5 0.5

x x x
x0 x1 x0 x2 x1 x0 x2 x3 x1

−0.5 −0.5 −0.5

−1 −1 −1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.1.1 Demonstrating the geometric concept behind Newton’s Method
We can use this geometric process to create an algebraic process. Let’s look
at how we found x1 . We started with the tangent line to the graph at (x0 , f (x0 )).
The slope of this tangent line is f ′ (x0 ) and the equation of the line is

y = f ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) + f (x0 ).

172
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 173

This line crosses the x-axis when y = 0, and the x-value where it crosses is
what we called x1 . So let y = 0 and replace x with x1 , giving the equation:

0 = f ′ (x0 )(x1 − x0 ) + f (x0 ).

Now solve for x1 :

f (x0 )
x1 = x0 − .
f ′ (x0 )
Since we repeat the same geometric process to find x2 from x1 , we have

f (x1 )
x2 = x1 − .
f ′ (x1 )

In general, given an approximation xn , we can find the next approximation,

xn+1 as follows:
f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − ′ .
f (xn )
We summarize this process as follows.

Key Idea 4.1.2 Newton’s Method.

Let f be a differentiable function on an interval I with a root in I. To
approximate the value of the root, accurate to d decimal places:

1. Choose a value x0 as an initial approximation of the root. (This is

often done by looking at a graph of f .)
2. Create successive approximations iteratively; given an approxima-
tion xn , compute the next approximation xn+1 as

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − .
f ′ (xn )
Newton’s Method is not Infalli-
3. Stop the iterations when successive approximations do not differ
ble. The sequence of approximate
in the first d places after the decimal point.
values may not converge, or it may
converge so slowly that one is “tricked”
Let’s practice Newton’s Method with a concrete example.
into thinking a certain approxima-
Example 4.1.3 Using Newton’s Method. tion is better than it actually is.
These issues will be discussed at
Approximate the real root of x3 − x2 − 1 = 0, accurate to the first the end of the section.
three places after the decimal, using Newton’s Method and an initial
approximation of x0 = 1.
Solution. To begin, we compute f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 2x. Then we apply the
Newton’s Method algorithm, outlined in Key Idea 4.1.2.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 174

f (1) f (1.625)
x1 = 1 − x3 = 1.625 −
f ′ (1) f ′ (1.625)
13 − 12 − 1 1.6253 − 1.6252 − 1
=1− = 1.625 −
3 · 12 − 2 · 1 3 · 1.6252 − 2 · 1.625
=2 ≈ 1.48579

f (1.48579)
x4 = 1.48579 −
f ′ (1.48579)
f (2)
x2 = 2 − ≈ 1.46596
f ′ (2)
23 − 22 − 1 f (1.46596)
=2− x5 = 1.46596 −
3 · 22 − 2 · 2 f ′ (1.46596)
= 1.625 ≈ 1.46557

We performed five iterations of Newton’s Method to find a root ac-

curate to the first three places after the decimal; our final approximation
is 1.465. The exact value of the root, to six decimal places, is 1.465571; It
turns out that our x5 is accurate to more than just three decimal places.
A graph of f (x) is given in Figure 4.1.4. We can see from the graph 0.5 y
that our initial approximation of x0 = 1 was not particularly accurate; a
closer guess would have been x0 = 1.5. Our choice was based on ease x
of initial calculation, and shows that Newton’s Method can be robust 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
enough that we do not have to make a very accurate initial approxima-
−0.5
tion.

We can automate this process on a calculator that has an ANS key that returns −1
the result of the previous calculation. Start by pressing 1 and then Enter. (We
have just entered our initial guess, x0 = 1.) Now compute −1.5

f ( ANS ) Figure 4.1.4 A graph of f (x) = x3 −

ANS −
f ′ ( ANS ) x2 − 1 in Example 4.1.3
by entering the following and repeatedly press the Enter key.
ANS-(ANS^3-ANS^2-1)/(3*ANS^2-2*ANS)
Each time we press the Enter key, we are finding the successive approxima-
tions, x1 , x2 , …, and each one is getting closer to the root. In fact, once we get
past around x7 or so, the approximations don’t appear to be changing. They
actually are changing, but the change is far enough to the right of the decimal
point that it doesn’t show up on the calculator’s display. When this happens, we
can be pretty confident that we have found an accurate approximation.
Using a calculator in this manner makes the calculations simple; many itera-
tions can be computed very quickly.

Example 4.1.5 Using Newton’s Method to find where functions inter-

sect.

Use Newton’s Method to approximate a solution to cos(x) = x, accu-

rate to five places after the decimal.
Solution. Newton’s Method provides a method of solving f (x) = 0;
it is not (directly) a method for solving equations like f (x) = g(x).
However, this is not a problem; we can rewrite the latter equation as
f (x) − g(x) = 0 and then use Newton’s Method.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 175

So we rewrite cos(x) = x as cos(x)−x = 0. Written this way, we are

1 y
finding a root of f (x) = cos(x) − x. We compute f ′ (x) = − sin(x) − 1.
Next we need a starting value, x0 . Consider Figure 4.1.6, where f (x) =
cos(x) − x is graphed. It seems that x0 = 0.75 is pretty close to the 0.5
root, so we will use that as our x0 . (The figure also shows the graphs of
y = cos(x) and y = x. Note how they intersect at the same x value as x
when f (x) = 0.) −1 −0.5 0.5 1
We now compute x1 , x2 , etc. The formula for x1 is
−0.5
cos(0.75) − 0.75
x1 = 0.75 −
− sin(0.75) − 1 −1
≈ 0.7391111388.
Figure 4.1.6 A graph of f (x) = cos(x)−
Apply Newton’s Method again to find x2 : x used to find an initial approximation
of its root
cos(0.7391111388) − 0.7391111388
x2 = 0.7391111388 −
− sin(0.7391111388) − 1
≈ 0.7390851334.

We can continue this way, but it is really best to automate this process.
On a calculator with an ANS key, we would start by entering 0.75, then
Enter, inputting our initial approximation. We then enter:

ANS - (cos(ANS)-ANS)/(-sin(ANS)-1)
Repeatedly pressing the Enter key gives successive approximations.
We quickly find:

x3 = 0.7390851332
x4 = 0.7390851332.

Our approximations x2 and x3 did not differ for at least the first five
places after the decimal, so we could have stopped. However, using our
calculator in the manner described is easy, so finding x4 was not hard.
It is interesting to see how we found an approximation, accurate to as
many decimal places as our calculator displays, in just four iterations.

If you know how to program, you can translate the following pseudocode
into your favorite language to perform the computation in this problem.
x = 0.75
while true
oldx = x
x = x - (cos(x)-x)/(-sin(x)-1)
print x
if abs(x-oldx) < 0.0000000001
break
This code calculates x1 , x2 , etc., storing each result in the variable x. The previ-
ous approximation is stored in the variable oldx. We continue looping until the
difference between two successive approximations, abs(x-oldx), is less than
some small tolerance, in this case, 0.0000000001.

Convergence of Newton’s Method. What should one use for the initial guess,
x0 ? Generally, the closer to the actual root the initial guess is, the better. How-
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 176
0.5 y
ever, some initial guesses should be avoided. For instance, consider Example 4.1.3
where we sought the root to f (x) = x3 − x2 − 1. Choosing x0 = 0 would have x
been a particularly poor choice. Consider Figure 4.1.7, where f (x) is graphed −0.5 0.5 1 1.5
along with its tangent line at x = 0. Since f ′ (0) = 0, the tangent line is horizon-
tal and does not intersect the x-axis. Graphically, we see that Newton’s Method −0.5

fails.
We can also see analytically that it fails. Since −1

f (0)
x1 = 0 − −1.5
f ′ (0)

and f ′ (0) = 0, we see that x1 is not well defined. Figure 4.1.7 A graph of f (x) = x3 −
This problem can also occur if, for instance, it turns out that f ′ (x5 ) = 0. x2 −1, showing why an initial approxi-
Adjusting the initial approximation x0 by a very small amount will likely fix the mation of x0 = 0 with Newton’s Method
problem. fails
It is also possible for Newton’s Method to not converge while each successive
approximation is well defined. Consider f (x) = x1/3 , as shown in Figure 4.1.8.
It is clear that the root is x = 0, but let’s approximate this with x0 = 0.1. Fig-
ure 4.1.8(a) shows graphically the calculation of x1 ; notice how it is farther from
the root than x0 . Figure 4.1.8(b) and Figure 4.1.8(c) show the calculation of x2
and x3 , which are even farther away; our successive approximations are getting
worse. (It turns out that in this particular example, each successive approxima-
tion is twice as far from the true answer as the previous approximation.)

y y y

1 1 1

x x x
−1 x1 x0 1 −1 x1 x0 x2 1 −1 x3 x1 x0 x2 1

−1 −1 −1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.1.8 Newton’s Method fails to find a root of f (x) = x1/3 , regardless of
the choice of x0 .
There is no “fix” to this problem; Newton’s Method simply will not work
and another method must be used. (In this case the particular reason Newton’s
Method fails is that the tangent line is vertical at the root).
While Newton’s Method does not always work, it does work “most of the
time,” and it is generally very fast. Once the approximations get close to the root,
Newton’s Method can as much as double the number of correct decimal places
with each successive approximation. A course in Numerical Analysis will intro-
duce the reader to more iterative root finding methods, as well as give greater
detail about the strengths and weaknesses of Newton’s Method.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 177

4.1.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) Given a function f (x), Newton’s Method produces an exact solution to f (x) = 0.
2. (□ True □ False) In order to get a solution to f (x) = 0 accurate to d places after the decimal, at least
d + 1 iterations of Newton’s Method must be used.

Problems

Exercise Group. The roots of the function f (x) are known or are easily found. Use five iterations of Newton’s Method
with the given initial approximation to approximate the root. Compare it to the known value of the root.
3. f (x) = cos(x), x0 = 1.5 4. f (x) = sin(x), x0 = 1
Compare x5 to the known value of the root. Compare x5 to the known value of the root.
5. f (x) = x2 + x − 2, x0 = 0 6. f (x) = x2 − 2, x0 = 1.5
Compare x5 to the known value of the root. Compare x5 to the known value of the root.
7. f (x) = ln(x), x0 = 2 8. f (x) = x3 − x2 + x − 1, x0 = 2
Compare x5 to the known value of the root. Compare x5 to the known value of the root.

Exercise Group. Use Newton’s Method to approximate all roots of the given function accurate to three places after
the decimal. If an interval is given, find only the roots that lie within that interval. Use technology to obtain good
initial approximations.
9. f (x) = x3 + 5x2 − x − 1
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.
10. f (x) = x4 + 2x3 − 7x2 − x + 5
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.
11. f (x) = x17 − 2x13 − 10x8 + 10 on (−2, 2)
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.
12. f (x) = x2 cos(x) + (x − 1) sin(x) on (−3, 3)
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.

Exercise Group. Use Newton’s Method to approximate when the given functions are equal, accurate to 3 places after
the decimal. Use technology to obtain good initial approximations.
13. f (x) = x2 , g(x) = cos(x)
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.
14. f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = sin(x)
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.
2
15. f (x) = ex , g(x) = cos(x)
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.
16. f (x) = x, g(x) = tan(x) on [−6, 6]
Show the steps you took using Newton’s Method.
17. Why does Newton’s Method fail in finding a root of f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + x + 3 when x0 = 1?
18. Why does Newton’s Method fail in finding a root of f (x) = −17x4 + 130x3 − 301x2 + 156x + 156 when
x0 = 1?
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 178

4.2 Related Rates

When two quantities are related by an equation, knowing the value of one
quantity can determine the value of the other. For instance, the circumference
and radius of a circle are related by C = 2πr; knowing that C is 6π in determines
the radius must be 3 in. [Link]/watch?v=TKqYEDaAidQ
But what if both variables are changing with time? If we know how two Figure 4.2.1 Video introduction to Sec-
variables are related and we know how one of them changes with time, can we tion 4.2
find how the other variable changes with time?
The topic of related rates allows us to answer this question: knowing the
rate at which one quantity is changing can determine the rate at which another
changes.
Remark 4.2.2 This section relies heavily on implicit differentiation, so referring
back to Section 2.6 may help.
We demonstrate the concepts of related rates through examples.

Example 4.2.3 Understanding related rates.

The radius of a circle is growing at a rate of 5 inh . At what rate is the Video Solution
circumference growing?
Solution. The circumference and radius of a circle are related by C =
2πr. We are given information about how the length of r changes with
in
respect to time; that is, we are told dr
dt is 5 h . We want to know how the
length of C changes with respect to time, i.e., we want to know dC dt .
Implicitly differentiate both sides of C = 2πr with respect to t:

C = 2πr
d d [Link]/watch?v=Qg3GStrQ8pY
(C) = (2πr)
dt dt
dC dr
= 2π .
dt dt
As we know dr
dt is 5 inh , we know

dC
= 2π5 = 10π ≈ 31.4 in/hr .
dt
This problem was relatively straightforward, owing to the linear re-
lationship between radius and circumference. The video in Figure 4.2.4
explores what would happen if we had instead been asked for the rate
at which the area is changing.

In related rates problems, we will be presented with an application prob-

lem that involves two or more variables and one or more rate. It is the job of
[Link]/watch?v=RDPxSmxqUBs
the reader to construct the appropriate model that can be used to answer the
posed question. Key Idea 4.2.5 outlines the basic steps for solving a related rates Figure 4.2.4 Trying to find the rate at
problem. which area is changing for the circle in
Example 4.2.3
Key Idea 4.2.5 Related Rates.

1. Read the problem carefully and identify the quantities that are
changing with time. (There may be many quantities that change
with time, try to identify which variables are important to your
goal and only focus on these quantities.)
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 179

2. Draw a diagram (if applicable) and assign mathematical variables

to each quantity that is changing with time. (If you are given a par-
ticular value of a quantity that is also changing with time, do not
include these values on your diagram. We will call these “instan-
taneous values” of the variable.)
3. Relate the important variables using a mathematical model. (Typi-
cal models are known formulas for area, perimeter, the Pythagorean
Theorem or Trigonometric Ratios.) It may be necessary to use
more than one technique (such as similar triangles) to reduce your
model down to one that only involves the variables of interest.
4. Implicitly differentiate both sides of the equation found in Step 3
with respect to t.

5. Substitute in the known values of rates and known instantaneous

values of the variables.
6. Solve for the unknown rate.
7. Write a full sentence conclusion.

Consider another, similar example.

Example 4.2.6 Finding related rates.

3
Water streams out of a faucet at a rate of 2 ins onto a flat surface at a
constant rate, forming a circular puddle that is 1/8 in deep.

1. At what rate is the area of the puddle growing?

2. At what rate is the radius of the circle growing? Video Solution

Solution.
1. We can answer this question two ways: using “common sense” or
related rates. The common sense method states that the volume
3
of the puddle is growing by 2 ins , where

volume of puddle = area of circle × depth.

Since the depth is constant at 1/8 in, the area must be growing [Link]/watch?v=8ctKxMoFWkU
2
by 16 ins since 16 · 18 = 2. This approach reveals the underlying
related rates principle.
Now let’s solve the problem using Key Idea 4.2.5. Based on the
problem description, the quantities that change with time are the
volume of water (the volume of the puddle), the area of the circu-
lar puddle and the radius of the circle. We don’t need a diagram
for this problem. The important variables for this part of the prob-
lem are the volume and area.
Let V and A represent the Volume and Area of the puddle. We
know V = A × 18 . Take the derivative of both sides with respect
to t, employing implicit differentiation.
1
V = A
8
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 180

 
d d 1
(V ) = A
dt dt 8
dV 1 dA
=
dt 8 dt
We know the change in volume, dV dt = 2, so we substitute this
value into our related rates equation: 2 = 18 dA dA
dt , and hence dt =
2
16. Thus the area is growing by 16 ins .
2. We already identified the quantities that are changing in Part 1.
The variables of interest in this problem are the radius and the
volume. We need an equation that relates the volume of the circle
to the radius. Since the puddle is a right circular cylinder, we will
use a known volume formula, V = πr2 h where V is the volume
of the puddle (in in3 , r is the radius (in inches) and h is the height
(i.e. depth) of the puddle in inches. (Notice that this formula is
equivalent to V = area×depth.) We know that the height (depth)
is a constant 1/8 inch. Since this quantity does not change in the
problem, we can safely substitute this value now.
Implicitly derive both sides of V = πr2 18 with respect to t:

1 2
V = πr
8  
d
d 1 2
V = πr
dt dt 8
dV 1 dr
= 2πr
dt 8 dt
dV 1 dr
= πr
dt 4 dt
3
We know that dV
dt is 2 ins . So we have:

1 dr
2= πr
4 dt
dr
Solving for dt , we have

dr 8
= .
dt πr
Note how our answer is not a number, but rather a function of r.
In other words, the rate at which the radius is growing depends on
3
how big the circle already is. If the circle is very large, adding 2 ins
of water will not make the circle much bigger at all. If the circle is
dime-sized, adding the same amount of water will make a radical
change in the radius of the circle.
In some ways, our problem was (intentionally) ill-posed. We need
to specify a current (instantaneous) value of the radius in order to
know a rate of change. When the puddle has a radius of 10 in, the
radius is growing at a rate of
dr 8 4
= = ≈ 0.25 in/s .
dt 10π 5π
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 181

Example 4.2.7 Studying related rates.

Radar guns measure the rate of distance change between the gun and
the object it is measuring. For instance, a reading of “55 mph” means
the object is moving away from the gun at a rate of 55 miles per hour,
whereas a measurement of “−25 mph” would mean that the object is
approaching the gun at a rate of 25 miles per hour.
If the radar gun is moving (say, attached to a police car) then radar N
readouts are only immediately understandable if the gun and the object B = 1/2
are moving along the same line. If a police officer is traveling 60 mph and E
gets a readout of 15 mph, he knows that the car ahead of him is moving Car
away at a rate of 15 miles an hour, meaning the car is traveling 75 mph.

A = 1/2
(This straight-line principle is one reason officers park on the side of the
highway and try to shoot straight back down the road. It gives the most C
accurate reading.)
Suppose an officer is driving due north at 30 mph and sees a car mov-
ing due east, as shown in Figure 4.2.8. Using his radar gun, he measures
a reading of 20 mph. By using landmarks, he believes both he and the Officer
other car are about 1/2 mile from the intersection of their two roads.
If the speed limit on the other road is 55 mph, is the other driver
speeding? Figure 4.2.8 A sketch of a police car
(at bottom) attempting to measure the
Solution. The important quantities that are changing are: the distance
speed of a car (at right) in Example 4.2.7
of the officer to the intersection, the distance of the car to the intersec-
tion, and the distance of the officer to the car. (There are other quanti-
ties that are changing as well such as the angles and area of the triangle, Video Solution
but these are not important to this problem.)
Using the diagram in Figure 4.2.8, let’s label what we know about
the situation. As both the police officer and other driver are 1/2 mile
from the intersection, we have√A = 1/2, B = 1/2, and through the
Pythagorean Theorem, C = 1/ 2 ≈ 0.707. These values are “instanta-
neous” values for our variables, so we won’t use them until the end of
the problem. Instead, we will use the variables A, B, and C.
We need an equation that relates A, B, and C. The Pythagorean
Theorem is a good choice: A2 + B 2 = C 2 . Differentiate both sides with [Link]/watch?v=8fFao8XCQC0
respect to t:
A2 + B 2 = C 2
d
d

A2 + B 2 = C2
dt dt
dA dB dC
2A + 2B = 2C
dt dt dt
dt = −30.
We know the police officer is traveling at 30 mph; that is, dA
The reason this rate of change is negative is that A is getting smaller; the
distance between the officer and the intersection is shrinking. The radar
measurement is dC dt = 20. We want to find dt .
dB
dB
We have values for everything except dt . Solving for this we have:
dB C dC − A dA
= dt dt
.
dt B
Now we substitue in our known rates and instantaneous values of our
variables:
dB 0.707(20) − 0.5(−30)
≈
dt (0.5)
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 182 Practicality. Example 4.2.7 is both
interesting and impractical. It high-
lights the difficulty in using radar
= 58.28 mph . in a nonlinear fashion, and explains
why “in real life” the police offi-
The other driver appears to be speeding slightly. cer would follow the other dri-
ver to determine their speed, and
not pull out pencil and paper.
Example 4.2.9 Studying related rates. The principles here are impor-
tant, though. Many automated
A camera is placed on a tripod 10 ft from the side of a road. The camera
vehicles make judgments about
is to turn to track a car that is to drive by at 100 mph for a promotional
other moving objects based on
video. The video’s planners want to know what kind of motor the tripod
perceived distances, radar-like mea-
should be equipped with in order to properly track the car as it passes
surements and the concepts of
by. Figure 4.2.10 shows the proposed setup.
related rates.
How fast must the camera be able to turn to track the car?
Solution. The quantities that changing are x and θ as drawn on Fig-
ure 4.2.10. (The hypotenuse of the triangle is also changing, but this
isn’t important to the problem). We seek information about how fast
the camera is to turn; therefore, we need an equation that will relate an
angle θ to the position of the camera and the speed and position of the 100mph
car.
Figure 4.2.10 suggests we use a trigonometric equation. Letting x x
represent the distance the car is from the point on the road directly in
front of the camera, we have 10ft
x
tan(θ) = . (4.2.1) θ
10
Now take the derivative of both sides of Equation (4.2.1) using im- Figure 4.2.10 Tracking a speeding car
plicit differentiation: (at left) with a rotating camera
x
tan(θ) =
10
d dx Video Solution
(tan(θ)) =
dt dt 10
dθ 1 dx
sec2 (θ) =
dt 10 dt
dθ
Now we solve for dt :
dθ cos2 (θ) dx
= (4.2.2)
dt 10 dt
As the car is moving at 100 mph, we have that dx dt is −100 mph (as
in the last example, since x is getting smaller as the car travels, dx
dt is [Link]/watch?v=B85LlGHgVQo
negative). We need to convert the measurements so they use the same
units (we chose ft); rewrite −100 mph in terms of fts :

dx mi
= −100
dt hr
mi ft 1 hr
= −100 · 5280 ·
hr mi 3600 s
= −146.6 ft/s .

We want to know the fastest the camera has to turn. Common sense
tells us this is when the car is directly in front of the camera (i.e., when
θ = 0). Our mathematics bears this out. In Equation (4.2.2) we see this
is when cos2 (θ) is largest; this is when cos(θ) = 1, or when θ = 0. We
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 183

also know that we should get an answer that is in rad

s . Since cos(θ) is
a “dimensionless” measure, it won’t contribute to the units. However,
radians are also dimensionless. This means we can write (or erase) the
word “radian” without any unit consequences. (The same is not true of
degrees — always convert degress to radians).
dt approximately −146.7 s , we have
ft
With dx

dθ 1
≈− 146.67 ft/s
dt 10 ft
= −14.667 radians/s

We find that dθ
dt is negative; this matches our diagram in Figure 4.2.10
for θ is getting smaller as the car approaches the camera.
What is the practical meaning of −14.667 rad s ? Recall that 1 circular
revolution goes through 2π radians, thus 14.667 rad s means 14.667/(2π) ≈
2.33 revolutions per second. The negative sign indicates the camera is
rotating in a clockwise fashion.

We introduced the derivative as a function that gives the slopes of tangent

lines of functions. This chapter emphasizes using the derivative in other ways.
Newton’s Method uses the derivative to approximate roots of functions; this sec-
tion stresses the “rate of change” aspect of the derivative to find a relationship
between the rates of change of two related quantities.
In the next section we use Extreme Value concepts to optimize quantities.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 184

4.2.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) Implicit differentiation is often used when solving “related rates” type problems.
2. (□ True □ False) A study of related rates is part of the standard police officer training.

Problems

cm3
3. Water flows onto a flat surface at a rate of 4 s forming a circular puddle 8 mm deep. How fast is the radius
growing when the radius is:
(a) 2 cm
(b) 20 cm

(c) 200 cm
cm3
4. A spherical balloon is inflated with air flowing at a rate of 5 s . How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing
when the radius is:
(a) 1 cm
(b) 10 cm

(c) 100 cm
5. Consider the traffic situation introduced in Example 4.2.7. How fast is the “other car” traveling if the officer and
the other car are each 34 mile from the intersection, the other car is traveling due west, the officer is traveling
north at 55 mph, and the radar reading is −75 mph?
6. Consider the traffic situation introduced in Example 4.2.7. Calculate how fast the “other car” is traveling in each
of the following situations.
(a) The officer is traveling due north at 50 mph and is 34 mile from the intersection, while the other car is 1
mile from the intersection traveling west and the radar reading is −85 mph?
3
(b) The officer is traveling due north at 50 mph and is 1 mile from the intersection, while the other car is 4
mile from the intersection traveling west and the radar reading is −85 mph?
7. An F-22 aircraft is flying at 530 mph with an elevation of 6600 ft on a straight-line path that will take it directly
over an anti-aircraft gun.

6600 ft
θ
x
How fast (in radians per second) must the gun be able to turn to accurately track the aircraft when the plane
is:

(a) 1 mile away?

(b) 1/5 mile away?
(c) Directly overhead?
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 185

8. An F-22 aircraft is flying at 500 mi/h with an elevation of 100 ft on a straight-line path that will take it directly
over an anti-aircraft gun as in Exercise 4.2.7 (note the lower elevation here).
How fast must the gun be able to turn to accurately track the aircraft when the plane is:

(a) 1800 ft away?

(b) 350 ft away?
(c) Directly overhead?
9. A 24 ft ladder is leaning against a house while the base is pulled away at a constant rate of 1 ft/s.

24
1 ft/s
ft
At what rate is the top of the ladder sliding down the side of the house when the base is:
(a) 1 foot from the house?

(b) 10 feet from the house?

(c) 23 feet from the house?
(d) 24 feet from the house?
10.
(a) 50 feet out?

(b) 15 feet out?

(c) 1 foot from the dock?
(d) What happens when the length of rope pulling in the boat is less than 10 feet long?
ft3
11. An inverted cylindrical cone, 28 ft deep and 25 ft across at the top, is being filled with water at a rate of 12 s .
At what rate is the water rising in the tank when the depth of the water is:
(a) 1 foot?
(b) 10 feet?

(c) 22 feet?
(d) How long will the tank take to fill when starting at empty?
12. A rope, attached to a weight, goes up through a pulley at the ceiling and back down to a worker. The man holds
the rope at the same height as the connection point between rope and weight.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 186

30 ft
2 ft/s
Suppose the man stands directly next to the weight (i.e., a total rope length of 60 feet) and begins to walk
away at a rate of 2 ft/s. How fast is the weight rising when the man has walked:

(a) 10 feet?
(b) 40 feet?
(c) How far must the man walk to raise the weight all the way to the pulley?
13. Consider the situation described in Exercise 4.2.12. Suppose the man starts 40 ft from the weight and begins to
walk away at a rate of 2 fts .

(a) How long is the rope?

(b) How fast is the weight rising after the man has walked 10 feet?

(c) How fast is the weight rising after the man has walked 30 feet?
(d) How far must the man walk to raise the weight all the way to the pulley?
14. A hot air balloon lifts off from ground rising vertically. From 90 feet away, a 6 ft tall woman tracks the path of
the balloon. When her sightline with the balloon makes a 45◦ angle with the horizontal, she notes the angle is
increasing at about 3◦ per minute.
(a) What is the elevation of the balloon?
(b) How fast is it rising?
15. A company that produces landscaping materials is dumping sand into a conical pile. The sand is being poured
3
at a rate of 5 fts . The physical properties of the sand, in conjunction with gravity, ensure that the cone’s height
is roughly 47 the length of the diameter of the circular base.
How fast is the cone rising when it has a height of 30 feet?
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 187

4.3 Optimization
In Section 3.1 we learned about extreme values — the largest and smallest
values a function attains on an interval. We motivated our interest in such values
by discussing how it made sense to want to know the highest/lowest values of
a stock, or the fastest/slowest an object was moving. In this section we apply [Link]/watch?v=nlLf3CcgblI
the concepts of extreme values to solve “word problems,” i.e., problems stated Figure 4.3.1 A simple optimization prob-
in terms of situations that require us to create the appropriate mathematical lem
framework in which to solve the problem.
We start with a classic example which is followed by a discussion of the topic
of optimization.

Example 4.3.2 Optimization: perimeter and area.

A man has 100 feet of fencing, a large yard, and a small dog. He wants to
create a rectangular enclosure for his dog with the fencing that provides
the maximal area. What dimensions provide the maximal area?
Solution. One can likely guess the correct answer — that is great. We
will proceed to show how calculus can provide this answer in a context
that proves this answer is correct.
It helps to make a sketch of the situation. Our enclosure is sketched
twice in Figure 4.3.3, either with treetop grass and nice fence boards or
as a simple rectangle. Either way, drawing a rectangle forces us to realize
that we need to know the dimensions of this rectangle so we can create
an area function — after all, we are trying to maximize the area.

y
y

x
x
Figure 4.3.3 A sketch of the enclosure in Example 4.3.2.
We let x and y denote the lengths of the sides of the rectangle. Clearly,

Area = xy.

We do not yet know how to handle functions with two variables; we

need to reduce this down to a single variable. We know more about the
situation: the man has 100 feet of fencing. By knowing the perimeter of
the rectangle must be 100, we can create another equation:

Perimeter = 100 = 2x + 2y.

We now have two equations and two unknowns. In the latter equa-
tion, we solve for y:
y = 50 − x.
Now substitute this expression for y in the area equation:

Area = A(x) = x(50 − x).

Note we now have an equation of one variable; we can truly call the
Area a function of x.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 188

This function only makes sense when 0 ≤ x ≤ 50, otherwise we get

negative values of area. So we find the extreme values of A(x) on the
interval [0, 50] using Key Idea 3.1.18.
To find the critical points, we take the derivative of A(x) and set it
equal to 0, then solve for x.

A(x) = x(50 − x)
= 50x − x2
A′ (x) = 50 − 2x

We solve 50 − 2x = 0 to find x = 25; this is the only critical point.

We evaluate A(x) at the endpoints of our interval and at this critical
point to find the extreme values; in this case, all we care about is the
maximum.
Clearly A(0) = 0 and A(50) = 0, whereas A(25) = 625ft2 . This is
the maximum. Since we earlier found y = 50 − x, we find that y is also
25. Thus the dimensions of the rectangular enclosure with perimeter of
100 ft. with maximum area is a square, with sides of length 25 ft.

This example is very simplistic and a bit contrived. (After all, most people
create a design then buy fencing to meet their needs, and not buy fencing and
plan later.) But it models well the necessary process: create equations that de-
scribe a situation, reduce an equation to a single variable, then find the needed
extreme value.
“In real life,” problems are much more complex. The equations are often
not reducible to a single variable (hence multi-variable calculus is needed) and
the equations themselves may be difficult to form. Understanding the princi-
ples here will provide a good foundation for the mathematics you will likely en-
counter later.
We outline here the basic process of solving these optimization problems.

Key Idea 4.3.4 Solving Optimization Problems.

1. Understand the problem. Clearly identify what quantity is to be

maximized or minimized. Make a sketch if helpful.
2. Create equations relevant to the context of the problem, using the
information given. (One of these should describe the quantity to
be optimized. We’ll call this the fundamental equation.)

3. If the fundamental equation defines the quantity to be optimized

as a function of more than one variable, reduce it to a single vari-
able function using substitutions derived from the other equations
(we’ll call these constraint equations).
4. Identify the domain of this function, keeping in mind the context
of the problem.
5. Find the extreme values of this function on the determined do-
main.
6. Identify the values of all relevant quantities of the problem.

We will use Key Idea 4.3.4 in a variety of examples.

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 189

Example 4.3.5 Optimization: perimeter and area.

Here is another classic calculus problem: A woman has a 100 feet of fenc-
ing, a small dog, and a large yard that contains a stream (that is mostly
straight). She wants to create a rectangular enclosure with maximal area
that uses the stream as one side. (Apparently her dog won’t swim away.) Video Solution
What dimensions provide the maximal area?
Solution. We will follow the steps outlined by Key Idea 4.3.4.

1. We are maximizing area. A sketch of the region will help; Fig-

ure 4.3.6 gives two sketches of the proposed enclosed area. A
key feature of the sketches is to acknowledge that one side is not
fenced.

x [Link]/watch?v=wIs5N5HOCrc

y
y

x
Figure 4.3.6 A sketch of the enclosure in Example 4.3.5
2. We want to maximize the area; as in the example before,

Area = xy.

This is our fundamental equation. This defines area as a function

of two variables, so we need another equation to reduce it to one
variable.
We again appeal to the perimeter; here the perimeter is

Perimeter = 100 = x + 2y.

The perimeter is our constraint equation. Note how this is a dif-

ferent equation for perimeter than in Example 4.3.2, since one of
the sides does not need to be fenced.
3. We now reduce the fundamental equation to a single variable us-
ing our constraint equation. In the perimeter equation, solve for
y: y = 50 − x/2. We can now write Area as

Area = A(x) = x(50 − x/2)

1
= 50x − x2 .
2
Area is now defined as a function of one variable.
4. We want the area to be non-negative. Since A(x) = x(50 − x/2),
we want x ≥ 0 and 50 − x/2 ≥ 0. The latter inequality implies
that x ≤ 100, so 0 ≤ x ≤ 100.
5. We now find the extreme values. At the endpoints, the minimum
is found, giving an area of 0.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 190

Find the critical points. We have A′ (x) = 50−x; setting this equal
to 0 and solving for x returns x = 50. This gives an area of

A(50) = 50(25) = 1250.

6. We earlier set y = 50 − x/2; thus y = 25. Thus our rectangle will

have two sides of length 25 and one side of length 50, with a total
area of 1250 ft2 .

Keep in mind as we do these problems that we are practicing a process; that

is, we are learning to turn a situation into a system of equations. These equations
allow us to write a certain quantity as a function of one variable, which we then
optimize.

Example 4.3.7 Optimization: minimizing cost.

A power line needs to be run from a power station located on the beach 1000 ft
to an offshore facility. Figure 4.3.8 shows the distances between the
power station to the facility.
5000 ft
It costs $50/ ft to run a power line along the land, and $130/ ft to
run a power line under water. How much of the power line should be Figure 4.3.8 Running a power line from
run along the land to minimize the overall cost? What is the minimal the power station to an offshore facil-
cost? ity with minimal cost in Example 4.3.7
Solution. We will follow the strategy of Key Idea 4.3.4 implicitly, with-
out specifically numbering steps.
There are two immediate solutions that we could consider, each of
which we will reject through “common sense.” First, we could minimize
the distance by directly connecting the two locations with a straight line.
However, this requires that all the wire be laid underwater, the most Video Solution
costly option. Second, we could minimize the underwater length by run-
ning a wire all 5000 ft along the beach, directly across from the offshore
facility. This has the undesired effect of having the longest distance of
all, probably ensuring a non-minimal cost.
The optimal solution likely has the line being run along the ground
for a while, then underwater, as the figure implies. We need to label
our unknown distances — the distance run along the ground and the
distance run underwater. Recognizing that the underwater distance can
be measured as the hypotenuse of a right triangle, we choose to label
[Link]/watch?v=qDK9rqloKRs
the distances as shown in Figure 4.3.9.
By choosing x as we did (instead of letting x be the distance along
the land), we make the expression under the square root simple. We
now create the cost function. 2
000
√ x2 +1 1000 ft
Cost = land cost + water cost
$50 × land distance + $130 × water distance
p 5000 − x x
50(5000 − x) + 130 x2 + 10002 .
√ Figure 4.3.9 Labeling unknown distances
So we have c(x) = 50(5000 − x) + 130 x2 + 10002 . This function in Example 4.3.7
only makes sense on the interval [0, 5000]. While we are fairly certain
the endpoints will not give a minimal cost, we still evaluate c(x) at each
to verify.

c(0) = 380,000 c(5000) ≈ 662,873.

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 191

(Notice that if x = 0, the line is run the full 5000 ft along land and a full
1000 ft under water. If x = 5000, the line is run the maximum distance
underwater.)
We now find the critical values of c(x). We compute c′ (x) as
130x
c′ (x) = −50 + √ .
x2 + 10002
Recognize that this is never undefined. Setting c′ (x) = 0 and solving
for x, we have:
130x
−50 + √ =0
x2 + 10002
130x
√ = 50
x2 + 10002
1302 x2
= 502
x + 10002
2

1302 x2 = 502 (x2 + 10002 )

1302 x2 − 502 x2 = 502 · 10002
(1302 − 502 )x2 = 50, 0002
50, 0002
x2 =
1302 − 502
50, 000
x= √
1302 − 502
50, 000 1250
x= = ≈ 416.67.
120 3
Evaluating c(x) at x = 416.67 gives a minimal cost of about $370,000.
The distance the power line is laid along
√ land is 5000−416.67 = 4583.33
ft., and the underwater distance is 416.672 + 10002 ≈ 1083 ft.

In the exercises you will see a variety of situations that require you to com-
bine problem-solving skills with calculus. Focus on the process; learn how to
form equations from situations that can be manipulated into what you need. Es-
chew memorizing how to do “this kind of problem” as opposed to “that kind
of problem.” Learning a process will benefit one far longer than memorizing a
specific technique.
Before you begin the exercises, here is one more example, presented in video
form in Figure 4.3.10.
Section 4.4 introduces our final application of the derivative: differentials.
Given y = f (x), they offer a method of approximating the change in y after x
changes by a small amount.
[Link]/watch?v=XJYDMZe8JUk
Figure 4.3.10 Optimizing construction
of a box with no top
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 192

4.3.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) An “optimization problem” is essentially an “extreme values” problem in a “story prob-
lem” setting.
2. (□ True □ False) This section teaches one to find the extreme values of a function that has more than one
variable.

Problems

3. Find the maximum product of two numbers (not necessarily integers) that have a sum of 150.
4. Find the minimum sum of two positive numbers whose product is 560.
5. Find the maximum sum of two positive numbers whose product is 580.
6. Find the maximum sum of two numbers, each of which is less than or equal to 290, whose product is 400.
7. Find the maximal area of a right triangle with hypotenuse of length 2.
8. A rancher has 900 feet of fencing in which to construct adjacent, equally sized rectangular pens. What dimen-
sions should these pens have to maximize the enclosed area?

9. A standard soda can is roughly cylindrical and holds 355 cm3 of liquid. What dimensions should the cylinder
have to minimize the material needed to produce the can? Based on your dimensions, determine whether or
not the standard can is produced to minimize the material costs.
Discuss whether or not your calculation suggests that a real world soda can is designed to minimize the
materials cost.
10. Find the dimensions of a cylindrical can with a volume of 206 in3 that minimizes the surface area.
The “#10 can”is a standard sized can used by the restaurant industry that holds about 206 in3 with a diameter
3
of 6 16 in and height of 7 in. Does it seem these dimensions where chosen with minimization in mind?
Discuss whether or not your calculation suggests that a #10 can is designed to minimize the materials cost.
11. A standard soda can is roughly cylindrical and holds 355 cm3 of liquid. A real-world soda can has material on
the top and bottom that is thicker than the material around the side. Assume that the top/bottom material
is twice as thick as the material around the side. What dimensions should the cylinder have to minimize the
material needed to produce the can? Based on your dimensions and the assumption about material thickness,
determine whether or not the standard can is produced to minimize the material costs.
Discuss whether or not your calculation suggests that a real world soda can is designed to minimize the
materials cost.
12. The United States Postal Service charges more for boxes whose combined length and girth exceeds 108 inches.
(The “length” of a package is the length of its longest side; the girth is the perimeter of the cross section, i.e.,
2w + 2h).
What is the maximum volume of a package with a square cross section (w = h) that does not exceed the
108 inch standard?
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 193

13. The strength S of a wooden beam is directly proportional to its cross sectional width w and the square of its
height h. that is, S = kwh2 for some constant k.

12 h

Given a circular log with diameter of 18 inches, what sized beam can be cut from the log with maximum
strength?
14. A power line is to be run to an offshore facility in the manner described in Example 4.3.7. The offshore facility
is 6 miles at sea and 4 miles along the shoreline from the power plant. It costs $35,000 per mile to lay a power
line underground and $70,000 to run the line underwater.
How much of the power line should be run underground? What is the minimum overall cost?
15. A power line is to be run to an offshore facility in the manner described in Example 4.3.7. The offshore facility
is 6 miles at sea and 2 miles along the shoreline from the power plant. It costs $45,000 per mile to lay a power
line underground and $75,000 to run the line underwater.
How much of the power line should be run underground? What is the minimum overall cost?
16. A woman throws a stick into a lake for her dog to fetch; the stick is 35 feet down the shore line and 13 feet into
the water from there. The dog may jump directly into the water and swim, or run along the shore line to get
closer to the stick before swimming. The dog runs about 19 fts and swims about 2 fts .
How far along the shore should the dog run to minimize the time it takes to get to the stick? (Hint: the figure
from Example 4.3.7 can be useful.)
17. A woman throws a stick into a lake for her dog to fetch; the stick is 25 feet down the shore line and 16 feet into
the water from there. The dog may jump directly into the water and swim, or run along the shore line to get
closer to the stick before swimming. The dog runs about 22 fts and swims about 1.7 fts .
How far along the shore should the dog run to minimize the time it takes to get to the stick? (Google “calculus
dog” to learn more about a dog’s ability to minimize times.)
18. What are the dimensions of the rectangle with largest area that can be drawn inside the unit circle?
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 194

4.4 Differentials
In Section 2.2 we explored the meaning and use of the derivative. This sec-
tion starts by revisiting some of those ideas.
Recall that the derivative of a function f can be used to find the slopes of
lines tangent to the graph of f . At x = c, the tangent line to the graph of f has [Link]/watch?v=YmODT2PolKY
equation Figure 4.4.1 Video introduction to Sec-
y = f ′ (c)(x − c) + f (c). tion 4.4
The tangent line can be used to find good approximations of f (x) for values
of x near c.
For instance, we can approximate sin(1.1) using the tangent line
√ to the graph
of f (x) = sin(x) at x = π/3 ≈ 1.05. Recall that sin(π/3) = 3/2 ≈ 0.866,
and f ′ (π/3) = cos(π/3) = 1/2. Thus the tangent line to f (x) = sin(x) at
x = π/3 is:
1
ℓ(x) = (x − π/3) + 0.866.
2

y y
1
√
3 ℓ(1.1) ≈ sin(1.1)
2 √ sin(1.1)
(π/3, 3/3) 0.89

0.88
0.5

0.87
√
3
2 ( √ )
x π/3, 3/3
x
π
π 1.1
3 3

(a) (b)
Figure 4.4.2 Graphing f (x) = sin(x) and its tangent line at x = π/3 in order to
estimate sin(1.1)
In Figure 4.4.2(a), we see a graph of f (x) = sin(x) graphed along with its
tangent line at x = π/3. The small rectangle shows the region that is displayed
in Figure 4.4.2(b). In this figure, we see how we are approximating sin(1.1) with
the tangent line, evaluated at 1.1. Together, the two figures show how close
these values are.
Using this line to approximate sin(1.1), we have:
1
ℓ(1.1) = (1.1 − π/3) + 0.866
2
1
= (0.053) + 0.866 = 0.8925.
2
(We leave it to the reader to see how good of an approximation this is.)
We now generalize this concept. Given f (x) and an x-value c, the tangent
line is y = ℓ(x), where ℓ(x) = f ′ (c)(x − c) + f (c). Clearly, f (c) = ℓ(c). Let ∆x
be a small number, representing a small change in the x-value. We assert that:
[Link]/watch?v=mQRelmurD-w
f (c + ∆x) ≈ ℓ(c + ∆x),
Figure 4.4.3 Approximating the value
since the tangent line to a function approximates well the values of that func- of sin(1.1)
tion near x = c. This tangent line approximation is used frequently enough in
applications that we give it a name.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 195

Definition 4.4.4
The function ℓ(x) is often referred to as the linearization, or linear ap-
proximation of f at c. It is the linear function that best approximates
the value of f (x) when x is close to c.

As the x-value changes from c to c + ∆x, the y-value of f changes from f (c)
to f (c + ∆x). We call this change of y-value ∆y. That is:

∆y = f (c + ∆x) − f (c).

Replacing f (c + ∆x) with its tangent line approximation, we have

∆y ≈ ℓ(c + ∆x) − f (c)

= f ′ (c) (c + ∆x) − c + f (c) − f (c)
= f ′ (c)∆x. (4.4.1)

This final equation is important; it becomes the basis of Definition 4.4.5 and
Key Idea 4.4.7. In short, it says that when the x-value changes from c to c + ∆x,
the y value of a function f changes by about f ′ (c)∆x.
We introduce two new variables, dx and dy in the context of a formal defin-
ition.

Definition 4.4.5 Differentials of x and y.

[Link]/watch?v=y9lTgdHD8wI
Let y = f (x) be differentiable. The differential of x, denoted dx, is
any nonzero real number (usually taken to be a small number). The Figure 4.4.6 Video presentation of De-
differential of y, denoted dy, is finition 4.4.5

dy = f ′ (x)dx.

We can solve for f ′ (x) in the above equation: f ′ (x) = dy/dx. This states Differentials and linearization. The
that the derivative of f with respect to x is the differential of y divided by the relationship between the differ-
dy
differential of x; this is not the alternate notation for the derivative, dx . This ential and the linearization given
latter notation was chosen because of the fraction-like qualities of the derivative, in Definition 4.4.4 is as follows:
but again, it is one symbol and not a fraction.
It is helpful to organize our new concepts and notations in one place. ℓ(x) = f (c) + dy,

Key Idea 4.4.7 Differential Notation. if we take dy to be evaluated at

x = c.
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. It is often useful to think of
dy is the linear change in f , while
1. Let ∆x represent a small, nonzero change in x value.
∆y represents the true change
2. Let dx represent a small, nonzero change in x value (i.e., ∆x = in f .
dx).

3. Let ∆y be the change in y value as x changes by ∆x; hence

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x).

4. Let dy = f ′ (x)dx which, by (4.4.1), is an approximation of the

change in y-value as x changes by ∆x; dy ≈ ∆y.

When students first encounter differentials, they are often left wondering
why dy and ∆y are different, while dx and ∆x are the same. The video in Fig-
ure 4.4.8 attempts to offer an explanation.

[Link]/watch?v=XxpcZw702nA
Figure 4.4.8 Why is it that dx = ∆x?
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 196

What is the value of differentials? Like many mathematical concepts, differ-

entials provide both practical and theoretical benefits. We explore both here.

Example 4.4.9 Finding and using differentials.

Video Solution
Consider f (x) = x2 . Knowing f (3) = 9, approximate f (3.1).
Solution. The x-value is changing from x = 3 to x = 3.1; therefore,
we see that dx = 0.1. If we know how much the y-value changes from
f (3) to f (3.1) (i.e., if we know ∆y), we will know exactly what f (3.1) is
(since we already know f (3)). We can approximate ∆y with dy.

∆y ≈ dy
= f ′ (3)dx
= 2 · 3 · 0.1 = 0.6. [Link]/watch?v=KCDezzvfDKA

We expect the y-value to change by about 0.6, so we approximate

f (3.1) ≈ 9.6.
We leave it to the reader to verify this, but the preceding discussion
links the differential to the tangent line of f (x) at x = 3. One can verify
that the tangent line, evaluated at x = 3.1, also gives y = 9.6.

Of course, it is easy to compute the actual answer (by hand or with a calcula-
tor): 3.12 = 9.61. (Before we get too cynical and say “Then why bother?”, note
our approximation is really good!)
So why bother?
In “most” real life situations, we do not know the function that describes
a particular behavior. Instead, we can only take measurements of how things
change — measurements of the derivative.
Imagine water flowing down a winding channel. It is easy to measure the
speed and direction (i.e., the velocity) of water at any location. It is very hard
to create a function that describes the overall flow, hence it is hard to predict
where a floating object placed at the beginning of the channel will end up. How-
ever, we can approximate the path of an object using differentials. Over small
PID controllers. Another place
intervals, the path taken by a floating object is essentially linear. Differentials
differentials are used is in a PID
allow us to approximate the true path by piecing together lots of short, linear
controller, which stands for “Pro-
paths. This technique is called Euler’s Method, studied in introductory Differen-
portional Integral Derivative”. A
tial Equations courses.
PID controller uses concepts of
We use differentials once more to approximate the value of a function. Even
both derivative and integral cal-
though calculators are very accessible, it is neat to see how these techniques
culus to very accurately control
can sometimes be used to easily compute something that looks rather hard.
a process (such as maintaining a
Example 4.4.10 Using differentials to approximate a function value. stable temperature on an espresso
machine).
√
Approximate 4.5.
√ √
Solution. We expect 4.5 ≈ 2, yet we can do better. Let f (x)√= x,
and let c = 4. Thus f (4) = 2. We can compute f ′ (x) = 1/(2 x), so
f ′ (4) = 1/4.
We approximate the difference between f (4.5) and f (4) using dif- Video Solution
ferentials, with dx = 0.5:

f (4.5) − f (4) = ∆y ≈ dy
= f ′ (4) · dx
= 1/4 · 1/2

[Link]/watch?v=nFaq1O_wWso
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 197

= 1/8
= 0.125.

The approximate
√ change in f from x = 4 to x = 4.5 is 0.125, so we
approximate 4.5 ≈ 2.125.

Differentials are important when we discuss integration. When we study

that topic, we will use notation such as
Z
f (x) dx

quite often. While we don’t discuss here what all of that notation means, note
the existence of the differential dx. Proper handling of integrals comes with
proper handling of differentials.
In light of that, we practice finding differentials in general.

Example 4.4.11 Finding differentials.

In each of the following, find the differential dy.

1. y = sin(x) 2. y
= 3. yp =
ex x2 + 2 x2 + 3x − 1

Solution.
1. y = sin(x): As f (x) = sin(x), f ′ (x) = cos(x). Thus

dy = cos(x)dx.



2. y = ex x2 + 2 : Let f (x) = ex x2 + 2 . We need f ′ (x), requir-
ing the Theorem 2.4.2.


We have f ′ (x) = ex x2 + 2 + 2xex , so



dy = ex x2 + 2 + 2xex dx.
√ √
3. y = x2 + 3x − 1: Let f (x) = x2 + 3x − 1; we need f ′ (x),
requiring the Theorem 2.5.4.

− 1
We have f ′ (x) = 12 x2 + 3x − 1 2 (2x + 3) = 2√x2x+3
2 +3x−1
.
Thus
(2x + 3)dx
dy = √ .
2 x2 + 3x − 1

Finding the differential dy of y = f (x) is really no harder than finding the

derivative of f ; we just multiply f ′ (x) by dx. It is important to remember that
we are not simply adding the symbol “dx” at the end.
We have seen a practical use of differentials as they offer a good method
of making certain approximations. Another use is error propagation. Suppose a
length is measured to be x, although the actual value is x+∆x (where ∆x is the
error, which we hope is small). This measurement of x may be used to compute
some other value; we can think of this latter value as f (x) for some function f .
As the true length is x + ∆x, one really should have computed f (x + ∆x). The
difference between f (x) and f (x + ∆x) is the propagated error.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 198

How close are f (x) and f (x + ∆x)? This is a difference in “y” values:

f (x + ∆x) − f (x) = ∆y ≈ dy.

We can approximate the propagated error using differentials.

Example 4.4.12 Using differentials to approximate propagated error.

A steel ball bearing is to be manufactured with a diameter of 2 cm. The

manufacturing process has a tolerance of ±0.1mm in the diameter. Given
that the density of steel is about 7.85 cmg 3 , estimate the propagated error Video Solution
in the mass of the ball bearing.
Solution. The mass of a ball bearing is found using the equation “mass
= volume × density.” In this situation the mass function is a product of
the radius of the ball bearing, hence it is m = 7.85 43 πr3 . The differential
of the mass is
dm = 31.4πr2 dr.
The radius is to be 1 cm; the manufacturing tolerance in the radius is
±0.05mm, or ±0.005cm. The propagated error is approximately:
[Link]/watch?v=0_tSaBZZR1s
∆m ≈ dm
= 31.4π(1)2 (±0.005)
= ±0.493g

Is this error significant? It certainly depends on the application, but

we can get an idea by computing the relative error. The ratio between
amount of error to the total mass is
dm 0.493
=±
m 7.85 43 π
0.493
=±
32.88
= ±0.015,

or ±1.5%.
We leave it to the reader to confirm this, but if the diameter of the
ball was supposed to be 10 cm, the same manufacturing tolerance would
give a propagated error in mass of ±12.33g, which corresponds to a
percent error of ±0.188%. While the amount of error is much greater
(12.33 > 0.493), the percent error is much lower.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 199

4.4.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. (□ True □ False) Given a differentiable function y = f (x), we are generally free to choose a value for dx,
which then determines the value of dy.
2. (□ True □ False) The symbols “dx” and “∆x” represent the same concept.
3. (□ True □ False) The symbols “dy” and “∆y” represent the same concept.
4. (□ True □ False) Differentials are important in the study of integration.
5. How are differentials and tangent lines related?
6. (□ True □ False) In real life, differentials are used to approximate function values when the function itself
is not known.

Problems

Exercise Group. Use differentials to approximate the given value by hand.

7. 2.072 8. 2.952
9. 4.43 10. 4.73
√ √
11. 25.5 12. 34.6
√3
√3
13. 124 14. 216.6
15. sin(3) 16. e0.1

Exercise Group. Compute the differential dy.

17. y = x2 − 5x − 6 18. y = x5 + x9
1 20. y = (6x + sin(x))
2
19. y= 6
4x
21. y = x7 + e8x 8
22. y=
x5
9x 24. y = ln(9x)
23. y=
tan(x) + 2
25. y = ex sin(x) 26. y = cos(sin(x))
x−4 28. y = 5x ln(x)
27. y=
x+5


29. y = x tan−1 (x) − 0.5 ln 1 + x2 30. y = ln(sin(x))

31. A set of plastic spheres are to be made with a diameter of 4 cm. If the manufacturing process is accurate to
2 mm, what is the propagated error in volume of the spheres?
32. The distance, in feet, a stone drops in t seconds is given by d(t) = 16t2 . The depth of a hole is to be approximated
by dropping a rock and listening for it to hit the bottom. What is the propagated error if the time measurement
is accurate to 4/10 of a second and the measured time is:

(a) 4 seconds?
(b) 6 seconds?
33. What is the propagated error in the measurement of the cross sectional area of a circular log if the diameter is
measured at 20′′ , accurate to 1/8′′ ?
34. A wall is to be painted that is 8′ high and is measured to be 13′ , 2′′ long. Find the propagated error in the
measurement of the wall’s surface area if the measurement is accurate to 1/ − 2′′ .
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 200

Exercise Group. The following exercises explore some issues related to surveying in which distances are approximated
using other measured distances and measured angles. (Hint: Convert all angles to radians before computing.)
35. The length L of a long wall is to be 36. The length L of a long wall is to be
approximated. The angle θ, as shown in the approximated. The angle θ, as shown in the
diagram (not to scale), is measured to be 85.2◦ , diagram (not to scale), is measured to be 71.5◦ ,
◦
accurate to 1 . Assume that the triangle formed accurate to 1◦ . Assume that the triangle formed
is a right triangle. is a right triangle.

l=?
l=?
θ
25′ θ
(a) What is the measured length L of the 25′
wall?
(a) What is the measured length L of the
(b) What is the propagated error? wall?
(c) What is the percent error? (b) What is the propagated error?

(c) What is the percent error?

37. The length L of a long wall is to be calculated by 38. The length of the walls in Exercise 4.4.35–4.4.37
measuring the angle θ shown in the diagram are essentially the same. Which setup gives the
(not to scale). Assume the formed triangle is an most accurate result?
isosceles triangle. The measured angle is 143◦ ,
accurate to 1◦ . • Right triangle at 25 feet
• Right triangle at 100 feet

• Isosceles triangle at 50 feet

l=?

θ
25′
(a) What is the measured length L of the
wall?
(b) What is the propagated error?

(c) What is the percent error?

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 201

39. Consider the setup in Exercise 4.4.37. This time,

assume the angle measurement of 143◦ is exact
but the measured 50′ from the wall is accurate
to 6′′ .

l =?

θ
25′
What is the approximate percent error?
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 202

4.5 Taylor Polynomials

Consider a function y = f (x) and a point c, f (c) . The derivative, f ′ (c),
gives the instantaneous rate
of change of f at x = c. Of all lines that pass
through the point c, f (c) , the line that best approximates f at this point is the
tangent line; that is, the line whose slope (rate of change) is f ′ (c).
In Figure 4.5.2, we see a function y = f (x) graphed. The table in Figure 4.5.3
shows that f (0) = 2 and f ′ (0) = 1; therefore, the tangent line to f at x = 0 is [Link]/watch?v=SYJ2uGJCQdY
p1 (x) = 1(x − 0) + 2 = x + 2. The tangent line is also given in the figure. Note
that “near” x = 0, p1 (x) ≈ f (x); that is, the tangent line approximates f well. Figure 4.5.1 Video introduction to Sec-
tion 4.5
y
y = f (x)

x
−4 −2 2 4

y = p1 (x)
f (0) = 2 f ′′′ (0) = −1
f ′ (0) = 1 f (4) (0) = −12
−5 f ′′ (0) = 2 f (5) (0) = −19
Figure 4.5.2 A graph of f (x) and its Figure 4.5.3 Derivatives of f evalu-
tangent line at 0 ated at 0
One shortcoming of this approximation is that the tangent line only matches
the slope of f ; it does not, for instance, match the concavity of f . We can find a
polynomial, p2 (x), that does match the concavity near 0 without much difficulty,
though. The table in Figure 4.5.3 gives the following information:

f (0) = 2 f ′ (0) = 1 f ′′ (0) = 2.

Therefore, we want our polynomial p2 (x) to have these same properties.

That is, we need

p2 (0) = 2 p′2 (0) = 1 p′′2 (0) = 2.

Let’s start with a general quadratic function

p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 .

We find the following:

p2 (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 p2 (0) = a0
p2 ′ (x) = a1 + 2a2 x p2 ′ (0) = a1
p2 ′′ (x) = 2a2 p2 ′′ (0) = 2a2 .

To get the desired properties above, we must have

a0 = f (0) = 2, a1 = f ′ (0) = 1, 2a2 = f ′′ (0) = 2,

so a0 = 2, a1 = 1, and a2 = 2/2 = 1, giving us the polynomial

p2 (x) = 2 + x + x2 .

We can repeat this approximation process by creating polynomials of higher

degree that match more of the derivatives of f at x = 0. In general, a polynomial
of degree n can be created to match the first n derivatives of f . Figure 4.5.4
 y

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 203

y = p2 (x) 5

shows p4 (x) = −x /2 − x /6 + x + x + 2, whose first four derivatives at 0

4 3 2

match those of f .
How do we ensure that the derivatives of our polynomial match those of f ? x
We simply begin with a polynomial of the desired degree, compute its deriva- −4 −2 2 4
tives, and compare them to those of f ! Recall that each term in a polynomial y = p4 (x)
y = f (x)
consists of a power of x, and a coefficient, like so: an xn . Our goal is to deter-
mine the value for each coefficient an so that the derivatives of our polynomial −5
match those of our function f . If we take k derivatives of the term an xn , with Figure 4.5.4 Plotting f , p2 and p4
k ≤ n, we obtain

dk
(an xn ) = n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)an xn−k .
dxk
For k < n, the expression above vanishes when we set x = 0. However, for
n = k, we obtain the constant value

dk
(ak xk ) = k · (k − 1) · · · 2 · 1ak . (4.5.1)
dxk
Consider a polynomial

pn (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk + · · · + an xn

of degree n. If we take k derivatives, all of the terms involving powers of x less The notation k! is read as “k fac-
than k disappear, and when we set x = 0, all of the terms involving powers torial”. By convention, we also
of x larger than k disappear, leaving us with the single constant given in Equa- define 0! = 1, mostly because
tion (4.5.1). it makes our formulas look a lot
Recalling the notation k! = 1·2·3 · · · k for the product of the first k integers, nicer.
we have shown that
p(k)
n (0) = k!ak .

If we want the derivatives of pn to agree with some unknown function f when

x = 0, then we must have
f (k) (0)
ak = .
k!
As we use more and more derivatives, our polynomial approximation to f
gets better and better. In this example, the interval on which the approximation
is “good” gets bigger and bigger. Figure 4.5.6 shows p13 (x); we can visually af-
firm that this polynomial approximates f very well on [−2, 3]. (The polynomial [Link]/watch?v=v8mPY7fu1e0
p13 (x) is not particularly “nice”. It is Figure 4.5.5 Determining the coefficients
of a Taylor polynomial
16901x13 13x12 1321x11 779x10 359x9
p13 (x) = + − − −
6227020800 1209600 39916800 1814400 362880
x8 139x7 11x6 19x5 x4 x3
+ + + − − − + x2 + x + 2.
240 5040 360 120 2 6 y
The polynomials we have created are examples of Taylor polynomials, named
after the British mathematician Brook Taylor who made important discoveries 5
about such functions. In the discussion above, we concentrated on evaluating
the derivatives of f at 0; however, there is nothing special about this point. Just y = f (x)
as we can consider the linear approximation of a function near any point, so too p13 (x) x
can we determine a polynomial approximation about any value c in the domain
−4 −2 2 4
of f . The only catch is that our polynomial will then be given in terms of powers
of x − c, rather than powers of x, as we see in the following definition.
−5

Figure 4.5.6 Plotting f and p13

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 204

Definition 4.5.7 Taylor Polynomial, Maclaurin Polynomial.

Let f be a function whose first n derivatives exist at x = c.
1. The Taylor polynomial of degree n of f at x = c is

f ′′ (c)
pn (x) = f (c) + f ′ (c)(x − c) + (x − c)2
2!
f ′′′ (c) f (n) (c)
+ (x − c)3 + · · · + (x − c)n .
3! n!

2. A special case of the Taylor polynomial is the Maclaurin polyno-

mial, where c = 0. That is, the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n
of f is
[Link]/watch?v=J-5vVJIGQp4
′′ ′′′ (n)
f (0) 2 f (0) 3 f (0) n Figure 4.5.8 Video presentation of De-
pn (x) = f (0)+f ′ (0)x+ x + x +· · ·+ x .
2! 3! n! finition 4.5.7

We will practice creating Taylor and Maclaurin polynomials in the following

examples.
Video Solution
Example 4.5.9 Finding and using Maclaurin polynomials.

1. Find the nth Maclaurin polynomial for f (x) = ex .

2. Use p5 (x) to approximate the value of e.

Solution.
1. We start with creating a table of the derivatives of ex evaluated at
x = 0. In this particular case, this is relatively simple, as shown in [Link]/watch?v=ENf-Z2pLrJg
Figure 4.5.10.
By the definition of the Maclaurin polynomial, we have

f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3 f (n) (0) n f (x) = ex ⇒ f (0) = 1

pn (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + ··· + x f ′ (x) = ex ⇒ f ′ (0) = 1
2! 3! n!
1 1 1 1 f ′′ (x) = ex ⇒ f ′′ (0) = 1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + · · · + xn . .. ..
2 6 24 n! . .
f (n) (x) = ex ⇒ f (n) (0) = 1
2. Using our answer from part 1, we have
1 1 1 1 5 Figure 4.5.10 The derivatives of f (x) =
ex ≈ p5 (x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x . ex evaluated at x = 0
2 6 24 120
To approximate the value of e, note that e = e1 = f (1) ≈ p5 (1).
It is very straightforward to evaluate p5 (1): y
10
1 1 1 1 163
p5 (1) = 1 + 1 + + + + = ≈ 2.71667.
2 6 24 120 60
A plot of f (x) = ex and p5 (x) is given in Figure 4.5.11. To 5 deci- 5
mal places, the actual value of e is 2.71828. So this approximation
agrees to two decimal places.
y = p5 (x)
y = f (x) x
−3 −2 −1 1 2

Figure 4.5.11 A plot of f (x) = ex and

its 5th degree Maclaurin polynomial
p5 (x)
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 205

Example 4.5.12 Finding and using Taylor polynomials.

1. Find the nth Taylor polynomial of y = ln(x) at x = 1.

2. Use p6 (x) to approximate the value of ln(1.5).
3. Use p6 (x) to approximate the value of ln(2).

Solution. Video Solution

1. We begin by creating a table of derivatives of ln(x) evaluated at
x = 1. While this is not as straightforward as it was in the pre-
vious example, a pattern does emerge (for n ≥ 1), as shown in
Figure 4.5.13. Notice in the table below that each time we take a
derivative (starting at the second derivative), we apply the power
rule and “bring down” the exponent to multiply by the previous
coefficent. So the 6 in the 4th derivative is actually 1 · 2 · 3 = 3!.
Notice that the coefficients alternate in sign starting at n = 1.
Using Definition 4.5.7, we have [Link]/watch?v=6BeNQe0hl3k

f ′′ (c)
pn (x) = f (c) + f ′ (c)(x − c) + (x − c)2 + . . .
2!
f ′′′ (c) f (n) (c)
... (x − c)3 + · · · + (x − c)n
3! n!
0! 1!
= 0 + (x − 1) − (x − 1)2 + . . .
1! 2!
2! (−1)n+1 · (n − 1)!
. . . (x − 1)3 + · · · + (x − 1)n
3! n!
1 1
= (x − 1) − (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 − . . . f (x) = ln(x) ⇒ f (1) = 0
2 3
1 (−1) n+1 f ′ (x) = x1 ⇒ f ′ (1) = 1
. . . (x − 1)4 + · · · + (x − 1)n . f ′′ (x) = − x12 ⇒ f ′′ (1) = −1
4 n
f ′′′ (x) = x23 ⇒ f ′′′ (1) = 2
Note how the coefficients of the (x − 1) terms turn out to be
f (4) (x) = − x64 ⇒ f (4) (1) = −6
“nice.”
.. ..
. .
2. We can compute p6 (x) using our work above:
f (n) (x) = ⇒ f (n) (1) =
1 1 (−1) n+1
(n−1)!
p6 (x) = (x − 1) − (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 xn (−1)n+1 (n − 1)!
2 3
1 1 1 Figure 4.5.13 Derivatives of ln(x) eval-
− (x − 1) + (x − 1)5 − (x − 1)6 .
4
4 5 6 uated at x = 1
Since p6 (x) approximates ln(x) well near x = 1, we approximate
ln(1.5) ≈ p6 (1.5):
1 1
p6 (1.5) = (1.5 − 1) − (1.5 − 1)2 + (1.5 − 1)3 + . . .
2 3
1 1 1
· · · − (1.5 − 1) + (1.5 − 1)5 − (1.5 − 1)6
4
4 5 6
259
=
640
≈ 0.404688.
This is a good approximation as a calculator shows that ln(1.5) ≈
0.4055. Figure 4.5.14 below plots y = ln(x) with y = p6 (x). We
can see that ln(1.5) ≈ p6 (1.5).
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 206

3. We approximate ln 2 with p6 (2):

1 1 1
p6 (2) = (2 − 1) − (2 − 1)2 + (2 − 1)3 − (2 − 1)4 + · · ·
2 3 4
1 1
· · · + (2 − 1) − (2 − 1)
5 6
5 6
1 1 1 1 1
=1− + − + −
2 3 4 5 6
37
=
60
≈ 0.616667.

This approximation is not terribly impressive: a hand held calcu-

lator shows that ln(2) ≈ 0.693147. The graph in Figure 4.5.14
shows that p6 (x) provides less accurate approximations of ln(x)
as x gets close to 0 or 2. Surprisingly enough, even the 20th de-
gree Taylor polynomial fails to approximate ln(x) for x > 2 very
well, as shown in Figure 4.5.15. We’ll soon discuss why this is.
y
2 y
2 y = ln(x)
y = ln(x)
x
x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
−0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
−2 y = p20 (x)

−2
y = p6 (x) −4

−6
−4

Figure 4.5.14 A plot of y = ln(x) Figure 4.5.15 A plot of y = ln(x)

and its 20th degree Taylor polyno- As always in calculus, angles are
and its 6th degree Taylor polyno- measured in radians, so the 2 in
mial at x = 1 mial at x = 1
cos(2) is an angle of 2 radians.
Taylor polynomials are used to approximate functions f (x) in mainly two
situations:

1. When f (x) is known, but perhaps “hard” to compute directly. For in-
stance, we can define the cosine of an angle as either the ratio of sides
of a right triangle (“adjacent over hypotenuse”) or using the definition in
terms of the unit circle. However, neither of these provides a convenient
way of computing cos(2). A Taylor polynomial of sufficiently high degree
can provide a reasonable method of computing such values using only op-
erations usually hard-wired into a computer (+, −, × and ÷). Even though Taylor polynomials
could be used in calculators and
2. When f (x) is not known, but information about its derivatives is known. computers to calculate values of
This occurs more often than one might think, especially in the study of trigonometric functions, in prac-
differential equations. tice they generally aren’t. Other
In both situations, a critical piece of information to have is “How good is my more efficient and accurate meth-
approximation?” If we use a Taylor polynomial to compute cos(2), how do we ods have been developed, such
know how accurate the approximation is? as the CORDIC algorithm. How-
Although much of the content presented in Calculus concerns the search for ever, understanding how Taylor
exact answers to problems such as integration and differentiation, many practi- polynomials could be used is im-
cal applications of calculus involve attempts to find approximations; for example, portant to developing an under-
using Newton’s Method to approximate the zeros of a function, or numerical in- standing of various approximat-
tegration to approximate the value of an integral that cannot be solved exactly. ing techniques.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 207

Whenever an approximation is used, one naturally wishes to know how good

One way of quantifying the ex-
the approximation is. In other words, we look for a bound on the error intro-
tent to which one function approx-
duced by working with an approximation. The following theorem gives bounds
imates another is using the or-
on the error introduced in using a Taylor (and hence Maclaurin) polynomial to
der to which they agree. We say
approximate a function.
that two functions f and g agree
Theorem 4.5.16 Taylor’s Theorem. to order n at c if n is the largest
integer for which
1. Let f be a function whose (n+1)th derivative exists on an interval f (x) − g(x)
I and let c be in I. Then, for each x in I, there exists zx between lim = 0.
x→c (x − c)n
x and c such that
Taylor’s Theorem tells us that a
′ f ′′ (c) f (n) (c) function and its degree n Taylor
f (x) = f (c)+f (c)(x−c)+ (x−c)2 +· · ·+ (x−c)n +Rn (x),
2! n! polynomial agree to order n. Roughly
speaking, this means that their
f (n+1) (zx )
where Rn (x) = (x − c)(n+1) . difference goes to zero faster than
(n + 1)! the nth power of x − c as x ap-
max f (n+1) (z) proaches c.
2. |Rn (x)| ≤ (x − c)(n+1) , where z is in I.
(n + 1)!

The first part of Taylor’s Theorem states that f (x) = pn (x) + Rn (x), where
pn (x) is the nth order Taylor polynomial and Rn (x) is the remainder, or error, in
the Taylor approximation. The second part gives bounds on how big that error
can be. If the (n + 1)th derivative is large on I, the error may be large; if x
is far from c, the error may also be large. However, the (n + 1)! term in the
denominator tends to ensure that the error gets smaller as n increases.
The following example computes error estimates for the approximations of
ln(1.5) and ln(2) made in Example 4.5.12.
[Link]/watch?v=2IHECY8dFN0
Example 4.5.18 Finding error bounds of a Taylor polynomial. Figure 4.5.17 Video presentation of The-
orem 4.5.16
Use Theorem 4.5.16 to find error bounds when approximating ln(1.5)
and ln(2) with p6 (x), the Taylor polynomial of degree 6 of f (x) = ln(x)
at x = 1, as calculated in Example 4.5.12.
Solution. Video Solution
1. We start with the approximation of ln(1.5) with p6 (1.5). The the-
orem references an open interval I that contains both x and c.
The smaller the interval we use the better; it will give us a more
accurate (and smaller!) approximation of the error. We let I =
(0.9, 1.6), as this interval contains both c = 1 and x = 1.5. The
theorem references max f (n+1) (z) . In our situation, this is ask-
ing “How big can the 7th derivative of y = ln(x) be on the inter-
val (0.9, 1.6)?” The seventh derivative is y = −6!/x7 . The largest
absolute value it attains on I is about 1506. (There are no criti- [Link]/watch?v=TBV4-X7HoHk
cal numbers of f (7) in the interval so we evaluate the endpoints:
f (7) (0.9) ≈ 1506 and f (7) (1.6) ≈ 27.) In particular, we are eval-
uating at x = 1.5, so we let x = 1.5. Thus we can bound the error
as:
max f (7) (z)
|R6 (1.5)| ≤ (1.5 − 1)7
7!
1506 1
≤ ·
5040 27
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 208

≈ 0.0023.

We computed p6 (1.5) = 0.404688; using a calculator, we find

ln(1.5) ≈ 0.405465, so the actual error is about 0.000778, which
is less than our bound of 0.0023. This affirms Taylor’s Theorem;
the theorem states that our approximation would be within about
2 thousandths of the actual value, whereas the approximation was
actually closer. Taylor’s Theorem only gives an upper bound on the
error.
2. We again find an interval I that contains both c = 1 and x = 2;
we choose I = (0.9, 2.1). The maximum value of the seventh
derivative of f on this interval is again about 1506 (as the largest
values come near x = 0.9). Thus

max f (7) (z)

|R6 (2)| ≤ (2 − 1)7
7!
1506 7
≤ ·1
5040
≈ 0.30.

This bound is not as nearly as good as before. Using the degree

6 Taylor polynomial at x = 1 will bring us within 0.3 of the cor-
rect answer. As p6 (2) ≈ 0.61667, our error estimate guarantees
that the actual value of ln(2) is somewhere between 0.31667 and
0.91667. These bounds are not particularly useful. In reality, our
approximation was only off by about 0.07. However, we are ap-
proximating ostensibly because we do not know the real answer.
In order to be assured that we have a good approximation, we
would have to resort to using a polynomial of higher degree.

We practice again. This time, we use Taylor’s theorem to find n that guaran-
tees our approximation is within a certain amount.

Example 4.5.19 Finding sufficiently accurate Taylor polynomials.

Find n such that the nth Taylor polynomial of f (x) = cos(x) at x =

0 approximates cos(2) to within 0.001 of the actual answer. What is Video Solution
pn (2)?
Solution. Following Taylor’s theorem, we need bounds on the size of
the derivatives of f (x) = cos(x). In the case of this trigonometric func-
tion, this is easy. All derivatives of cosine are ± sin(x) or ± cos(x). In
all cases, these functions are never greater than 1 in absolute value. We
want the error to be less than 0.001. To find the appropriate n, consider
the following inequalities:
max f (n+1) (z)
(2 − 0)(n+1) ≤ 0.001 [Link]/watch?v=zg1W9miUCB4
(n + 1)!
1
· 2(n+1) ≤ 0.001.
(n + 1)!
We find an n that satisfies this last inequality with trial-and-error.
28+1
When n = 8, we have ≈ 0.0014; when n = 9, we have
(8 + 1)!
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 209

29+1
≈ 0.000282 < 0.001. Thus we want to approximate cos(2)
(9 + 1)!
with p9 (2).
f (x) = cos(x) ⇒ f (0) = 1
We now set out to compute p9 (x). We again need a table of the
derivatives of f (x) = cos(x) evaluated at x = 0. A table of these values f ′ (x) = − sin(x) ⇒ f ′ (0) = 0
is given in Figure 4.5.20. f ′′ (x) = − cos(x) ⇒ f ′′ (0) = −1
Notice how the derivatives, evaluated at x = 0, follow a certain pat- f ′′′ (x) = sin(x) ⇒ f ′′′ (0) = 0
tern. All the odd powers of x in the Taylor polynomial will disappear as f (4) (x) = cos(x) ⇒ f (4) (0) = 1
their coefficient is 0. While our error bounds state that we need p9 (x), f (5) (x) = − sin(x) ⇒ f (5) (0) = 0
our work shows that this will be the same as p8 (x). f (6) (x) = − cos(x) ⇒ f (6) (0) = −1
Since we are forming our polynomial at x = 0, we are creating a f (7) (x) = sin(x) ⇒ f (7) (0) = 0
Maclaurin polynomial, and: f (8) (x) = cos(x) ⇒ f (8) (0) = 1
f (9) (x) = − sin(x) ⇒ f (9) (0) = 0
f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3 f (8) (0) 8
p8 (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + ··· + x
2! 3! 8! Figure 4.5.20 A table of the derivatives
1 1 1 1 of f (x) = cos(x) evaluated at x = 0
= 1 − x2 + x4 − x6 + x8 .
2! 4! 6! 8!
We finally approximate cos(2):
y
131
cos(2) ≈ p8 (2) = − ≈ −0.41587. y = p8 (x) 1
315
y = cos(x)
Our error bound guarantee that this approximation is within 0.001
of the correct answer. Technology shows us that our approximation is x
actually within about 0.0003 of the correct answer. −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 4.5.21 shows a graph of y = p8 (x) and y = cos(x). Note how
well the two functions agree on about (−π, π).
−1

Example 4.5.22 Finding and using Taylor polynomials.

Figure 4.5.21 A graph of f (x) = cos(x)
√ and its degree 8 Maclaurin polynomial
1. Find the degree 4 Taylor polynomial, p4 (x), for f (x) = x at
x = 4.
√
2. Use p4 (x) to approximate 3.
√
3. Find bounds on the error when approximating 3 with p4 (3).
√
Solution. f (x) = x ⇒ f (4) = 2
′ 1 1
1. We begin by evaluating the derivatives of f at x = 4. This is done f (x) = √ ⇒ f ′ (4) =
2 x 4
in Figure 4.5.23. −1 −1
f ′′ (x) = 3/2 ′′
⇒ f (4) =
4x 32
These values allow us to form the Taylor polynomial p4 (x): 3 3
f ′′′ (x) = 5/2 ⇒ f ′′′ (4) =
8x 256
1 −1/32 −15 −15
p4 (x) = 2 + (x − 4) + (x − 4)2 + . . . f (4) (x) = ⇒ f (4) (4) =
4 2! 16x7/2 2048
3/256 −15/2048
... (x − 4)3 + (x − 4)4 . Figure 4.5.23
√ A table of the derivatives
3! 4! of f (x) = x evaluated at x = 4
√ √
2. As p4 (x) ≈ x near x = 4, we approximate 3 with p4 (3) =
1.73212.
3. To find a bound on the error, we need an open interval that con-
tains x = 3 and x = 4. We set I = (2.9, 4.1). The largest value
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 210

√
the fifth derivative of f (x) = x takes on this interval is near
x = 2.9, at about 0.0273. (We often graph the (n + 1)th deriva-
tive to find its extrema. In this case is f (5) (x) = 105/(32x9/2 ) is
always decreasing, so the maximum occurs at 2.9.) Thus
0.0273
|R4 (3)| ≤ (3 − 4)5 ≈ 0.00023.
5! y √
y= x
This shows our approximation is accurate to at least the first 2 3
places after the decimal. (It turns out that our approximation is ac- y = p4 (x)
tually accurate to 4 places after the decimal.) A graph of f (x) =
√
x and p4 (x) is given in Figure 4.5.24. Note how the two func- 2
tions are nearly indistinguishable on (2, 7).
1
Our final example gives a brief introduction to using Taylor polynomials to
solve differential equations.
x
Example 4.5.25 Approximating an unknown function. 2 4 6 8 10
√
Figure 4.5.24 A graph of f (x) = x
A function y = f (x) is unknown save for the following two facts.
and its degree 4 Taylor polynomial at
1. y(0) = f (0) = 1, and x=4

2. y ′ = y 2
(This second fact says that amazingly, the derivative of the function
is actually the function squared!)
Find the degree 3 Maclaurin polynomial p3 (x) of y = f (x).
Solution. One might initially think that not enough information is given
to find p3 (x). However, note how the second fact above actually lets us
know what y ′ (0) is:

y ′ = y 2 ⇒ y ′ (0) = y 2 (0).

Since y(0) = 1, we conclude that y ′ (0) = 1.

Now we find information about y ′′ . Starting with y ′ = y 2 , take deriv-
atives of both sides, with respect to x. That means we must use implicit
differentiation.

y′ = y2
d ′
d 2

y = y
dx dx
y ′′ = 2y · y ′ .

Now evaluate both sides at x = 0:

y ′′ (0) = 2y(0) · y ′ (0)

y ′′ (0) = 2.

We repeat this once more to find y ′′′ (0). We again use implicit dif-
ferentiation; this time the Product Rule is also required.
d ′′
d

y = 2yy ′
dx dx
y ′′′ = 2y ′ · y ′ + 2y · y ′′ .
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 211

Now evaluate both sides at x = 0:

y ′′′ (0) = 2y ′ (0)2 + 2y(0)y ′′ (0)

y ′′′ (0) = 2 + 4 = 6.

In summary, we have:

y(0) = 1 y ′ (0) = 1 y ′′ (0) = 2 y ′′′ (0) = 6.

y
We can now form p3 (x): 3 1
y= y = p3 (x)
1−x
2 6
p3 (x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3
2! 3! 2
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 .

It turns out that the differential equation we started with, y ′ = y 2 , 1

where y(0) = 1, can be solved without too much difficulty:
1 x
y= .
1−x −1 −0.5 0.5 1

Figure 4.5.26 shows this function plotted with p3 (x). Note how similar Figure 4.5.26 A graph of y = −1/(x−
they are near x = 0. 1) and y = p3 (x) from Example 4.5.25

It is beyond the scope of this text to pursue error analysis when using Tay-
lor polynomials to approximate solutions to differential equations. This topic is
often broached in introductory Differential Equations courses and usually cov-
ered in depth in Numerical Analysis courses. Such an analysis is very important;
one needs to know how good their approximation is. We explored this example
simply to demonstrate the usefulness of Taylor polynomials.
We first learned of the derivative in the context of instantaneous rates of
change and slopes of tangent lines. We furthered our understanding of the
power of the derivative by studying how it relates to the graph of a function
(leading to ideas of increasing/decreasing and concavity).
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 212

4.5.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. What is the difference between a Taylor polynomial and a Maclaurin polynomial?

2. True or False? In general, pn (x) approximates f (x) better and better as n gets larger. (□ True □ False)
3. For some function f (x), the Maclaurin polynomial of degree 4 is p4 (x) = 6 + 3x − 4x2 + 5x3 − 7x4 . What is
p2 (x)?
p2 (x) =
4. For some function f (x), the Maclaurin polynomial of degree 4 is p4 (x) = 6 + 3x − 4x2 + 5x3 − 7x4 . What is
f ′′′ (0)?
f ′′′ (0) =

Problems

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n for the given function.
5. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 3 6. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 8
for f (x) = e−x . for f (x) = sin(x).
p3 (x) = p8 (x) =
7. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 5 8. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 6
for f (x) = x · ex . for f (x) = tan(x).
p5 (x) = p6 (x) =
9. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 4 10. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 4
for f (x) = e2x . 1
for f (x) = .
p4 (x) = 1−x
p4 (x) =
11. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 4 12. Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n = 7
1 1
for f (x) = . for f (x) = .
1+x 1+x
p4 (x) = p7 (x) =

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, find the Taylor polynomial of degree n, at x = c, for the given function.
√
13. Find the Taylor polynomial for f (x) = x of 14. Find the degree n = 4 Taylor polynomial for
degree n = 4, at c = 1. f (x) = ln(x + 1), at c = 1.
p4 (x) = p4 (x) =
15. Find the degree n = 6 Taylor polynomial for 16. Find the degree n = 5 Taylor poplynomial for
f (x) = cos(x), at c = π/4. f (x) = sin(x), at c = π/6.
p6 (x) = p5 (x) =
17. Find the degree n = 5 Taylor poplynomial for 18. Find the degree n = 8 Taylor poplynomial for
f (x) = x1 , at c = 2. 1
f (x) = 2 , at c = 1.
p5 (x) = x
p8 (x) =
19. Find the degree n = 3 Taylor poplynomial for 20. Find the degree n = 2 Taylor polynomial for
1 f (x) = x2 cos(x), at c = π.
f (x) = 2 , at c = −1.
x +1 p2 (x) =
p3 (x) =

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, approximate the function value with the indicated Taylor polynomial and
give approximate bounds on the error.
21. Approximate sin(0.1) with the Maclaurin 22. Approximate cos(1) with the Maclaurin
polynomial of degree 3. polynomial of degree 4.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 213
√
23. Approximate 10 with the Taylor polynomial of 24. Approximate ln(1.5) with the Taylor polynomial
degree 2 centered at x = 9. of degree 3 centered at x = 1.

Exercise Group. The following exercises ask for an n to be found such that pn (x) approximates f (x) within a certain
bound of accuracy.
25. Find n such that the Maclaurin polynomial of 26. Find n such that the √ Taylor polynomial of
degree n of f (x) = ex approximates e within degree n of f (x)
√ = x, centered at x = 4,
0.0001 of the actual value. approximates 3 within 0.0001 of the actual
value.
27. Find n such that the Maclaurin polynomial of 28. Find n such that the Maclaurin polynomial of
degree n of f (x) = cos(x) approximates degree n of f (x) = sin(x) approximates cos(π)
cos(π/3) within 0.0001 of the actual value. within 0.0001 of the actual value.

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, find the nth term of the indicated Taylor polynomial.
29. Find a formula for the nth term of the 30. Find a formula for the nth term of the
Maclaurin polynomial for f (x) = ex . Maclaurin polynomial for f (x) = cos(x).
31. Find a formula for the nth term of the 32. Find a formula for the nth term of the
Maclaurin polynomial for f (x) = sin x. 1
Maclaurin polynomial for f (x) = .
1−x
33. Find a formula for the nth term of the 34. Find a formula for the nth term of the Taylor
1 polynomial for f (x) = ln(x) centered at x = 1.
Maclaurin polynomial for f (x) = .
1+x

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, approximate the solution to the given differential equation with a degree
4 Maclaurin polynomial.
35. y ′ = y, y(0) = 1 36. y ′ = 5y, y(0) = 3
2
37. y ′ = , y(0) = 1
y
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 214

4.6 L’Hospital’s Rule

While this chapter is devoted to learning techniques of integration, this section
is not about integration. Rather, it is concerned with a technique of evaluating
certain limits that will be useful in the following section, where integration is
once more discussed.
Our treatment of limits exposed us to the notion of “0/0”, an indeterminate
form. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, we do not conclude that lim f (x)/g(x)
x→c x→c x→c
is 0/0; rather, we use 0/0 as notation to describe the fact that both the numer-
ator and denominator approach 0. The expression 0/0 has no numeric value;
other work must be done to evaluate the limit.
Other indeterminate forms exist; they are: ∞/∞, 0 · ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00 , 1∞ and
∞0 . Just as “0/0” does not mean “divide 0 by 0,” the expression “∞/∞” does
not mean “divide infinity by infinity.” Instead, it means “a quantity is growing
without bound and is being divided by another quantity that is growing without
bound.” We cannot determine from such a statement what value, if any, results
in the limit. Likewise, “0 · ∞” does not mean “multiply zero by infinity.” Instead,
it means “one quantity is shrinking to zero, and is being multiplied by a quantity
that is growing without bound.” We cannot determine from such a description
what the result of such a limit will be.
This section introduces l’Hospital’s Rule, a method of resolving limits that
[Link]/watch?v=_tRdRiWmFhM
produce the indeterminate forms 0/0 and ∞/∞. We’ll also show how algebraic
manipulation can be used to convert other indeterminate expressions into one Figure 4.6.1 Video introduction to Sec-
of these two forms so that our new rule can be applied. tion 4.6

4.6.1 L’Hospital’s Rule with indeterminate forms 0/0 and ∞/∞

To use Theorem 4.6.2 in prac-
Theorem 4.6.2 L’Hospital’s Rule, Part 1. tice, notice that there are two con-
Let lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, where f and g are differentiable ditions we need to check. First,
x→c x→c the original limit needs to be of
functions on an open interval I containing c, and g ′ (x) ̸= 0 on I except the “0/0” form. Second, the new
possibly at c. If limit (involving the derivatives of
f ′ (x)
lim ′ = L, f and g) must exist (or be infi-
x→c g (x)
nite).
then In some cases, the new limit
f (x) will also be 0/0, in which case
lim = L,
x→c g(x) we can apply l’Hospital’s rule again.
where L is a real number, or L = ±∞. The result applies to one-sided The rule can be applied repeat-
limits as well. edly (taking additional derivatives),
as long as we reach a step where
We demonstrate the use of l’Hospital’s Rule in the following examples; we the limit exists.
will often use “LHR” as an abbreviation of “l’Hospital’s Rule.”

Example 4.6.3 Using l’Hospital’s Rule.

Evaluate the following limits, using l’Hospital’s Rule as needed.

Video Solution
sin(x) x2
1. lim 3. lim
x→0 x x→0 1 − cos(x)
√
x+3−2 x2 + x − 6
2. lim 4. lim
x→1 1−x x→2 x2 − 3x + 2

Solution.

[Link]/watch?v=Y2O3RD9tt34
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 215

1. We proved this limit is 1 in Example 1.3.13 using the Squeeze The-

orem. Here we use l’Hospital’s Rule to show its power.

sin(x) by LHR cos(x)

lim = lim = 1.
x→0 x x→0 1

2. √
x+3−2 by LHR
1
2 (x + 3)−1/2 1
lim = lim =− .
x→1 1−x x→1 −1 4
3.
x2 by LHR 2x
lim = lim .
x→0 1 − cos(x) x→0 sin(x)

This latter limit also evaluates to the 0/0 indeterminate form. To

evaluate it, we apply l’Hospital’s Rule again.
2x by LHR 2
lim = = 2.
x→0 sin(x) cos(x)
x2
Thus lim = 2.
x→0 1−cos(x)

4. We already know how to evaluate this limit; first factor the numer-
ator and denominator. We then have:
x2 + x − 6 (x − 2)(x + 3) x+3
lim = lim = lim = 5.
x→2 x − 3x + 2
2 x→2 (x − 2)(x − 1) x→2 x − 1

We now show how to solve this using l’Hospital’s Rule.

x2 + x − 6 by LHR 2x + 1
lim = lim = 5.
x→2 x2 − 3x + 2 x→2 2x − 3

Note that at each step where l’Hospital’s Rule was applied, it was needed:
the initial limit returned the indeterminate form of “0/0.” If the initial limit re-
turns, for example, 1/2, then l’Hospital’s Rule does not apply.
The following theorem extends our initial version of l’Hospital’s Rule in two
ways. It allows the technique to be applied to the indeterminate form ∞/∞
and to limits where x approaches ±∞.

Theorem 4.6.4 L’Hospital’s Rule, Part 2.

1. Let lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞, where f and g are
x→a x→a
differentiable on an open interval I containing a. If
f ′ (x)
lim = L,
x→a g ′ (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L,
x→a g(x)

where L is a real number, or L = ±∞. The result applies to one-

sided limits as well.
2. Let f and g be differentiable functions on the open interval (a, ∞)
for some value a, where g ′ (x) ̸= 0 on (a, ∞) and lim f (x)/g(x)
x→∞
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 216

returns either 0/0 or ∞/∞. If

f ′ (x)
lim = L,
x→∞ g ′ (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L,
x→∞ g(x)
where L is a real number, or L = ±∞. A similar statement can
be made for limits where x approaches −∞.

Example 4.6.5 Using l’Hospital’s Rule with limits involving ∞.

Evaluate the following limits.

3x2 − 100x + 2 ex Video Solution
1. lim 2. lim .
x→∞ 4x2 + 5x − 1000 x→∞ x3
Solution.
1. We can evaluate this limit already using Theorem 1.6.21; the an-
swer is 3/4. We apply l’Hospital’s Rule to demonstrate its applica-
bility.

3x2 − 100x + 2 by LHR 6x − 100 by LHR 6 3

lim = lim = lim = .
x→∞ 4x2 + 5x − 1000 x→∞ 8x + 5 x→∞ 8 4
[Link]/watch?v=1WIItaObKQk
2.
ex by LHR ex by LHR ex by LHR ex
lim = lim = lim = lim = ∞.
x→∞ x3 x→∞ 3x2 x→∞ 6x x→∞ 6

Recall that this means that the limit does not exist; as x approaches
∞, the expression ex /x3 grows without bound. We can infer from
this that ex grows “faster” than x3 ; as x gets large, ex is far larger
than x3 . (This has important implications in computing when con-
sidering efficiency of algorithms.)

4.6.2 Indeterminate Forms 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞

L’Hospital’s Rule can only be applied to ratios of functions. When faced with an
indeterminate form such as 0 · ∞ or ∞ − ∞, we can sometimes apply algebra
to rewrite the limit so that l’Hospital’s Rule can be applied. We demonstrate the
general idea in the next example.

Example 4.6.6 Applying l’Hospital’s Rule to other indeterminate forms.

Evaluate the following limits.

1. lim+ x · e1/x 3. lim ln(x + 1) − ln(x) Video Solution

x→0 x→∞

2. lim x · e1/x 4. lim x2 − ex

x→0− x→∞

Solution.

[Link]/watch?v=wJzKupOv8cg
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 217

1. As x → 0+ , x → 0 and e1/x → ∞. Thus we have the indeter-

e1/x
minate form 0 · ∞. We rewrite the expression x · e1/x as ;
1/x
now, as x → 0 , we get the indeterminate form ∞/∞ to which
+

l’Hospital’s Rule can be applied.

e1/x by LHR (−1/x2 )e1/x

lim x·e1/x = lim = lim = lim e1/x = ∞.
x→0+ x→0+ 1/x x→0+ −1/x2 x→0+

Interpretation: e1/x grows “faster” than x shrinks to zero, mean-

ing their product grows without bound.
2. As x → 0− , x → 0 and e1/x → e−∞ → 0. The the limit evaluates
to 0·0 which is not an indeterminate form. We conclude then that

lim x · e1/x = 0.
x→0−

3. This limit initially evaluates to the indeterminate form ∞ − ∞. By

applying a logarithmic rule, we can rewrite the limit as
 
x+1
lim ln(x + 1) − ln(x) = lim ln .
x→∞ x→∞ x

As x → ∞, the argument of the ln term approaches ∞/∞, to

which we can apply l’Hospital’s Rule.
x+1 by LHR 1
lim = = 1.
x→∞ x 1
x+1
Since x → ∞ implies → 1, it follows that
x
 
x+1
x → ∞ implies ln → ln(1) = 0.
x

Thus
 
x+1
lim ln(x + 1) − ln(x) = lim ln = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x

Interpretation: since this limit evaluates to 0, it means that for

large x, there is essentially no difference between ln(x + 1) and
ln(x); their difference is essentially 0.
4. The limit lim x2 −ex initially returns the indeterminate form ∞−
x→∞
∞.We can rewrite
 the expression by factoring out x2 ; x2 − ex =
x
e
x2 1 − 2 . We need to evaluate how ex /x2 behaves as x →
x
∞:
ex by LHR ex by LHR ex
lim 2 = lim = lim = ∞.
x→∞ x x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2

Thus limx→∞ x2 (1 − ex /x2 ) evaluates to ∞ · (−∞), which is not

an indeterminate form; rather, ∞ · (−∞) evaluates to −∞. We
conclude that lim x2 −ex = −∞. Interpretation: as x gets large,
x→∞
the difference between x2 and ex grows very large.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 218

4.6.3 Indeterminate Forms 00 , 1∞ and ∞0

When faced with an indeterminate form that involves a power, it often helps to
employ the natural logarithmic function. The following Key Idea expresses the
concept, which is followed by an example that demonstrates its use.

Key Idea 4.6.7 Evaluating Limits Involving Indeterminate Forms 00 , 1∞

and ∞0 .


If lim ln f (x) = L, then
x→c

lim f (x) = lim eln(f (x)) = eL .

x→c x→c

Example 4.6.8 Using l’Hospital’s Rule with indeterminate forms involv-

ing exponents.

Evaluate the following limits.

 x
1 2. lim xx
1. lim 1 + x→0+
x→∞ x Video Solution

Solution.
1. This is equivalent to a special limit given in Theorem 1.3.17; these
limits have important applications within mathematics and finance.
Note that the exponent approaches ∞ while the base approaches
1, leading to the indeterminate form 1∞ . Let f (x) = (1 + 1/x)x ;

the problem asks to evaluate lim f (x). Let’s first evaluate lim ln f (x) .
x→∞ x→∞
 x [Link]/watch?v=wHCd7Wsxzug

1
lim ln f (x) = lim ln 1 +
x→∞ x→∞ x
 
1
= lim x ln 1 +
x→∞ x
1


ln 1 + x
= lim
x→∞ 1/x

This produces the indeterminate form 0/0, so we apply l’Hospital’s

Rule.
1
1+1/x · (−1/x2 )
= lim
x→∞ (−1/x2 )
1
= lim
x→∞ 1 + 1/x

= 1.


Thus lim ln f (x) = 1. We return to the original limit and apply
x→∞
Key Idea 4.6.7.
 x
1
lim 1 + = lim f (x) = lim eln(f (x)) = e1 = e.
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 219

2. This limit leads to the indeterminate

form 00 . Let f (x) = xx and
consider first lim ln f (x) .
x→0+


lim+ ln f (x) = lim+ ln (xx )
x→0 x→0
= lim x ln(x)
x→0+
ln(x)
= lim .
x→0+ 1/x

This produces the indeterminate form −∞/∞ so we apply l’Hospital’s

Rule.
1/x
= lim
x→0+−1/x2
= lim+ −x
x→0
= 0.


Thus lim+ ln f (x) = 0. We return to the original limit and apply
x→0
Key Idea 4.6.7. y
4
lim xx = lim+ f (x) = lim+ eln(f (x)) = e0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0 x→0 3
x
This result is supported by the graph of f (x) = x given in Fig-
2
ure 4.6.9.

1
Our brief revisit of limits will be rewarded in the next section where we con- f (x) = xx
sider improper integration. So far, we have only Z considered definite integrals x
1
0.5 1 1.5 2
where the bounds are finite numbers, such as f (x) dx. Improper integra-
0
tion considers integrals where one, or both, of the bounds are “infinity.” Such Figure 4.6.9 A graph of f (x) = xx
integrals have many uses and applications, in addition to generating ideas that supporting the fact that as x → 0+ ,
are enlightening. f (x) → 1
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 220

4.6.4 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. List the different indeterminate forms described in this section.

2. T/F: l’Hospital’s Rule provides a faster method of computing derivatives. (□ True □ False)
 
d f (x) f ′ (x)
3. l’Hospital’s Rule states that = ′ . (□ True □ False)
dx g(x) g (x)
4. Explain what the indeterminate form “1∞ ” means.
f (x)
5. Fill in the blanks: The Quotient Rule is applied to when taking ; l’Hospital’s Rule is applied when taking
g(x)
certain .
6. Create (but do not evaluate!) a limit that returns “∞0 ”.
7. Create a function f (x) such that lim f (x) returns “00 ”.
x→1

8. Create a function f (x) such that lim f (x) returns “0 · ∞”.

x→∞

Problems

Exercise Group. Evaluate the given limit using l’Hospital’s rule.

9.
2
lim x +x−2 10.
x→1 x−1 x2 + x − 6
lim
x→2 x2 − 7x + 10
11. 12.
sin(x) sin(x) − cos(x)
lim lim
x→π x − π x→π/4 cos(2x)
13. 14.
sin(5x) sin(2x)
lim lim
x→0 x x→0 x+2
15. 16.
sin(2x) sin(ax)
lim lim
x→0 sin(3x) x→0 sin(bx)

17. 18.
ex − 1 ex − x − 1
lim lim
x→0+ x2 x→0+ x2
19. 20.
x − sin(x) x4
lim lim
x→0+ x3 − x2 x→∞ ex
21. √ 22.
x ex
lim lim
x→∞ ex x→∞ x2

23. 24.
ex ex
lim √ lim
x→∞ x x→∞ 2x

25. 26.
ex x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9
lim x lim
x→∞ 3 x→3 x3 − 7x2 + 15x − 9
27. 28.
x3 + 4x2 + 4x ln(x)
lim 3 lim
x→−2 x + 7x2 + 16x + 12 x→∞ x
29.
30.
ln x2 ln2 (x)
lim lim
x→∞ x x→∞ x
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 221

31. 32. √
lim+ x · ln(x) lim x · ln(x)
x→0 x→0+
33. 34.
1
lim+ x · e x lim x3 − x2
x→0 x→∞
35. √ 36.
lim x − ln(x) lim x · ex
x→∞ x→−∞
37. 38.
1 −1 1
lim 2 · e x lim (1 + x) x
x→0 + x x→0+

39. 40.
lim+ (2x)x 2
x→0
lim ( )x
x→0+ x
41. 42.
lim (sin(x))x lim (1 − x)1−x
x→0+ x→1−

Hint: use the Squeeze Theorem.

43. 44.
lim (x) x
1 1
x→∞
lim ( )x
x→∞ x
45. 46.
1
lim (ln(x))1−x lim (1 + x) x
x→1+ x→∞
47. 48.
1
lim (1 + x2 ) x lim tan(x)cos(x)
x→∞ x→π/2

49. 50.
lim tan(x)sin(2x) 1 1
lim+ −
x→π/2 x→1 ln(x) x − 1
51. 52.  
5 x 1
lim − lim xtan
x→3+ x2 − 9 x−3 x→∞ x
53. 54.
ln3 (x) x2 + x − 2
lim lim
x→∞ x x→1 ln(x)
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 222

We first learned of the derivative in the context of instantaneous rates of change

and slopes of tangent lines. We furthered our understanding of the power of the
derivative by studying how it relates to the graph of a function (leading to ideas
of increasing/decreasing and concavity). This chapter has put the derivative to
yet more uses:

• Equation solving (Newton’s Method),

• Related Rates (furthering our use of the derivative to find instantaneous
rates of change),
• Optimization (applied extreme values), and
• Differentials (useful for various approximations and for something called
integration).

In the next chapters, we will consider the “reverse” problem to computing

the derivative: given a function f , can we find a function whose derivative is f ?
Being able to do so opens up an incredible world of mathematics and applica-
tions.
Chapter 5

Integration

We have spent considerable time considering the derivatives of a function and

their applications. In the following chapters, we are going to starting thinking
in “the other direction.” That is, given a function f (x), we are going to consider
functions F (x) such that F ′ (x) = f (x). There are numerous reasons this will
prove to be useful: these functions will help us compute area, volume, mass,
force, pressure, work, and much more.

5.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration

Given a function y = f (x), a differential equation is an equation that incor-
porates y, x, and the derivatives of y. For instance, a simple differential equation
is:
y ′ = 2x. [Link]/watch?v=z1XH1JTUKTU
Solving a differential equation amounts to finding a function y that satisfies Figure 5.1.1 Video introduction to Sec-
the given equation. Take a moment and consider that equation; can you find a tion 5.1
function y such that y ′ = 2x?
Can you find another?
And yet another?
Hopefully you were able to come up with at least one solution: y = x2 .
“Finding another” may have seemed impossible until one realizes that a function
like y = x2 + 1 also has a derivative of 2x. Once that discovery is made, finding
“yet another” is not difficult; the function y = x2 + 123,456,789 also has a
derivative of 2x. The differential equation y ′ = 2x has many solutions. This
leads us to some definitions.

Definition 5.1.2 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integrals.

Let a function f (x) be given. An antiderivative of f (x) is a function F (x)

such that F ′ (x) = f (x).
The set of all antiderivatives of f (x) is the indefinite integral of f ,
denoted by Z
f (x) dx.

Make a note about our definition: we refer to an antiderivative of f , as op-

posed to the antiderivative of f , since there is always an infinite number of them.
We often use upper-case letters to denote antiderivatives.
[Link]/watch?v=BRAjDVVn4H4
Figure 5.1.3 Video presentation of De-
223 finition 5.1.2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 224

When f is continuous, knowing one antiderivative of f allows us to find in-

finitely more, simply by adding a constant. Not only does this give us more anti-
derivatives, it gives us all of them.

Theorem 5.1.4 Antiderivative Forms.

Let F (x) and G(x) be antiderivatives of a continuous function f (x) on
an interval I. Then there exists a constant C such that, on I,

G(x) = F (x) + C.

Given a continuous function f defined on an interval I and one of its anti-

derivatives F , we know all antiderivatives of f on I have the form F (x) + C for
some constant C. Using Definition 5.1.2, we can say that
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C.

Note that we are abusing notation somewhat: when we write F (x) + C on

the right-hand side, we really mean the set of all such functions, for each real
number value of C. Let’s analyze this indefinite integral notation.
Integral symbol
Differential of x Constant of integration
Z
f (x) · dx = F (x) + C

Integrand function Any antiderivative of f

Figure 5.1.5 Antiderivative notation

Figure 5.1.5
R shows the typical notation of the indefinite integral. The integra-
tion symbol, , is in reality an “elongated S,” representing “take the sum.” We
will later see how sums and antiderivatives are related.
The function we want to find an antiderivative of is called the integrand. RIt
contains the differential of the variable we are integrating with respect to. The
symbol and the differential dx Rare not “bookends” with a function sandwiched
in between; rather, the symbol means “find all antiderivatives of what follows,”
and the function f (x) and dx are multiplied together; the dx does not “just sit
there.”
Another way of looking at the notation is that it tells us that f (x) dx is the dif-
ferential of F (x): dF (x) = f (x) dx, confirming that F ′ (x) = f (x), as required
of an antiderivative. The integral symbol can then be viewed as an instruction
to “undo” the differential and recover the antiderivative F (x).
Another important aspect of the dx is that it tells us which variable we’re
d
taking the antiderivative with respect to, much like how dx would mean to take
d
the derivative with respect to x, while dt would be the derivative with respect
to t.
Let’s practice using this notation.

Example 5.1.6 Evaluating indefinite integrals.

R Video Solution
Evaluate sin(x) dx.
Solution. We are asked to find all functions F (x) such that F ′ (x) =
sin(x). Some thought will lead us to one solution: F (x) = − cos(x),
d
because dx (− cos(x)) = sin(x).
The indefinite integral of sin(x) is thus − cos(x), plus a constant of

[Link]/watch?v=W-FUL0ApGL8
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 225

integration. So: Z
sin(x) dx = − cos(x) + C.

A commonly asked question is “What happened to the dx?” The unenlight-

ened response is “Don’t worry about it. It just goes away.” A full understanding
includes the following.
This process of antidifferentiation is really solving a differential question. The
integral Z
sin(x) dx

presents us with a differential, dy = sin(x) dx. It is asking: “What is y?” We

found lots of solutions, all of the form y = − cos(x) + C.
Letting dy = sin(x) dx, rewrite
Z Z
sin(x) dx as dy.

This is asking: “What functions have a differential of the form dy?” The an-
swer is “Functions of the form y+C, where C is a constant.” What is y? We have
lots of choices, all differing by a constant; the simplest choice is y = − cos(x).
Understanding all of this is more important later as we try to find antideriv-
atives of more complicated functions. In this section, we will simply explore
the rules of indefinite integration, and one can succeed for now with answering
“What happened to the dx?” with “It went away.”
Let’s practice once more before stating integration rules.

Example 5.1.7 Evaluating indefinite integrals.

R
Video Solution
Evaluate 3x2 + 4x + 5 dx.
Solution. We seek a function F (x) whose derivative is 3x2 + 4x + 5.
When taking derivatives, we can consider functions term-by-term, so we
can likely do that here.
What functions have a derivative of 3x2 ? Some thought will lead us
to a cubic, specifically x3 + C1 , where C1 is a constant.
What functions have a derivative of 4x? Here the x term is raised to
the first power, so we likely seek a quadratic. Some thought should lead
us to 2x2 + C2 , where C2 is a constant. [Link]/watch?v=3DFPqGHX7Yw
Finally, what functions have a derivative of 5? Functions of the form
5x + C3 , where C3 is a constant.
Our answer appears to be
Z


3x2 + 4x + 5 dx = x3 + C1 + 2x2 + C2 + 5x + C3 .

We do not need three separate constants of integration; combine

them as one constant, giving the final answer of
Z


3x2 + 4x + 5 dx = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + C.

It is easy to verify our answer; take the derivative of x3 +2x3 +5x+C

and see we indeed get 3x2 + 4x + 5.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 226

This final step of “verifying our answer” is important both practically and
theoretically. In general, taking derivatives is easier than finding antiderivatives
so checking our work is easy and vital as we learn.
We also see that taking the derivative of our answer returns the function in
the integrand. Thus we can say that:
Z 
d
f (x) dx = f (x).
dx

Differentiation “undoes” the work done by antidifferentiation.

Theorem 2.7.16 gave a list of the derivatives of common functions we had
learned at that point. We restate part of that list here to stress the relationship
between derivatives and antiderivatives. This list will also be useful as a glossary
of common antiderivatives as we learn.

Theorem 5.1.8 Derivatives and Antiderivatives.

Here are the Common Differentiation Rules and their Common Indefinite Integral Rule
counterparts.

Z Z
d
(cf (x)) = c · f ′ (x) c · f (x) dx = c ·f (x) dx
dx
Z Z Z
d

(f (x) ± g(x)) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x) f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
dx
Z
d
(C) = 0 0 dx = C
dx
Z Z
d
(x) = 1 1 dx = dx = x + C
dx
Z
d n 1
(x ) = n · xn−1 xn dx = xn+1 + C (n ̸= −1)
dx n+1
Z
d
(sin(x)) = cos(x) cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C
dx
Z
d
(cos(x)) = − sin(x) sin(x) dx = − cos(x) + C
dx
Z
d
(tan(x)) = sec2 (x) sec2 (x) dx = tan(x) + C
dx
Z
d
(csc(x)) = − csc(x) cot(x) csc(x) cot(x) dx = − csc(x) + C
dx
Z
d
(sec(x)) = sec(x) tan(x) sec(x) tan(x) dx = sec(x) + C
dx
Z
d
(cot(x)) = − csc2 (x) csc2 (x) dx = − cot(x) + C
dx
Z
d x
(e ) = ex ex dx = ex + C
dx
Z
d x 1
(a ) = ln(a) · ax ax dx = · ax + C
dx ln(a)
Z
d 1 1
(ln(x)) = , x > 0 dx = ln |x| + C
dx x x

We highlight a few important points from Theorem 5.1.8.

CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 227

• Z Z
c · f (x) dx = c · f (x) dx

This is the Constant Multiple Rule: we can temporarily ignore constants

when finding
antiderivatives, just as we did when
computing derivatives
d d
(i.e., dx 3x2 is just as easy to compute as dx x2 ). An example:
Z Z
5 cos(x) dx = 5 · cos(x) dx = 5 · (sin(x) + C) = 5 sin(x) + C.

In the last step we can consider the constant as also being multiplied by 5,
but “5 times a constant” is still a constant, so we just write “C”.
• Z Z Z


f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx

This is the Sum/Difference Rule: we can split integrals apart when the
integrand contains terms that are added/subtracted, as we did in Exam-
ple 5.1.7. So:
Z Z Z Z
2 2
(3x + 4x + 5) dx = 3x dx + 4x dx + 5 dx
Z Z Z
= 3 x2 dx + 4 x dx + 5 dx
1 1
= 3 · x3 + 4 · x2 + 5x + C
3 2
3 2
= x + 2x + 5x + C

In practice we generally do not write out all these steps, but we demon-
strate them here for completeness.
• Z
1
xn dx = xn+1 + C (n ̸= −1)
n+1
This is the Power Rule of indefinite integration. There are two important
things to keep in mind:
R
1. Notice the restriction that n ̸= −1. This is important: x1 dx ̸=
“ 01 x0 + C”; rather, see the last rule from the list.
2. We are presenting antidifferentiation as the “inverse operation” of
differentiation. Here is a useful quote to remember:
“Inverse operations do the opposite things in the opposite
order.”
When taking a derivative using the Power Rule, we first multiply by
the power, then second subtract 1 from the power. To find the anti-
derivative, do the opposite things in the opposite order: first add 1
to the power, then second divide by the power.
• Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
Note that this rule uses the absolute value of x. The exercises will work
the reader through why this is the case; for now, know the absolute value
is important and cannot be ignored.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 228

Initial Value Problems.

In Section 2.3 we saw that the derivative of a position function gave a velocity
function, and the derivative of a velocity function describes acceleration. We
can now go “the other way:” the antiderivative of an acceleration function gives
a velocity function, etc.. While there is just one derivative of a given function, [Link]/watch?v=Oo6OHiiGbOc
there are infinitely many antiderivatives. Therefore we cannot ask “What is the Figure 5.1.9 Introducing initial value
velocity of an object whose acceleration is −32 sft2 ?”, since there is more than problems
one answer.
We can find the answer if we provide more information with the question,
as done in the following example. Often the additional information comes in the
form of an initial value, a value of the function that one knows beforehand.

Example 5.1.10 Solving initial value problems.

The acceleration due to gravity of a falling object is −32 sft2 . At time t = 3,

a falling object had a velocity of −10 fts . Find the equation of the object’s Video Solution
velocity.
Solution. We want to know a velocity function, v(t). We know two
things:

• The acceleration, i.e., v ′ (t) = −32, and

• the velocity at a specific time, i.e., v(3) = −10.
Using the first piece of information, we know that v(t) is an antideriv-
ative of v ′ (t) = −32. So we begin by finding the indefinite integral of [Link]/watch?v=3K_gWY4lmOs
−32: Z
(−32) dt = −32t + C = v(t).

Now we use the fact that v(3) = −10 to find C:

v(t) = −32t + C
v(3) = −10
−32(3) + C = −10
C = 86

Thus v(t) = −32t + 86. We can use this equation to understand the
motion of the object: when t = 0, the object had a velocity of v(0) =
86 fts . Since the velocity is positive, the object was moving upward.
When did the object begin moving down? Immediately after v(t) =
0:
43
−32t + 86 = 0 =⇒ t = ≈ 2.69s.
16
Recognize that we are able to determine quite a bit about the path of
the object knowing just its acceleration and its velocity at a single point
in time.

Example 5.1.11 Solving initial value problems.

Video Solution
Find f (t), given that f ′′ (t) = cos(t), f ′ (0) = 3 and f (0) = 5.

[Link]/watch?v=MB1dLY4lOew
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 229

Solution. We start by finding f ′ (t), which is an antiderivative of f ′′ (t):

Z Z
′′
f (t) dt = cos(t) dt

= sin(t) + C
= f ′ (t).

So f ′ (t) = sin(t) + C for the correct value of C. We are given that

′
f (0) = 3, so:

sin(0) + C = 3
C = 3.

Using the initial value, we have found f ′ (t) = sin(t)+3. We now find
f (t) by integrating again. We will use a different integration constant
since we have already defined C to equal 3 above.
Z Z
f (t) = f ′ (t) dt = (sin(t) + 3) dt = − cos(t) + 3t + D.

We are given that f (0) = 5, so

− cos(0) + 3(0) + D = 5
−1 + C = 5
C=6

Thus f (t) = − cos(t) + 3t + 6.

This section introduced antiderivatives and the indefinite integral. We found

they are needed when finding a function given information about its deriva-
tive(s). For instance, we found a velocity function given an acceleration func-
tion.
In the next section, we will see how position and velocity are unexpectedly
related by the areas of certain regions on a graph of the velocity function. Then,
in Section 5.4, we will see how areas and antiderivatives are closely tied together.
This connection is incredibly important, as indicated by the name of the theorem
that describes it: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 230

5.1.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. Define the term “antiderivative” in your own words.

2. Is it more accurate to refer to “the” antiderivative of f (x) or “an” antiderivative of f (x)?
3. Use your own words to define the indefinite integral of f (x).
4. Fill in the blanks: “Inverse operations do the things in the order.”
5. What is an “initial value problem”?
6. The derivative of a position function is a/an function.
7. An antiderivative of an acceleration function is a/an function.
8. If F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), and G(x) is an antiderivative of g(x), give an antiderivative of f (x) + g(x).

Problems

Exercise Group. Evaluate the indefinite integral. Don’t forget your constant of integration!
R 7 R 9
9. 8x dx 10. x dx
R 2

R
11. 5x + 3 dx 12. dt
R R 1
13. 1 ds 14. 5t9 dt
R 6 R 1
15. 16. √ dx
t7 dt x
R R
17. sec(θ) tan(θ) dθ 18. sin(θ) dθ
R R θ
19. (sec(x) tan(x) − csc(x) cot(x)) dx 20. 2e dθ
R t R 4t
21. 3 dt 22. 3 dt
R R 4


23.
2
(5t + 6) dt 24. t − 1 t5 − 8t dt
R 6 2 R
25. x x dx 26. 1.41421e dx
R
27. r dx
Z Z
28. Consider the two integrals, s ds and sn dn.
n

(a) What is the difference between these two indefinite integrals?

Z
(b) Evaluate sn ds.
Z
(c) Evaluate sn dn.
Z
1
29. This problem investigates why Theorem 5.1.8 states that dx = ln |x| + C.
x
(a) What is the domain of y = ln(x)?
d
(b) Find dx (ln(x)).

(c) What is the domain of y = ln(−x)?

d
(d) Find dx (ln(−x)).

(e) You should find that 1/x has two

Z types of antiderivatives, depending on whether x > 0 or x < 0. In one
1
expression, give a formula for dx that takes these different domains into account, and explain your
x
answer.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 231

Exercise Group. Find the function determined by the given initial value problem.
30. f ′ (x) = sin(x) and f (0) = −8
31. f ′ (x) = 2ex and f (0) = 10
32. f ′ (x) = 3x3 − 2x2 and f (2) = 5


33. f ′ (x) = sec(x) tan(x) and f π3 = −8
34. f ′ (x) = 5x and f (2) = 7
35. f ′′ (x) = 5 and f ′ (0) = 4, f (0) = 9
36. f ′′ (x) = 3x and f ′ (1) = −10, f (1) = −5
37. f ′′ (x) = 7ex and f ′ (0) = 4, f (0) = 5
38. f ′′ (θ) = cos(θ) and f ′ (0) = 2, f (0) = 9
39. f ′′ (x) = 29x4 + 6x + cos(x) and f ′ (0) = −3, f (0) = −1
40. f ′′ (x) = 0 and f ′ (−5) = 3, f (−5) = 8
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 232

5.2 The Definite Integral

We start with an easy problem. An object travels in a straight line at a con-
stant velocity of 5 fts for 10 seconds. How far away from its starting point is the
object?
We approach this problem with the familiar “Distance = Rate × Time” [Link]/watch?v=__Xh37Qw4UE
equation. In this case, the distance traveled is 5 fts × 10 s = 50 feet. Figure 5.2.1 Video introduction to Sec-
It is interesting to note that this solution of 50 feet can be represented graph- tion 5.2
ically. Consider Figure 5.2.2, where the constant velocity of 5 fts is graphed on
the axes. Shading the area under the line from t = 0 to t = 10 gives a rectangle
with an area of 50 square units; when one considers the units of the axes, we
can say this area represents 50 ft.

v (ft/s)
5
Now consider a slightly harder situation (and not particularly realistic): an
object travels in a straight line with a constant velocity of 5 fts for 10 seconds,
then instantly reverses course at a rate of 2 fts for 4 seconds. (Since the object is
traveling in the opposite direction when reversing course, we say the velocity is
a constant −2 fts .) How far away from the starting point is the object — what is
its displacement?
Here we use “Distance = Rate1 × Time1 + Rate2 × Time2 ,” which is
2 4 6 8 10
Distance = 5 · 10 + (−2) · 4 = 42 ft. t (s)

Hence the object is 42 feet from its starting location. Figure 5.2.2 The area under a constant
We can again depict this situation graphically. In Figure 5.2.3 we have the velocity function corresponds to dis-
velocities graphed as straight lines on [0, 10] and [10, 14], respectively. The dis- tance traveled
placement of the object is
“Area above the t-axis −Area below the t-axis,”
which is easy to calculate as 50 − 8 = 42 feet.
v (ft/s)
5
Now consider a more difficult problem.

Example 5.2.4 Finding position using velocity.

The velocity of an object moving straight up/down under the accelera-

tion of gravity is given as v(t) = −32t + 48, where time t is given in t (s)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
seconds and velocity is in fts . When t = 0, the object had a height of 0 ft.
−2
1. What was the initial velocity of the object?
2. What was the maximum height of the object? Figure 5.2.3 The total displacement is
the area above the t-axis minus the
3. What was the height of the object at time t = 2? area below the t-axis

Solution. It is straightforward to find the initial velocity; at time t = 0,

v(0) = −32 · 0 + 48
= 48 Video Solution

The initial velocity was 48 fts .

To answer questions about the height of the object, we need to find
the object’s position function s(t). This is an initial value problem, which
we studied in the previous section. We are told the initial height is 0, i.e.,
s(0) = 0. We know s′ (t) = v(t) = −32t + 48. To find s, we find the
indefinite integral of v(t):
Z
s(t) = v(t) dt [Link]/watch?v=MUx3n9511e8
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 233

Z
= (−32t + 48) dt

= −16t2 + 48t + C.

Since s(0) = 0, we conclude that C = 0 and s(t) = −16t2 + 48t.

To find the maximum height of the object, we need to find the maxi-
mum of s. Recalling our work finding extreme values, we find the critical
points of s by setting its derivative (the velocity function) equal to 0 and
solving for t:

0 = −32t + 48
t = 48/32
= 1.5 s .

(Notice how we ended up just finding when the velocity was 0ft/s!)
The first derivative test shows this is a maximum, so the maximum height
of the object is found at

s(1.5) = −16(1.5)2 + 48(1.5) = 36 ft .

The height at time t = 2 is now straightforward to compute:

s(2) = −16(2)2 + 48(2)

= 32.

The height is 32 ft after 2 seconds.

While we have answered all three questions (using derivatives and
v (ft/s)
40
antiderivatives), let’s look at them again graphically, using the concepts
of area that we explored earlier.
20
Figure 5.2.5 shows a graph of v(t) on axes from t = 0 to t = 3. It
is again straightforward to find v(0). How can we use the graph to find
−0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
the maximum height of the object?
−20 t (s)
Recall how in our previous work that the displacement of the object
(in this case, its height) was found as the area under the velocity curve,
−40
as shaded in the figure. Moreover, the area between the curve and the
t-axis that is below the t-axis counted as “negative” area. That is, it rep-
resents the object coming back toward its starting position. So to find Figure 5.2.5 A graph of v(t) = −32t+
the maximum distance from the starting point — the maximum height 48; the shaded areas help determine
— we find the area under the velocity line that is above the t-axis, i.e., displacement
from t = 0 to t = 1.5. This region is a triangle; its area is
1
Area = Base × Height
2
1
= × 1.5 s × 48 ft/s
2
= 36 ft

which matches our previous calculation of the maximum height.

Finally, to find the height of the object at time t = 2 we calculate
the total “signed area” (where some area is negative) under the velocity
function from t = 0 to t = 2. This signed area is equal to s(2), the
displacement (i.e., signed distance) from the starting position at t = 0
to the position at time t = 2. That is,
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 234

Displacement = Area above the t-axis − Area below t-axis.

The regions are triangles, and we find
1 1
Displacement = (1.5s)(48 ft/s ) − (0.5s)(16 ft/s )
2 2
= 32 ft .

This also matches our previous calculation of the height at t = 2.

Notice how we answered each question in this example in two ways.
Our first method was to manipulate equations using our understanding
of antiderivatives and derivatives. Our second method was geometric:
we answered questions looking at a graph and finding the areas of cer-
tain regions of this graph.

The above example does not prove a relationship between area under a ve-
locity function and displacement, but it does imply a relationship exists. Sec-
tion 5.4 will fully establish fact that the area under a velocity function is dis-
placement.
Given a graph of a function y = f (x), we will find that there is great use
in computing the area between the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis. Because of
this, we need to define some terms.

Definition 5.2.6 The Definite Integral, Total Signed Area.

Let y = f (x) be defined on a closed interval [a, b]. The total signed area
from x = a to x = b under f is:
(area under y = f (x) and above the x-axis on [a, b]) − (area above
y = f (x) and under the x-axis on [a, b]).
The definite integral of f on [a, b] is the total signed area of f on
[a, b], denoted
Z b
f (x) dx,
a

where a and b are the bounds of integration.

By our definition, the definite integral gives the “signed area under f .” We
usually drop the word “signed” when talking about the definite integral, and
simply say the definite integral gives “the area under f ” or, more commonly,
“the area under the curve.” [Link]/watch?v=1kJUMKdjumQ
The previous section introduced the indefinite integral, which related to an- Figure 5.2.7 Video presentation of De-
tiderivatives. We have now defined the definite integral, which relates to areas finition 5.2.6
under a function. The two are very much related, as we’ll see when we learn
the Fundamental
R Theorem of Calculus in Section 5.4. Recall that earlier we said
that the “ ” symbol was an “elongated S” that represented finding a “sum.” In
the context of the definite integral, this notation makes a bit more sense, as we
are adding up areas under the function f . 1 y

We practice using this notation.

0.5
Example 5.2.8 Evaluating definite integrals.
x
Consider the function f given in Figure 5.2.9. 1 2 3 4 5
Find:
−0.5

−1

Figure 5.2.9 A graph of f (x) in Exam-

ple 5.2.8
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 235

Z 3 Z 3
1. f (x) dx 4. 5f (x) dx
0 0
Z 5 Z 1
2. f (x) dx 5. f (x) dx
3 1
Z 5
3. f (x) dx
0
Video Solution

Solution.
R3
1. 0 f (x) dx is the area under f on the interval [0, 3]. This region is
R3
a triangle, so the area is 0 f (x) dx = 12 (3)(1) = 1.5.
R5
2. 3 f (x) dx represents the area of the triangle found under the x-
axis on [3, 5]. The area is 21 (2)(1) = 1; since it is found under the
R5
x-axis, this is “negative area.” Therefore 3 f (x) dx = −1. [Link]/watch?v=jrjjVT1j9uw
R5
3. 0 f (x) dx is the total signed area under f on [0, 5]. This is 1.5 +
(−1) = 0.5.
R3
4. 0 5f (x) dx is the area under 5f on [0, 3]. This is sketched in Fig-
ure 5.2.10. Again, the region is a triangle, with height R 35 times that y
of the height of the original triangle. Thus the area is 0 5f (x) dx =
1 4
2 (15)(1) = 7.5.
R1 2
5. 1 f (x) dx is the area under f on the “interval” [1, 1]. This de-
scribes a line segment, not a region; it has no width. Therefore x
the area is 0. 1 2 3 4 5

−2

This example illustrates some of the properties of the definite integral, given
−4
here.

Theorem 5.2.11 Properties of the Definite Integral. Figure 5.2.10 A graph of 5f in Exam-
Let f and g be defined on a closed interval I that contains the values a, ple 5.2.8. (Yes, it looks just like the
b and c, and let k be a constant. The following hold: graph of f in Figure 5.2.9, just with a
different y-scale.)
Z a
1. f (x) dx = 0
a
Z b Z c Z c
2. f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx
a b a
Z b Z a
3. f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b
Z Z Z
b
b b
4. f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
a a a
Z b Z b
5. k · f (x) dx = k · f (x) dx
a a

[Link]/watch?v=sK5vZ_QrkNk
Figure 5.2.12 Video presentation of The-
orem 5.2.11
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 236

We give a brief justification of Theorem 5.2.11 here.

1. As demonstrated in Example 5.2.8, there is no “area

under the curve” when the region has no width; hence
this definite integral is 0.
2. This states that total area is the sum of the areas of
subregions. It is easily considered when we let a <
b < c. We can break the interval [a, c] into two subin-
tervals, [a, b] and [b, c]. The total area over [a, c] is the
area over [a, b] plus the area over [b, c]. It is important
to note that this still holds true even if a < b < c is
not true. We discuss this in the next point.
3. This property can be viewed a merely a convention to
make other properties work well. (Later we will see
how this property has a justification all its own, not
necessarily in support of other properties.) Suppose
b < a < c. The discussion from the previous point
clearly justifies
Z a Z c Z c
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx. (5.2.1)
b a b

However, we still claim that, as originally stated,

Z b Z c Z c
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx. (5.2.2)
a b a

How do Equations (5.2.1) and (5.2.2) relate? Start

with Equation (5.2.1):
Z a Z c Z c
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx
b
Z c
a b
Z a Z c
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a b b

Property (3) justifies changing the sign

Z and switching a
the bounds of integration on the − f (x) dx term;
b
when this is done, Equations (5.2.1) and (5.2.2) are
equivalent. The conclusion is this: by adopting the
convention of Property (3), Property (2) holds no mat-
ter the order of a, b and c. Again, in the next section
we will see another justification for this property.
4,5. Each of these may be non-intuitive. Property (5) states
that when one scales a function by, for instance, 7, the
area of the enclosed region also is scaled by a factor
of 7. Both Properties (4) and (5) can be proved using
geometry. The details are not complicated but are not
discussed here.
 y
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 237

Example 5.2.13 Evaluating definite integrals using Theorem 5.2.11.

x
Consider the graph of a function f (x) shown in Figure 5.2.14. a b c
Answer the following:
Z b Z c
1. Which value is greater: f (x) dx or f (x) dx?
a b
Z c
2. Is f (x) dx greater or less than 0? Figure 5.2.14 A graph of a function in
a Example 5.2.13
Z b Z b
3. Which value is greater: f (x) dx or f (x) dx?
a c

Solution.
Rb
1. a f (x) dx has a positive value (since the area is above the x-axis)
Rc Rb
whereas b f (x) dx has a negative value. Hence a f (x) dx is big-
ger.
Rc
2. a f (x) dx is the total signed area under f between x = a and
x = c. Since the region below the x-axis looks to be larger than
the region above, we conclude that the definite integral has a value
less than 0.
3. Note how the second integral has the bounds “reversed.” There-
Rb Rc
fore c f (x) dx = − b f (x) dx represents a positive number,
greater than the area described by the first definite integral. Hence
Rb
c
f (x) dx is greater.

The area definition of the definite integral allows us to use geometry to com-
pute the definite integral of some simple functions.

Example 5.2.15 Evaluating definite integrals using geometry.

Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 5 Z 3 p
1. (2x − 4) dx 2. 9 − x2 dx. Video Solution
−2 −3
Solution.
1. It is useful to sketch the function in the integrand, as shown in Fig-
ure 5.2.16. We see we need to compute the areas of two regions,
which we have labeled R1 and R2 . Both are triangles, so the area
computation is straightforward:
1 1
R1 : (4)(8) = 16 R2 : (3)6 = 9.
2 2 [Link]/watch?v=AuGASVXd3qA
Region R1 lies under the x-axis, hence it is counted as negative
area (we can think of the triangle’s height as being “−8”), so
Z 5
(2x − 4) dx = −16 + 9 = −7.
−2

2. Recognize that the integrand of this definite integral describes a

half circle, as sketched in Figure 5.2.17, with radius 3. Thus the
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 238

area is: Z 3 p 1 9
9 − x2 dx = πr2 = π.
−3 2 2
10 y y
5

(5, 6)
5

R2
x
−2 2 4
R1

−5

(−2, −8) x
−10 −3 3

Figure 5.2.16 f (x) = 2x − 4 √ 15

9 − x2

v (ft/s)
Figure 5.2.17 f (x) =
10
38
Example 5.2.18 Understanding motion given velocity. 5

Consider the graph of a velocity function of an object moving in a straight t (s)

line, given in Figure 5.2.19, where the numbers in the given regions gives a b c

the area of that region. Assume that the definite integral of a velocity 11 11
−5
function gives displacement. Find the maximum speed of the object and
its maximum displacement from its starting position.
Figure 5.2.19 A graph of a velocity in
Solution. Since the graph gives velocity, finding the maximum speed is
Example 5.2.18
simple: it looks to be 15ft/s.
At time t = 0, the displacement is 0; the object is at its starting po-
sition. At time t = a, the object has moved backward 11 feet. Between Video Solution
times t = a and t = b, the object moves forward 38 feet, bringing it into
a position 27 feet forward of its starting position. From t = b to t = c
the object is moving backwards again, hence its maximum displacement
is 27 feet from its starting position.

In our examples, we have either found the areas of regions that have nice
geometric shapes (such as rectangles, triangles and circles) or the areas were
given to us. Consider Figure 5.2.20, where a region below y = x2 is shaded.
What is its area? The function y = x2 is relatively simple, yet the shape it defines [Link]/watch?v=2zJzbg0hNXE
has an area that is not simple to find geometrically.
In Section 5.3 we will explore how to find the areas of such regions. y
10

x
1 2 3

Figure 5.2.20 What is the area below

y = x2 on [0, 3]? The region is not a
usual geometric shape.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 239

5.2.1 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. What is “total signed area”?

2. What is “displacement”?
Z 3
3. What is sin(x) dx?
3
4. Give a single definite integral that has the same value as
Z 1 Z 2
I= (2x + 3) dx + (2x + 3) dx.
0 1

Problems

Exercise Group. A graph of a function f (x) is given. Using the geometry of the graph, evaluate the definite integrals.
5. 6.

4 y 2 y

y = −2x + 4
2 1

x x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5

−2 −1
y = f (x)
−4 −2
R1 R2
(a) 0
(−2x + 4) dx (a) 0
f (x) dx
R2 R3
(b) 0
(−2x + 4) dx (b) 0
f (x) dx
R3 R5
(c) 0
(−2x + 4) dx (c) 0
f (x) dx
R3 R5
(d) 1
(−2x + 4) dx (d) 2
f (x) dx
R4 R3
(e) 2
(−2x + 4) dx (e) 5
f (x) dx
R1 R3
(f) 0
(−6x + 12) d (f) 0
−2f (x) dx
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 240

7. 8.
y y
4 3
y =x−1
3 2
y = f (x)
2 1

x
1
1 2 3 4
x
−1
1 2 3 4
R2 R1
(a) 0
f (x) dx (a) 0
(x − 1) dx
R4 R2
(b) 2
f (x) dx (b) 0
(x − 1) dx
R4 R3
(c) 2
2f (x) dx (c) 0
(x − 1) dx
R1 R3
(d) 0
4x dx (d) 2
(x − 1) dx
R3 R4
(e) 2
(2x − 4) dx (e) 1
(x − 1) dx
R3 R4

(f) 2
(4x − 8) dx (f) 1
(x − 1) + 1 dx
9. 10.
y y
3
p
f (x) = 4 − (x − 2)2 f (x) = 3
2 3

2
1
1

x x
1 2 3 4 2 4 6 8 10
R2 R5
(a) f (x) dx (a) 0
f (x) dx
0
R4 R7
(b) f (x) dx (b) 3
f (x) dx
2
R4 R0
(c) f (x) dx (c) 0
f (x) dx
0
R4 Z b
(d) 0
5f (x) dx (d) f (x) dx, where 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ 10
a

Exercise Group. A graph of a function f (x) is given; the numbers inside the shaded regions give the area of that
region. Evaluate the definite integrals using this area information.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 241

11. 12.
50 y y

y = f (x) 1
f (x) = sin(πx/2)
11 21 x 4/π
59 1 2 3
x
1 2 3 4
−50
4/π

−1

−100
R1 R2
(a) f (x) dx (a) 0
f (x) dx
0
R2 R4
(b) f (x) dx (b) 2
f (x) dx
0
R3 R4
(c) f (x) dx (c) 0
f (x) dx
0
R2 R1
(d) −3f (x) dx (d) 0
f (x) dx
1
13. 14.

10
y f (x) = 3x2 − 3 4 y

3 f (x) = x2
5

2
4 4 x
−2 −1 −4 1 2 1

1/3 7/3 x
−5
1 2
R −1
(a) −2
f (x) dx R2
(a) 5x2 dx
R2 0
(b) 1
f (x) dx R2
(b) (x2 + 3) dx
R1 0
(c) −1
f (x) dx R3
(c) (x − 1)2 dx
R1 1
(d) f (x) dx R4

0
(d) 2
(x − 2)2 + 5 dx

Exercise Group. A graph is given of the velocity function of an object moving in a straight line. Answer the questions
based on the graph.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 242

15. 16.
3 4
y (ft/s) y (ft/s)

2 3

2
1

t (s) 1
1 2 3
t (s)

−1 1 2 3 4 5

(a) What is the object’s maximum velocity? (a) What is the object’s maximum velocity?
(b) What is the object’s maximum (b) What is the object’s maximum
displacement? displacement?
(c) What is the object’s total displacement (c) What is the object’s total displacement
on [0, 3]? on [0, 5]?

17. An object is thrown straight up with a velocity, in ft/s, given by v(t) = −32t + 64, where t is in seconds, from a
height of 48 feet.
(a) What is the object’s maximum velocity?

(b) What is the object’s maximum displacement?

(c) When does the maximum displacement occur?
(d) When will the object reach a height of 0? (Hint: find when the displacement is −48ft.)
18. An object is thrown straight up with a velocity, in ft/s, given by v(t) = −32t + 96, where t is in seconds, from a
height of 64 feet.

(a) What is the object’s initial velocity?

(b) When is the object’s displacement 0?
(c) How long does it take for the object to return to its initial height?
(d) What is the maximum height the object reaches?
Exercise Group. The values of several definite integrals are given as follows:
Z 2 Z 3 Z 2 Z 3
f (x) dx = 5 f (x) dx = 7 g(x) dx = −3 g(x) dx = 5
0 0 0 2

Use these values and properties of definite integrals to evaluate the indicated definite integral.
R2
R3

19. 0
f (x) + g(x) dx 20. 0
f (x) − g(x) dx
R3
22. Find
21. 3f (x) + 2g(x) dx Z 3 a formula for a in terms of b such that
2

af (x) + bg(x) dx = 0.
0

Exercise Group. The values of several definite integrals are given as follows:
Z 3 Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
s(t) dt = 10 s(t) dt = 8 r(t) dt = −1 r(t) dt = 11
0 3 3 0
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 243

Use these values and properties of definite integrals to evaluate the indicated definite integral.
R3
R0

23. 0
s(t) + r(t) dt 24. 5
s(t) − r(t) dt
R3
26. Z Find a formula for a in terms of b such that
25. πs(t) − 7r(t) dt
3 5

ar(t) + bs(t) dt = 0.
0
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 244

5.3 Riemann Sums

In the previous section we defined the definite integral of a function on [a, b]
to be the signed area between the curve and the x-axis. Some areas were simple
to compute; we ended the section with a region whose area was not simple to
compute. In this section we develop a technique to find such areas. [Link]/watch?v=-4hZaGBw6EI
A fundamental calculus technique is to first answer a given problem with an Figure 5.3.1 Video introduction to Sec-
approximation, then refine that approximation to make it better, then use limits tion 5.3
in the refining process to find the exact answer. That is what we will do here.
2
Consider the region given in Figure 5.3.2, which is the area under R 4 y = 4x−x
on [0, 4]. What is the signed area of this region — i.e., what is 0 (4x − x2 ) dx? y
We start by approximating. We can surround the region with a rectangle
4
with height and width of 4 and find the area is approximately 16 square units.
This is obviously an over-approximation; we are including area in the rectangle 3
that is not under the parabola.
We have an approximation of the area, using one rectangle. How can we 2
refine our approximation to make it better? The key to this section is this answer:
use more rectangles. 1
Let’s use four rectangles with an equal width of 1. This partitions the interval x
[0, 4] into 4 subintervals, [0, 1], [1, 2], [2, 3] and [3, 4]. On each subinterval we will 1 2 3 4
draw a rectangle.
There are three common ways to determine the height of these rectangles:
Figure 5.3.2 A graph of f (x) = 4x −
the Left Hand Rule, the Right Hand Rule, and the Midpoint Rule. The Left Hand
x2 . What is the area of the shaded
Rule says to evaluate the function at the left-hand endpoint of the subinterval
region?
and make the rectangle that height. In Figure 5.3.4, the rectangle drawn on the
interval [2, 3] has height determined by the Left Hand Rule; it has a height of
y
f (2). (The rectangle is labeled “LHR.”)
The Right Hand Rule says the opposite: on each subinterval, evaluate the 4
function at the right endpoint and make the rectangle that height. In the figure,
3
the rectangle drawn on [0, 1] is drawn using f (1) as its height; this rectangle is
labeled “RHR.”. 2
The Midpoint Rule says that on each subinterval, evaluate the function at the
midpoint and make the rectangle that height. The rectangle drawn on [1, 2] was 1
made using the Midpoint Rule, with a height of f (1.5). That rectangle is labeled x
“MPR.” 1 2 3 4
These are the three most common rules for determining the heights of ap- y = 4x − x2
proximating rectangles, but one is not forced to use one of these three methods.
The rectangle on [3, 4] has a height of approximately f (3.53), very close to the Figure 5.3.3 Approximating area under
Midpoint Rule. It was chosen so that the area of the rectangle is exactly the area a curve with one rectangle
of the region under f on [3, 4]. (Later you’ll be able to figure how to do this, too.)
R4
The following example will approximate the value of 0 (4x − x2 ) dx using
these rules. y

1
RHR MPR LHR other x
1 2 3 4

R4
Figure 5.3.4 Approximating 0 (4x −
x2 ) dx using rectangles. The heights
of the rectangles are determined us-
ing different rules.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 245

Example 5.3.5 Using the Left Hand, Right Hand and Midpoint Rules.
R4
Approximate the value of 0 (4x − x2 ) dx using the Left Hand Rule, the
Right Hand Rule, and the Midpoint Rule, using 4 equally spaced subin- Video Solution
tervals.
Solution. We break the interval [0, 4] into four subintervals as before.
In Figure 5.3.6(a) we see 4 rectangles drawn on f (x) = 4x − x2 using
the Left Hand Rule. (The areas of the rectangles are given in each figure.)
Note how in the first subinterval, [0, 1], the rectangle has height f (0) =
0. We add up the areas of each rectangle (height× width) for our Left
Hand Rule approximation:

f (0) · 1 + f (1) · 1 + f (2) · 1 + f (3) · 1

[Link]/watch?v=qn8Q1i8s5Ng
=0 + 3 + 4 + 3 = 10.

Figure 5.3.6(b) shows 4 rectangles drawn under f using the Right

Hand Rule; note how the [3, 4] subinterval has a rectangle of height 0.
In this example, these rectangles seem to be the mirror image of
those found in Figure 5.3.6(a). This is because of the symmetry of our
shaded region. Our approximation gives the same answer as before,
though calculated a different way:

f (1) · 1 + f (2) · 1 + f (3) · 1 + f (4) · 1

= 3 + 4 + 3 + 0 = 10.

Figure 5.3.6(c) shows 4 rectangles drawn under f using the Midpoint

Rule. R4
This gives an approximation of 0 (4x − x2 ) dx as:

f (0.5) · 1 + f (1.5) · 1 + f (2.5) · 1 + f (3.5) · 1

= 1.75 + 3.75 + 3.75 + 1.75 = 11.
R4
Our three methods provide two approximations of 0
(4x − x2 ) dx:
10 and 11.

y y y

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 4 2 4 2 3.75 3.75
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1.75 1.75
0 x 0 x x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

(a) using the Left Hand (b) using the Right (c) using the Midpoint
Rule Hand Rule Rule
R4
Figure 5.3.6 Approximating 0 (4x − x2 ) dx in Example 5.3.5
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 246

5.3.1 Summation Notation

It is hard to tell at this moment which is a better approximation: 10 or 11? We
can continue to refine our approximation by using more rectangles. The notation
can become unwieldy, though, as we add up longer and longer lists of numbers.
We introduce summation notation to ameliorate this problem.
Suppose we wish to add up a list of numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , …, a9 . Instead of
writing
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 ,
P9 [Link]/watch?v=d0gSFClfRdY
we use summation notation and write i=1 ai . The upper case sigma, Sigma
represents the term “sum”. The index (counter) of summation in this example Figure 5.3.7 Explaining summation no-
is i; any symbol can be used. By convention, the index takes on only the integer tation
values between (and including) the lower and upper bounds. To the right of Σ,
the expression ai is called the summand. It tells us what we are summing. This
is summarized in Equation (5.3.1).
z}|{
upper bound

X9
ai (5.3.1)
|{z}
i| =
{z 1} summand
i-index of summation

Let’s practice using this notation.

Example 5.3.8 Using summation notation.

Let the numbers {ai } be defined as ai = 2i − 1 for integers i, where

i ≥ 1. So a1 = 1, a2 = 3, a3 = 5, etc. (The output is the positive odd
integers). Evaluate the following summations:
X
6
1. ai
i=1

X
7
2. (3ai − 4)
i=3

X
4
3. (ai )2 Video Solution
i=1
Solution.
1.
X
6
ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6
i=1
= 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11
= 36. [Link]/watch?v=GKaRI_a96-Q

2. Note the starting value is different than 1:

X
7
(3ai − 4) = (3a3 − 4) + (3a4 − 4) + (3a5 − 4) + (3a6 − 4) + (3a7 − 4)
i=3
= 11 + 17 + 23 + 29 + 35
= 115.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 247

3.
X
4
(ai )2 = (a1 )2 + (a2 )2 + (a3 )2 + (a4 )2
i=1
= 1 2 + 32 + 52 + 72
= 84.

It might seem odd to stress a new, concise way of writing summations only
to write each term out as we add them up. It is. The following theorem gives
some of the properties of summations that allow us to work with them without
writing individual terms. Examples will follow.

Theorem 5.3.9 Properties of Summations.

X
n
X
j X
n X
n
1. c = c · n, where c is a 4. ai + ai = ai
i=1 i=m i=j+1 i=m
constant.
X
n
n(n + 1)
X
n X
n
5. i=
2. (ai ± bi ) = ai ± 2
i=1
i=m i=m
Xn
X
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
bi 6. i2 =
i=m i=1
6

X
n X
n X
n  2
n(n + 1)
3. c · ai = c · ai 7. 3
i =
i=m i=m i=1
2

Example 5.3.11 Evaluating summations using Theorem 5.3.9.

Revisit Example 5.3.8 and, using Theorem 5.3.9, evaluate [Link]/watch?v=w8jWl2KjOvQ

X
6 X
6
Figure 5.3.10 Video presentation of The-
ai = (2i − 1). orem 5.3.9
i=1 i=1

Solution.
X
6 X
6 X
6
(2i − 1) = 2i − (1)
i=1 i=1 i=1
!
X
6
= 2 i −6
i=1
6(6 + 1)
=2 −6
2
= 42 − 6 = 36

We obtained the same answer without writing out all six terms. When
dealing with small sizes of n, it may be faster to write the terms out
by hand. However, Theorem 5.3.9 is incredibly important when dealing
with large sums as we’ll soon see.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 248

5.3.2 Riemann Sums

R4
Consider again 0 (4x − x2 ) dx. We will approximate this definite integral us-
ing 16 equally spaced subintervals and the Right Hand Rule in Example 5.3.13.
0 1 2 3 4
Before doing so, it will pay to do some careful preparation. x0 x4 x8 x12 x16
Figure 5.3.12 shows a number line of [0, 4] divided, or partitioned, into 16
equally spaced subintervals. We denote 0 as x0 ; we have marked the values of Figure 5.3.12 Dividing [0, 4] into 16
x4 , x8 , x12 and x16 . We could mark them all, but the figure would get crowded. equally spaced subintervals
While it is easy to figure that x9 = 2.25, in general, we want a method of deter-
mining the value of xi without consulting the figure. Consider:
number of subintervals
between x0 and xi

xi = x0 + i∆x

starting subinterval
value size
So x9 = x0 + 9(4/16) = 2.25.
If we had partitioned [0, 4] into 100 equally spaced subintervals, each subin-
terval would have length ∆x = 4/100 = 0.04. We could compute x31 as

x31 = x0 + 31(4/100) = 1.24.

(That was far faster than creating a sketch first.)

Given any subdivision of [0, 4], the first subinterval is [x0 , x1 ]; the second is
[x1 , x2 ]; the ith subinterval is [xi−1 , xi ].
When using the Left Hand Rule, the height of the ith rectangle will be f (xi−1 ).
When using the Right Hand Rule, the height of the ith rectangle will be f (xi ). 
xi−1 + xi
When using the Midpoint Rule, the height of the ith rectangle will be f .
2
R4
Thus approximating 0 (4x − x2 ) dx with 16 equally spaced subintervals can
be expressed as follows, where ∆x = 4/16 = 1/4:

Left Hand Rule X

16
f (xi−1 )∆x
i=1

Right Hand Rule X

16
f (xi )∆x
i=1

Midpoint Rule X16  

xi−1 + xi
f ∆x
i=1
2

We use these formulas in the next two examples. The following example lets
us practice using the Right Hand Rule and the summation formulas introduced
in Theorem 5.3.9.

Example 5.3.13 Approximating definite integrals using sums. Video Solution

R4
Approximate 0 (4x − x2 ) dx using the Right Hand Rule and summation
formulas with 16 and 1000 equally spaced intervals.
Solution. Using the formula derived before, using 16 equally spaced
intervals and the Right Hand Rule, we can approximate the definite inte-

[Link]/watch?v=urkFFBmu9uQ
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 249

gral as
X
16
f (xi )∆x.
i=1
We have ∆x = 4/16 = 0.25. Since xi = 0 + i∆x, we have
xi = 0 + i∆x = i∆x.
Using the summation formulas, consider:
Z 4 X
16
(4x − x2 ) dx ≈ f (xi )∆x
0 i=1
X
16
= f (i∆x)∆x
i=1
X
16


= 4i∆x − (i∆x)2 ∆x
i=1
X
16
= (4i∆x2 − i2 ∆x3 )
i=1
X
16 X
16
= (4∆x2 ) i − ∆x3 i2 (5.3.2)
i=1 i=1
16 · 17 16(17)(33)
= (4∆x2 ) − ∆x3
2 6
= 4 · 0.252 · 136 − 0.253 · 1496
= 10.625
We were able to sum up the areas of 16 rectangles with very lit-
tle computation. In Figure 5.3.14 the function and the 16 rectangles y
are graphed. While some rectangles over-approximate the area, other
4
under-approximate the area (by about the same amount). Thus our ap-
proximate area of 10.625 is likely a fairly good approximation. 3
Notice Equation (5.3.2); by replacing 16 by 1,000 (and appropriately
changing the value of ∆x), we can use that equation to sum up 1000 2
rectangles!
We do so here, skipping from the original summand to the equivalent 1
of Equation (5.3.2) to save space. Note that ∆x = 4/1000 = 0.004. x
Z 4 X
1000 1 2 3 4

(4x − x2 ) dx ≈ f (xi )∆x

0 i=1
R4
Figure 5.3.14 Approximating 0 (4x−
X
1000 X
1000
x2 ) dx with the Right Hand Rule and
= (4∆x2 ) i − ∆x3 i2 16 evenly spaced subintervals
i=1 i=1
1000 · 1001 1000(1001)(2001)
= (4∆x2 ) − ∆x3
2 6
= 10.666656

RUsing
4
many, many rectangles, we have a likely good approximation
of 0
(4x − x2 )∆x. That is,
Z 4
(4x − x2 ) dx ≈ 10.666656.
0
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 250

Before the above example, we stated what the summations for the Left Hand,
Right Hand and Midpoint Rules looked like. Each had the same basic structure,
which was:

1. each rectangle has the same width, which we referred to as ∆x, and
2. each rectangle’s height is determined by evaluating f at a particular point
in each subinterval. For instance, the Left Hand Rule states that each rec-
tangle’s height is determined by evaluating f at the left hand endpoint of
the subinterval the rectangle lives on.

One could partition an interval [a, b] with subintervals that do not have the
same size. We refer to the length of the ith subinterval as ∆xi . Also, one could
determine each rectangle’s height by evaluating f at any point ci in the ith subin-
terval. Thus the height of the ith subinterval would be f (ci ), and the area of the
ith rectangle would be f (ci )∆xi . These ideas are formally defined below.

Definition 5.3.15 Partition.

A partition ∆x of a closed interval [a, b] is a set of numbers x0 , x1 , . . .
xn where
a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn−1 < xn = b.
[Link]/watch?v=2iw1Mh4iJ0I
The length of the ith subinterval, [xi−1 , xi ], is ∆xi = xi − xi−1 . If
[a, b] is partitioned into subintervals of equal length, we let ∆x represent Figure 5.3.16 Video presentation of De-
the length of each subinterval. finition 5.3.15
The size of the partition, denoted ∥∆x∥, is the length of the largest
subinterval of the partition.

Summations of rectangles with area f (ci )∆xi are named after mathemati-
cian Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann, as given in the following definition.

Definition 5.3.17 Riemann Sum.

Let f be defined on a closed interval [a, b], let ∆x be a partition of [a, b]
as given in Definition 5.3.15, and let ci denote any value in the ith subin-
terval. [Link]/watch?v=1ZxKyf4JSS4
The sum
Xn Figure 5.3.18 Video presentation of De-
f (ci )∆xi finition 5.3.17
i=1
y
is a Riemann sum of f on [a, b].
4
R4
Figure 5.3.19 shows the approximating rectangles of a Riemann sum of 0 (4x−
3
x2 ) dx. While the rectangles in this example do not approximate well the shaded
area, they demonstrate that the subinterval widths may vary and the heights of 2
the rectangles can be determined without following a particular rule.
“Usually” Riemann sums are calculated using one of the three methods we 1
have introduced. The uniformity of construction makes computations easier. Be- x
fore working another example, let’s summarize some of what we have learned 1 2 3 4
in a convenient way.

Key Idea 5.3.20 Riemann Sum Concepts. Figure 5.3.19 An example of a Rgeneral
4
Riemann sum to approximate 0 (4x−
Z b X
n 2
x ) dx
Consider f (x) dx ≈ f (ci )∆xi .
a i=1
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 251

b−a
1. When the n subintervals have equal length, ∆xi = ∆x = .
n
2. The ith term of an equally spaced partition is xi = a + i∆x. (Thus
x0 = a and xn = b.)
X
n
3. The Left Hand Rule summation is: f (xi−1 )∆x.
i=1

X
n
4. The Right Hand Rule summation is: f (xi )∆x.
i=1

Xn  
xi−1 + xi
5. The Midpoint Rule summation is: f ∆x.
i=1
2

Let’s do another example.

Example 5.3.21 Approximating definite integrals with sums.

R3
Approximate −2 (5x + 2) dx using the Midpoint Rule and 10 equally Video Solution
spaced intervals.
Solution. Following Key Idea 5.3.20, we have
3 − (−2)
∆x = = 1/2 and xi = (−2) + (1/2)(i) = i/2 − 2.
10
xi−1 + xi
As we are using the Midpoint Rule, we will also need xi−1 and .
2
Since xi = i/2 − 2,xi−1 = (i − 1)/2 − 2 = i/2 − 5/2. This gives

xi−1 + xi (i/2 − 5/2) + (i/2 − 2) i − 9/2 [Link]/watch?v=O6S1f6-D8Ls

= = = i/2 − 9/4.
2 2 2
We now construct the Riemann sum and compute its value using
summation formulas.
Z 3 X10  
xi−1 + xi
(5x + 2) dx ≈ f ∆x
−2 i=1
2
X
10
= f (i/2 − 9/4)∆x
i=1
X
10


= 5(i/2 − 9/4) + 2 ∆x
i=1
10  
X 
5 37
= ∆x i− y
i=1
2 4 17
10  !
5X X
10
37
= ∆x (i) −
2 i=1 i=1
4 10
 
1 5 10(11) 37
= · − 10 ·
2 2 2 4
x
45
= = 22.5 −2 −1 1 2 3
2
−8
R3
Figure 5.3.22 Approximating −2 (5x+
2) dx using the Midpoint Rule and 10
evenly spaced subintervals in Example 5.3.21
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 252

Note the graph of f (x) = 5x+2 in Figure 5.3.22. The regions whose
area is computed by the definite integral are triangles, meaning we can
find the exact answer without summation techniques. We find that the
exact answer is indeed 22.5. One of the strengths of the Midpoint Rule is
that often each rectangle includes area that should not be counted, but
misses other area that should. When the partition size is small, these
two amounts are about equal and these errors almost “cancel each other
out.” In this example, since our function is a line, these errors are exactly
equal and they do cancel each other out, giving us the exact answer.
Note too that when the function is negative, the rectangles have a
“negative” height. When we compute the area of the rectangle, we use
f (ci )∆x; when f is negative, the area is counted as negative.

Notice in the previous example that while we used 10 equally spaced inter-
vals, the number “10” didn’t play a big role in the calculations until the very end.
Mathematicians love to abstract ideas; let’s approximate the area of another re-
gion using n subintervals, where we do not specify a value of n until the very
end.

Example 5.3.23 Approximating definite integrals with a formula, using

sums.
R4
Revisit 0 (4x−x2 ) dx yet again. Approximate this definite integral using Video Solution
the Right Hand Rule with n equally spaced subintervals.
Solution. Using Key Idea 5.3.20, we know ∆x = 4−0 n = 4/n. We also
find xi = 0 + i∆x = 4i/n.
We construct the Right Hand Rule Riemann sum as follows. Be sure
to follow each step carefully. If you get stuck, and do not understand how
one line proceeds to the next, you may skip to the result and consider
how this result is used. You should come back, though, and work through
each step for full understanding.
Z 4 X
n [Link]/watch?v=LjMZOVNdRxQ
(4x − x ) dx ≈
2
f (xi )∆x
0 i=1
Xn  
4i
= f ∆x
i=1
n
"  2 #
Xn
4i 4i
= 4 − ∆x
i=1
n n
Xn   Xn  
16∆x 16∆x 2
= i− i
i=1
n i=1
n2
  n   n
16∆x X 16∆x X 2
= i− i
n i=1
n2 i=1
   
16∆x n(n + 1) 16∆x n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= · −
n 2 n2 6
32(n + 1) 32(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= − ( recall ∆x = 4/n)
n  3n2
32 1
= 1 − 2 (after simplifying)
3 n
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 253

The result is an amazing, easy to use formula. To approximate the

definite integral with 10 equally spaced subintervals and the Right Hand
Rule, set n = 10 and compute
Z 4  
32 1
(4x − x ) dx ≈
2
1 − 2 = 10.56.
0 3 10

Recall how earlier we approximated the definite integral with 4 subin-

tervals; with n = 4, the formula gives 10, our answer as before.
It is now easy to approximate the integral with 1,000,000 subinter-
vals! Hand-held calculators will round off the answer a bit prematurely
giving an answer of 10.66666667. (The actual answer is 10.666666666656.)
We now take an important leap. Up to this point, our mathematics
has been limited to geometry and algebra (finding areas and manipulat-
ing expressions). Now we apply calculus. For any finite n, we know that
Z 4  
32 1
(4x − x ) dx ≈
2
1− 2 .
0 3 n

Both common sense and high-level mathematics tell us that as n gets

large, the approximation gets better. InRfact, if we take the limit as n →
4
∞, we get the exact area described by 0 (4x − x2 ) dx. That is,
Z 4  
32 1
(4x − x ) dx = lim
2
1− 2
0 n→∞ 3 n
32
= (1 − 0)
3
32
= = 10.6
3
This is a fantastic result. By considering n equally-spaced subinter-
vals, we obtained a formula for an approximation of the definite integral
that involved our variable n. As n grows large — without bound — the
error shrinks to zero and we obtain the exact area.

This section started with a fundamental calculus technique: make an approxi-

mation, refine the approximation to make it better, then use limits in the refining
process to get an exact answer. That is precisely what we just did.
Let’s practice this again.

Example 5.3.24 Approximating definite integrals with a formula, using

sums.
R5
Find a formula that approximates −1 x3 dx using the Right Hand Rule
and n equally spaced subintervals, then take the limit as n → ∞ to find Video Solution
the exact area.
Solution. Following Key Idea 5.3.20, we have ∆x = 5−(−1) n = 6/n.
We have xi = (−1) + i∆x, which is the right endpoint of the ith subin-
terval.
The Riemann sum corresponding to the Right Hand Rule is (followed
by simplifications):
Z 5 X n
x3 dx ≈ f (xi )∆x
−1 i=1 [Link]/watch?v=yvWSszI0Xvc
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 254

X
n
= f (−1 + i∆x)∆x
i=1
Xn
= (−1 + i∆x)3 ∆x
i=1
X
n


= (i∆x)3 − 3(i∆x)2 + 3i∆x − 1 ∆x (now distribute ∆x)
i=1
X
n


= i3 ∆x4 − 3i2 ∆x3 + 3i∆x2 − ∆x (now split up summation)
i=1
X
n X
n X
n X
n
= ∆x4 i3 − 3∆x3 i2 + 3∆x2 i− ∆x
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
 2
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
= ∆x 4
− 3∆x3 + 3∆x2 − n∆x
2 6 2

(use ∆x = 6/n)

1296 n2 (n + 1)2 216 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 36 n(n + 1)

= · −3 3 · +3 2 −6
n4 4 n 6 n 2
(now do a sizable amount of algebra to simplify)
378 216 y
= 156 + + 2 120
n n
Once again, we have found a compact formula for approximating the 100
definite integral with n equally spaced subintervals and the Right Hand 80
Rule. Using 10 subintervals, we have an approximation of 195.96 (these
rectangles are shown in Figure 5.3.25). Using n = 100 gives an approxi- 60
mation of 159.802.
40
Now find the exact answer using a limit:
Z 5   20
3 378 216
x dx = lim 156 + + 2 = 156. x
−1 n→∞ n n −1 1 2 3 4 5
R5
Figure 5.3.25 Approximating −1 x3 dx
5.3.3 Limits of Riemann Sums using the Right Hand Rule and 10 evenly
spaced subintervals
We have used limits to evaluate given definite integrals. Will this always work? It
can be shown, given not-very-restrictive conditions, that yes, it will always work
— this is the content of Theorem 5.3.26 below.
The previous two examples demonstrated how an expression such as
X
n
f (xi )∆x
i=1

can be rewritten as an expression explicitly involving n, such as 32/3(1 − 1/n2 ).

Viewed in this manner, we can think of the summation as a function of n.
An n value is given (where n is a positive integer), and the sum of areas of n
equally spaced rectangles is returned, using the Left Hand, Right Hand, or Mid-
point Rules. Rb
Given a definite integral a f (x) dx, let:
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 255

X
n
• SL (n) = f (xi−1 )∆x, the sum of equally spaced rectangles formed
i=1
using the Left Hand Rule,
X
n
• SR (n) = f (xi )∆x, the sum of equally spaced rectangles formed us-
i=1
ing the Right Hand Rule, and
Xn  
xi−1 + xi
• SM (n) = f ∆x, the sum of equally spaced rectangles
i=1
2
formed using the Midpoint Rule.

Recall the definition of a limit as n → ∞: lim SL (n) = K if, given any

n→∞
ε > 0, there exists N > 0 such that

|SL (n) − K| < ε when n ≥ N .

The following theorem states that we can use any of our three rules to find
Rb
the exact value of a definite integral a f (x) dx. It also goes two steps further.
The theorem states that the height of each rectangle doesn’t have to be de-
termined following a specific rule, but could be f (ci ), where ci is any point in
the ith subinterval, as discussed before Riemann Sums were defined in Defini-
tion 5.3.17.
The theorem goes on to state that the rectangles do not need to be of the
same width. Using the notation of Definition 5.3.15, let ∆xi denote the length
of the ith subinterval in a partition of [a, b] and let ∥∆x∥ represent the length
of the largest subinterval in the partition: that is, ∥∆x∥ is the largest of all the
∆xi . If ∥∆x∥ is small, then [a, b] must be partitioned into many subintervals,
since all subintervals must have small lengths. “Taking the limit as ∥∆x∥ goes
to zero” implies that the number n of subintervals in the partition is growing to
infinity, as the largest subinterval length is becoming arbitrarily small. We then
interpret the expression
X
n
lim f (ci )∆xi
∥∆x∥→0
i=1

as “the limit of the sum of the areas of rectangles, where the width of each
rectangle can be different but getting small, and the height of each rectangle is
not necessarily determined by a particular rule.” The theorem states that this
Riemann Sum also gives the value of the definite integral of f over [a, b].
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 256

Theorem 5.3.26 Definite Integrals and the Limit of Riemann Sums.

Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let SL (n), SR (n),
SM (n), ∆x, ∆xi and ci be defined as before. Then:

lim SL (n) = lim SR (n)

n→∞ n→∞
= lim SM (n)
1. n→∞
X
n
= lim f (ci )∆x
n→∞
i=1

X
n Z b
2. lim f (ci )∆x = f (x) dx
n→∞ a
i=1
Z [Link]/watch?v=A-WLvclVMC0
X
n b
3. lim f (ci )∆xi = f (x) dx Figure 5.3.27 Video presentation of The-
∥∆x∥→0 a
i=1 orem 5.3.26

We summarize what we have learned over the past few sections here.

• Knowing the “area under the curve” can be useful. One common example:
the area under a velocity curve is displacement.
Rb
• We have defined the definite integral, a f (x) dx, to be the signed area
under f on the interval [a, b]. One of the things Theorem 5.3.26
tells us is that if f is continuous
• While we can approximate a definite integral many ways, we have focused on [a, b], then the definite inte-
Rb
on using rectangles whose heights can be determined using the Left Hand gral a f (x) dx is guaranteed to
Rule, the Right Hand Rule and the Midpoint Rule. exist.
Knowing that every continu-
• Sums of rectangles of this type are called Riemann sums.
ous function can be integrated
• The exact value of the definite integral can be computed using the limit of is useful, since most of the func-
a Riemann sum. We generally use one of the above methods as it makes tions we work with are continu-
the algebra simpler. ous. However, it turns out that a
function can be integrated even
We first learned of derivatives through limits then learned rules that made if it has a finite number of dis-
the process simpler. We know of a way to evaluate a definite integral using limits; continuities, as long as these are
in the next section we will see how the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus makes removable or jump discontinuities.
the process simpler. The key feature of this theorem is its connection between
the indefinite integral and the definite integral.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 257

5.3.4 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. A fundamental calculus technique is to use to refine approximations to get an exact answer.

P
14
2. What is the upper bound in the summation (35i + 217)?
i=2

3. This section approximates definite integrals using what geometric shape?

4. (□ True □ False) A sum using the Right Hand Rule is an example of a Riemann Sum.

Problems

Exercise Group. Write out each term of the summation and compute the sum.
P5 P3
5. i2 6. (5i + 2)
i=3 i=−2

P
2
πi

P
8
7. sin 2 8. 5
i=−2 i=1

P
6
1
P
8
i
9. i 10. (−1) i
i=1 i=1
3 
P  P
6
i
11. 1
i − 1
i+1 12. (−1) cos(πi)
i=1 i=0

Exercise Group. Write the sum in summation notation.

13. 5 + 10 + 15 + 20 14. −2 + (−1) + 2 + 7 + 14 + 23 + 34
15. 1
5 + 2
6 + 3
7 + 4
8 + 5
9
16. e − e2 + e3 − e4 + e5

Exercise Group. Evaluate the summation using Theorem 5.3.9.

P8 P
28
17. 5 18. i
i=1 i=1
P
12
P
12

19. 3i2 − 2i 20. 6i3 + 4
i=1 i=1
P
8
P
9

21. 4i3 − 10i2 + 3i + 7 22. i3 − 4i2 + i − 3
i=1 i=1
23. 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 94 + 95 24. 1 + 4 + 9 + · · · + 484 + 529

P
n P
k P
n P
n P
n P
k
Exercise Group. Theorem 5.3.9 states ai = ai + ai , so ai = ai − ai . Use this fact, along
i=1 i=1 i=k+1 i=k+1 i=1 i=1
with other parts of Theorem 5.3.9, to evaluate the summation.
P
20 P
29
25. i 26. i3
i=11 i=17
P
15 P
13
27. 6 28. 3i3
i=8 i=8

Z b
Exercise Group. In the following exercises, a definite integral f (x) dx is given.
a

(a) Graph f (x) on [a, b].

CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 258

(b) Add to the sketch rectangles using the provided rule.

Z b
(c) Approximate f (x) dx by summing the areas of the rectangles.
a
Z 3 Z 2
29. x2 dx, with 6 rectangles using the Left 30. (5 − x2 ) dx, with 4 rectangles using the
−3 0
Hand Rule. Midpoint Rule.
Z π Z 3
31. sin(x) dx, with 6 rectangles using the Right 32. 2x dx, with 5 rectangles using the Left Hand
0 0
Hand Rule. Rule.
Z 2 Z 9
1
33. ln(x) dx, with 3 rectangles using the 34. dx, with 4 rectangles using the Right
1 1 x
Midpoint Rule. Hand Rule.

Exercise Group. A definite integral is given below. As demonstrated in Examples 5.3.23 and Example 5.3.24, do the
following:

(a) Find a formula to approximate the definite integral using n subintervals and the provided rule.
(b) Evaluate the formula using n = 10, 100, and 1000.
(c) Find the limit of the formula, as n → ∞, to find the exact value of the definite integral.
Z 1 Z 2
35. x3 dx, using the Left Hand Rule. 36. 2x2 dx, using the Left Hand Rule.
0 −1
Z Z
1 6

37. (3x + 2) dx, using the Midpoint Rule. 38. 4x2 + 1 dx, using the Left Hand Rule.
−2 2
Z Z
10 1

39. (3 − x) dx, using the Left Hand Rule. 40. x3 − x2 dx, using the Right Hand Rule.
−10 0
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 259

5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Let f (t) be a continuous function defined on [a, b]. The definite integral
Rb
f (x) dx is the “area under f ” on [a, b]. We can turn this concept into a func-
a [Link]/watch?v=8d3R9MSwKuk
tion by letting the
R xupper (or lower) bound vary.
Let F (x) = a f (t) dt. It computes the area under f on [a, x] as illustrated Figure 5.4.1 Video introduction to Sec-
in Figure 5.4.2. We can study this function
R a using our knowledge of the definite tion 5.4
integral. For instance, F (a) = 0 since a f (t) dt = 0.
y

8 y

6
t
a x b 4

Rx 2
Figure 5.4.2 The area of the shaded region is F (x) = a
f (t) dt
t
Example 5.4.3 Exploring the “Area so far” function. 1 x

−2
Consider f (t) = 2t pictured in R xFigure Figure 5.4.4 and its associated
“area so far” function, F (x) = 1 2t dt. Using the graph of f and geom- Figure 5.4.4 The Rarea of the shaded
etry, find an explicit formula for F . x
region is F (x) = 1 2t dt
Solution. We can see from Figure 5.4.5 that for x ≥ 1, the area under
the curve can be found by subtracting the area of two triangles. The Video Solution
larger triangle will have a base of x and a height of f (x) = 2x, while the
smaller triangle will have a base of 1 and a height of 2. Therefore, the
area under the curve for x ≥ 1 is given by A(x) = 12 (x)(2x)− 12 (1)(2) =
x2 − 1.
Note that this same formula holds for x < 1. If x < 1, then F (x) =
Rx R1
1
2t dt = − x 2t dt. The areas to the left of x = 1 will have oppo-
site signs (since they areas areR accumulated before x = 1). For exam-
1
ple, when x = 0, F (0) = − 0 2t dt = − 12 (1)(2) = −1. This is the
same valueRwe get from evaluating
R1 x2 − 1 for x = 0. Also notice that
−1 [Link]/watch?v=zVyMghQRLcI
F (−1) = 1 2t dt = − −1 2t dt. This integral is clearly 0 since the
areas over [−1, 0] and [0, 1] will sum to zero. Again, this is the same
answer obtained by evaluating x2 − 1 for x = −1.
8 y
Therefore, we can reasonably say that F (x) = x2 − 1. A plot of
both f (x) = 2x and F (x) = x2 − 1 are given in Figure Figure 5.4.6. You
6
should notice a familiar relationship between these two functions. This
relationship is formally stated in Theorem 5.4.7.
4
8 y
2x
2
6
2
1 t
4
1 x
x
2
−2
x
−1 1 2 3 Figure 5.4.5 The Rarea of the shaded
x
region is F (x) = 1 2t dt
−2

Figure 5.4.6 Graphs of f (x) = 2x and F (x) = x2 − 1

CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 260

5.4.1 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Parts 1 and 2

As Example 5.4.3 hinted, we can apply calculus ideas to F (x); in particular, we
can compute its derivative. In Example 5.4.3, F (x) = x2 − 1, so F ′ (x) = 2x =
f (x). While this may seem like an innocuous thing to do, it has far-reaching
implications, as demonstrated by the fact that the result is given as an important
theorem.

Theorem 5.4.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.

Rx
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and let F (x) = a f (t) dt. Then F is con-
tinuous on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b), and

F ′ (x) = f (x).

In other words: Z x 
d
f (t) dt = f (x).
dx a

Initially this seems simple, as demonstrated in the following example.

Example 5.4.9 Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.

Z x
Let F (x) = (t2 + sin(t)) dt. What is F ′ (x)?
−5
Solution. Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have F ′ (x) =
x2 + sin(x). That is, the derivative of the “area so far” function, is simply [Link]/watch?v=TE3kZRIso-Q
the integrand replacing x with t. Figure 5.4.8 Video presentation of The-
This simple example reveals something incredible: F (x) is an anti- orem 5.4.7
derivative of x2 + sin(x)! Therefore, F (x) = 13 x3 − cos(x) + C for
some value of C. (We can find C, but generally we do not care. We
know that F (−5) = 0, which allows us to compute C. In this case,
C = cos(−5) + 125 3 .)

What we have done in Example 5.4.9 was more than finding a complicated
Video Solution
way of computing an antiderivative. Consider a function f defined on an open
Rb
interval containing a, b and c. Suppose we want to compute a f (t) dt. First, let
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt. (5.4.1)
c

Using the properties of the definite integral found in Theorem 5.2.11, we know
Z b Z c Z b
f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (t) dt
a a c
Z a Z b [Link]/watch?v=7tHmgPcUZG4
=− f (t) dt + f (t) dt
c c

Using Equation (5.4.1), let x = a in the first integral and x = b in the second
Ra Rb
integral so that c f (t) dt = F (a) and c f (t) dt = F (b). Therefore:
Z b
f (t) dt = −F (a) + F (b)
a
= F (b) − F (a).

We now see how indefinite integrals and definite integrals are related: we
can evaluate a definite integral using antiderivatives! In fact, this is exactly what
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 261

we noticed in Example 5.4.3. The “area so far” function was indeed an anti-
derivative of the integrand. This is the second part of the Fundamental Theorem
of Calculus.

Theorem 5.4.10 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.

Let f be continuous on [a, b] and let F be any antiderivative of f . Then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a [Link]/watch?v=jU_WUPjamFQ

As its name suggests, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an important Figure 5.4.11 Video presentation of The-
result. In fact, it’s sufficiently important that it’s worth taking a moment to un- orem 5.4.10
derstand why it’s true. A proof is given in Figure 5.4.12.

Example 5.4.13 Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.

R4
We spent a great deal of time in the previous section studying 0 (4x −
x2 ) dx. Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, evaluate this defi-
nite integral.
Solution. We need an antiderivative of f (x) = 4x − x2 . All antideriv-
atives of f have the form F (x) = 2x2 − 13 x3 + C; for simplicity, choose
C = 0.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states
Z 4 [Link]/watch?v=8doi_Al_lmg
(4x − x2 ) dx = F (4) − F (0) Figure 5.4.12 Proving the Fundamen-
0
1

tal Theorem of Calculus
= 2(4)2 − 43 − 0 − 0
3
64
= 32 − = 32/3.
3
This is the same answer we obtained using limits in the previous sec-
tion, just with much less work.

Notation: A special notation is often used in the process of evaluating defi-

nite integrals using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Instead of explicitly
b
writing F (b) − F (a), the notation F (x) is used. Thus the solution to Exam-
a
ple 5.4.13 would be written as:
Z 4 
4
1 3
(4x − x ) dx = 2x − x
2 2
0 3 0
1 3


= 2(4) − 4 − 0 − 0 = 32/3.
2
3
The Constant C: Any antiderivative F (x) can be chosen when using the Fun-
damental Theorem of Calculus to evaluate a definite integral, meaning any value
of C can be picked. The constant always cancels out of the expression when eval-
uating F (b) − F (a), so it does not matter what value is picked. This being the
case, we might as well let C = 0.

Example 5.4.14 Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.

Evaluate the following definite integrals.

CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 262

Z 2 Z 5 Z 5
3 t
1. x dx 3. e dt 5. 2 dx
−2 0 1
Z Z
π 9 √
2. sin(x) dx 4. u du Video Solution
0 4

Solution.
1.
Z 2 2
1 4
x3 dx = x
−2 4 −2
   
1 4 1
= 2 − (−2) 4
4 4
[Link]/watch?v=YxQyFln5UIQ
= 0.

2.
Z π π
sin(x) dx = − cos(x)
0
0


= − cos(π) − − cos(0)
= 1 + 1 = 2.
(This is interesting; it says that the area under one “hump” of a
sine curve is 2.)
3.
Z 5 5
et dt = et
0 0

= e − e0 5

= e5 − 1 ≈ 147.41.

4.
Z Z
9 √ 9
1
u du = u 2 du
4 4
2 3 9
= u2
3 4
2 3 3

= 9 − 42
2
3
2
38
= 27 − 8 = .
3 3
5.
Z 5 5
2 dx = 2x
1 1

= 2(5) − 2
= 2(5 − 1) = 8.
This integral is interesting; the integrand is a constant function,
hence we are finding the area of a rectangle with width (5−1) = 4
and height 2. Notice how the evaluation of the definite integral led
Rb
to 2(4) = 8. In general, if c is a constant, then a c dx = c(b − a).
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 263

5.4.2 Understanding Motion with the Fundamental Theorem of

Calculus
We established, starting with Key Idea 2.2.3, that the derivative of a position
function is a velocity function, and the derivative of a velocity function is an ac-
celeration function. Now consider definite integrals of velocity and acceleration
Z b
functions. Specifically, if v(t) is a velocity function, what does v(t) dt mean?
a

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that

Z b
v(t) dt = V (b) − V (a),
a
where V (t) is any antiderivative of v(t). Since v(t) is a velocity function, V (t)
must be a position function, and V (b) − V (a) measures a change in position, or
displacement.

Example 5.4.15 Finding displacement and distance.

A ball is thrown straight up with velocity given by v(t) = −32t + 20ft/

R1
s, where t is measured in seconds. Find, and interpret, 0 v(t) dt and
R1
0
|v(t)| dt.
Solution. Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have
Z 1 Z 1
v(t) dt = (−32t + 20) dt
0 0

1
= −16t2 + 20t
0
= 4.
Thus if a ball is thrown straight up into the air with velocity v(t) =
−32t + 20, the height of the ball, 1 second later, will be 4 feet above the
initial height.
Note that the ball has traveled much farther. It has gone up to its
peak and is falling down, but the difference between its height at t = 0
and t = 1 is 4ft. R1
If we wish to find the total distance traveled, we must evaluate 0 |v(t)| dt
(noting that negative velocities will reduce the diplacement, but we want
distance, not displacement). In this case, we know that the velocity
changes sign once when v(t) = 0,so t = 20/32 = 5/8 seconds. The
velocity is positive over [0, 5/8] and negative over [5/8, 1]. Therefore
Z 1 Z 5/8 Z 1
|v(t)| dt = v(t) dt + −v(t) dt
0 0 5/8
Z 5/8 Z 1
= (−32t + 20) dt − (−32t + 20) dt
0 5/8

5/8
1
= −16t2 + 20t − −16t2 + 20t
  0 0
25 9
= − − = 9.
4 4
R1
So the total distance traveled over [0, 1] is 0 |−32t + 20| dt = 9 feet .
As we can see in Figure 5.4.16, the positive area between v(t) and
the t-axis, A1 = 25/4, while the negative area, A2 = −9/4. When we
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 264

add these two areas, we get the displacement of 4 ft. But when we add
the absolute value of both of these areas (as in Figure 5.4.17), we get
the total distance of 9 ft.
y y
20 20

10 10
A1 A1
A3
t t
5/8 A2 1 5/8 1

−10 −10

Figure 5.4.16 The area between Figure 5.4.17 The area between
v(t) and the t-axis can be used to |v(t)| and the t-axis can be used
represent displacement to represent distance

Integrating a rate of change function gives total change. Velocity is the rate
of position change; integrating velocity gives the total change of position, i.e.,
displacement.
Integrating a speed function gives a similar, though different, result. Speed
is also the rate of position change, but does not account for direction. That is,
the speed an object is the absolute valueR 1 of its velocity. This is what we saw
in Example 5.4.15 when we evaluated 0 |v(t)| dt. So integrating a speed func-
tion gives total change of position, without the possibility of “negative position
change.” Hence the integral of a speed function gives distance traveled.
As acceleration is the rate of velocity change, integrating an acceleration
function gives total change in velocity. We do not have a simple term for this
analogous to displacement. If a(t) = 5miles/h2 and t is measured in hours,
then Z 3
a(t) dt = 15
0
means the velocity has increased by 15m/h from t = 0 to t = 3.

5.4.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Chain Rule

Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) states that given
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt,
a
′
we have F (x) = f (x). Using other notation,
Z x 
d d
(F (x)) = f (t) dt = f (x).
dx dx a
While we have just practiced evaluating definite integrals, sometimes finding
antiderivatives is impossible and we need to rely on other techniques Rto approx-
x
imate the value of a definite integral. Functions written as F (x) = a f (t) dt
are useful in such situations.
It may be of further use to compose such a function with another. As an
example, we may compose F (x) with g(x) to get
Z g(x)


F g(x) = f (t) dt.
a
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 265

What is the derivative of such a function? The Chain Rule can be employed
to state
d 



F g(x) = F ′ g(x) g ′ (x) = f g(x) g ′ (x).
dx
An example will help us understand this.

Example 5.4.19 The FTC, Part 1, and the Chain Rule.

[Link]/watch?v=fywjn8-evpE
Z x2
Find the derivative of F (x) = ln(t) dt. Figure 5.4.18 Video presentation of Sub-
2
Rx section 5.4.3 and Example 5.4.19
Solution. We can view F (x) as being the function
G(x) = 2 ln(t) dt
composed with g(x) = x2 ; that is, F (x) = G g(x) . The Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus states that G′ (x) = ln(x). The Chain Rule gives us


F ′ (x) = G′ g(x) g ′ (x)
= ln(g(x))g ′ (x)
= ln(x2 )2x
= 2x ln(x2 )

Normally, the steps defining G(x) and g(x) are skipped.

Let’s practice this once more.

Example 5.4.20 The FTC, Part 1, and the Chain Rule.

Z 5 Video Solution
Find the derivative of F (x) = t3 dt.
Z cos(x)
cos(x)
Solution. Note that F (x) = − t3 dt. Viewed this way, the de-
5
rivative of F is straightforward:

F ′ (x) = − cos3 (x) (− sin(x))

= cos3 (x) sin(x).

[Link]/watch?v=nGS4ENM8arI
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 266

5.4.4 Area Between Curves

Consider continuous functions f (x) and g(x) defined on [a, b], where f (x) ≥
g(x) for all x in [a, b], as demonstrated in Figure 5.4.22. What is the area of the
shaded region bounded by the two curves over [a, b]?

y y

f (x) f (x)

g(x) g(x)
[Link]/watch?v=UufnFHBnv88

x x
Figure 5.4.21 Video introduction to Sub-
a b a b
section 5.4.4

(a) (b)
Figure 5.4.22 Finding the area bounded by two functions on an interval by sub-
tracting the area under g from the area under f
The area can be found by recognizing that this area is “the area under f −
the area under g.” Using mathematical notation, the area is
Z b Z b
f (x) dx − g(x) dx.
a a

Properties of the definite integral allow us to simplify this expression to

Z b Video Solution


f (x) − g(x) dx.
a

Theorem 5.4.23 Area Between Curves.

Let f (x) and g(x) be continuous functions defined on [a, b] where f (x) ≥
g(x) for all x in [a, b]. The area of the region bounded by the curves
y = f (x), y = g(x) and the lines x = a and x = b is
Z b
[Link]/watch?v=su2CXdpYPdo
f (x) − g(x) dx.
a

15 y y = x2 + x − 5
Example 5.4.24 Finding area between curves.
10
Find the area of the region enclosed by y = x2 + x − 5 and y = 3x − 2.
Solution. It will help to sketch these two functions, as done in Figure 5.4.25. y = 3x − 2
5
The region whose area we seek is completely bounded by these two
functions; they seem to intersect at x = −1 and x = 3. To check, set x
x2 + x − 5 = 3x − 2 and solve for x: −2 −1 1 2 3 4

x2 + x − 5 = 3x − 2
(x2 + x − 5) − (3x − 2) = 0
x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 Figure 5.4.25 Sketching the region en-
closed by y = x2 + x − 5 and y =
(x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
3x − 2 in Example 5.4.24
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 267

x = −1, 3.

Following Theorem 5.4.23, the area is

Z Z 3
3

3x − 2 − (x + x − 5) dx =
2
(−x2 + 2x + 3) dx
−1 −1
  3
1
= − x3 + x2 + 3x
3 −1
 
1 1
= − (27) + 9 + 9 − +1−3
3 3
2
= 10 = 10.6
3

One of the things we have to be careful about when finding the area between [Link]/watch?v=Bgji1b7Wdr4
curves is that the curves might cross, so that the distinction between “upper Figure 5.4.26 Finding the area between
curve” and “lower curve” can change. The video example in Figure 5.4.26 illus- curves that intersect multiple times
trates this phenomenon.

5.4.5 The Mean Value Theorem and Average Value y

R 4 Consider the graph of a function f in Figure 5.4.27 and the area defined by
1
f (x) dx. Three rectangles are drawn in Figure 5.4.28; in Figure 5.4.28(a), the
height of the rectangle is greater than f on [1, 4], hence the area of this rectangle
R4
is is greater than 1 f (x) dx.
In Figure 5.4.28(b), the height of the rectangle is smaller than f on [1, 4],
R4
hence the area of this rectangle is less than 1 f (x) dx.
x
Finally, in Figure 5.4.28(c) the
R 4height of the rectangle is such that the area of 1 2 3 4
the rectangle is exactly that of 1 f (x) dx. Since rectangles that are “too big”,
as in R(a), and rectangles that are “too little,” as in (b), give areas greater/lesser
4
than 1 f (x) dx, it makes sense that there is a rectangle, whose top intersects
Figure 5.4.27 A graph of a function f
f (x) somewhere on [1, 4], whose area is exactly that of the definite integral.
to introduce the Mean Value Theorem
y y y

x x x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

(a) (b) (c)

R4
Figure 5.4.28 Differently sized rectangles give upper and lower bounds on 1
f (x) dx;
the last rectangle matches the area exactly
We state this idea formally in a theorem.

Theorem 5.4.29 The Mean Value Theorem of Integration.

Let f be continuous on [a, b]. There exists a value c in [a, b] such that
Z b
f (x) dx = f (c)(b − a).
a
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 268

This is an existential statement; c exists, but we do not provide a method of

finding it. Theorem 5.4.29 is directly connected to the Mean Value Theorem of
Differentiation, given as Theorem 3.2.4; we leave it to the reader to see how.
We demonstrate the principles involved in this version of the Mean Value
Theorem in the following example.

Example 5.4.31 Using the Mean Value Theorem. [Link]/watch?v=KD90CwK0PJk

Rπ Figure 5.4.30 Video presentation of The-
Consider 0
sin(x) dx. Find a value c guaranteed by the Mean Value
Theorem. orem 5.4.29
Rπ
Solution. We first need to evaluate 0 sin(x) dx. (This was previously
done in Example 5.4.14.)
Z π π
sin(x) dx = − cos(x) = 2.
0 0
The Theorem 5.4.29 simply says
Thus we seek a value c in [0, π] such that π sin(c) = 2. that there is a rectangle with height
f (c) and width b−a, the area of
π sin(c) = 2 ⇒ sin(c) = 2/π ⇒ c = arcsin(2/π) ≈ 0.69. which is the same as the area be-
tween f and the x-axis over[a, b].
In Figure 5.4.32 sin(x) is sketched along with a rectangle with height Furthermore, we know that c will
sin(0.69). The area of the rectangle is the same as the area under sin(x) be in the interval [a, b].
on [0, π].

We now turn our attention to a related topic —average value. Let f be a

Rb Rb
function

on [a, b] with c such that f (c)(b−a) = a f (x) dx. Consider a f (x)− y
f (c) dx:
1
Z Z Z
b
b b
f (x) − f (c) dx = f (x) − f (c) dx sin(0.69)
a a a
= f (c)(b − a) − f (c)(b − a)
= 0.
x
When f (x) is shifted by −f (c), the amount of area under f above the x- c 1 2 π

axis on [a, b] is the same as the amount of area below the x-axis above f ; see
Figure 5.4.33 for an illustration of this. In this sense, we can say that f (c) is the Figure 5.4.32 A graph of y = sin(x)
average value of f on [a, b]. on [0, π] and the rectangle guaranteed
by the Mean Value Theorem
y y
y = f (x)
y = f (x) − f (c)

f (c) f (c)

x x
a c b a c b

Figure 5.4.33 On the left, a graph of y = f (x) and the rectangle guaranteed by
the Mean Value Theorem. On the right, y = f (x) is shifted down by f (c); the
resulting “area under the curve” is 0
The value f (c) is the average value in another sense. First, recognize that
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 269

the Mean Value Theorem can be rewritten as

Z b
1
f (c) = f (x) dx,
b−a a

for some value of c in [a, b]. Replacing the integral with the limit of a Riemann
sum (as in Theorem 5.3.26):
Z b
1
f (c) = f (x) dx
b−a a
1 Xn
= lim f (ci ) ∆x Using Theorem 5.3.26
b − a n→∞ i=1
1 X
n
b−a b−a
= lim f (ci ) ∆x =
b − a n→∞ i=1 n n
X
n
1
= lim f (ci ) Cancelling the common factor of b − a.
n→∞
i=1
n
Pn
Examining this last line closely, the expression i=1 f (ci ) n1 represents adding
up n sample values of f (x)and then dividing by n. This is exactly what we do
when we calculate the average of a set Pof n numbers. Now when we consider
n
taking the limit as n goes to ∞, lim 1
i=1 f (ci ) n , we are adding up all of the
n→∞
function’s output values over [a, b] and dividing by the “number of numbers”. In
a sense, we are adding up an infinite number of output values and then dividing
by the number of terms we summed (which is again infinite).
This leads us to a definition.

Definition 5.4.34 The Average Value of f on [a, b].

Let f be continuous on [a, b]. The average value of f on [a, b] is f (c),

where c is a value in [a, b] guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem. i.e.,
Z b
1
Average Value of f on [a, b] = f (x) dx.
b−a a [Link]/watch?v=Gz9r9zF5asU

An application of this definition is given in the following example. Figure 5.4.35 Video presentation of De-
finition 5.4.34
Example 5.4.36 Finding the average value of a function.

An object moves back and forth along a straight line with a velocity given
by v(t) = (t − 1)2 on [0, 3], where t is measured in seconds and v(t) is
measured in ft/s.
What is the average velocity of the object?
Solution. By our definition, the average velocity is:
Z 3 Z
1 1 3 2

(t − 1)2 dt = t − 2t + 1 dt
3−0 0 3 0
 3
1 1 3
= t −t +t
2
3 3
 0
  
1 1 3 1 3
= (3) − (3) + (3) −
2
(0) − (0) + (0)
2
3 3 3
= 1 ft/s .
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 270

We can understand the above example through a simpler situation. Suppose

you drove 100 miles in 2 hours. What was your average speed? The answer is
simple: displacement/time = 100 miles/2 hours = 50 mph.
What was the displacement of the object R 3 in Example 5.4.36? We calculate
this by integrating its velocity function: 0 (t − 1)2 dt = 3 ft. Its final position
was 3 feet from its initial position after 3 seconds: its average velocity was 1 ft/s.
This section has laid the groundwork for a lot of great mathematics to follow.
The most important lesson is this: definite integrals can be evaluated using anti-
derivatives. Since Section 5.3 established that definite integrals are the limit of
Riemann sums, we can later create Riemann sums to approximate values other
than “area under the curve,” convert the sums to definite integrals, then eval-
uate these using the Theorem 5.4.10. This will allow us to compute the work
done by a variable force, the volume of certain solids, the arc length of curves,
and more.
The downside is this: generally speaking, computing antiderivatives is much
more difficult than computing derivatives. Chapter 6 is devoted to techniques
of finding antiderivatives so that a wide variety of definite integrals can be eval-
uated. Before that, Section 5.5 explores techniques of approximating the value
of definite integrals beyond using the Left Hand, Right Hand and Midpoint Rules.
These techniques are invaluable when antiderivatives cannot be computed, or
when the actual function f is unknown and all we know is the value of f at
certain x-values.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 271

5.4.6 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. How are definite and indefinite integrals related?

2. What constant of integration is most commonly used when evaluating definite integrals?
Z x
3. (□ True □ False) If f is a continuous function, then F (x) = f (t) dt is also a continuous function.
a
4. The definite integral can be used to find “the area under a curve.” Give two other uses for definite integrals.

Problems

Exercise Group. Evaluate the definite integral.

Z 4 Z

2
2
5. 3x2 − 2x − 2 dx 6. (x − 5) dx
2 0
Z Z


2 π
2
7. x5 − x 3
dx 8. sin(x) dx
−2 0
Z π Z e7
3
1
9. sec(x) tan(x) dx 10. dx
π
4 1 x
Z Z −1
1

11. 8x dx 12. 1 + 4x3 dx
−3 −2
Z π Z 2
13. (3 sin(x) − 9 cos(x)) dx 14. ex dx
0 1
Z 25 √ Z 16
1
15. t dt 16. √ dt
1 4 t
Z Z
81 √ 6
1
17. 4
x dx 18. dx
1 1 x
Z 7 Z 3
1 1
19. dx 20. dx
1 x2 1 x6
Z 1 Z 1
21. x dx 22. x2 dx
0 0
Z 1 Z 1
3
23. x dx 24. x89 dx
0 0
Z 7 Z −5
25. dx 26. 4 dx
−7 −9
Z 5 Z π
2
27. 0 dx 28. csc(x) cot(x) dx
−5 π
6

29.
Z 1
(a) Explain why xn dx = 0 when n is a positive, odd integer.
−1
Z 1 Z 1
n
(b) Explain why x dx = 2 xn dx when n is a positive, even integer.
−1 0
Z a+2π
30. Explain why sin t dt = 0 for all values of a.
a
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 272

Rb
Exercise Group. Find all values c such that a
f (x) dx = f (c)(b − a), as guaranteed by the Theorem 5.4.29.
R 2 R 2
31. x dx 32. x dx
R x R √
33. e dx 34. x dx

Exercise Group. Find the average value of the function on the given interval.
 
35. f (x) = sin(x) on π2 , π 36. y = cos(x) on [0, π]
37. y = x on [0, 7] 38. y = x2 on [0, 8]
39. y = x3 on [0, 9] 1
40. y = on [1, e]
t

Exercise Group. A velocity function is given for an object moving along a straight line. Find the displacement of the
object over the given time interval.
ft ft
41. v(t) = −32t + 28 s on [0, 4] 42. v(t) = −32t + 200 s on [0, 9]

43. v(t) = 7 ft
on [0, 4] 44. v(t) = 8t mph on [−2, 3]
s
ft   √
45. v(t) = cos(t) s on 0, 3π
2 46. v(t) = 5 t fts on [0, 32]

Exercise Group. An acceleration function of an object moving along a straight line is given. Find the change of the
object’s velocity over the given time interval.
ft ft
47. a(t) = −32 s2 on [0, 8] 48. a(t) = 11 on [0, 9]
s2
ft  
49. a(t) = t s2 on [0, 1] 50. a(t) = sin(t) sft2 on π2 , 3π
2

Exercise Group. Sketch the given relations and find the area of the enclosed region.
51. y = 2x, y = 5x, and x = 3 52. y = −x + 1, y = 3x + 6, x = 2 and x = −1
53. y = x2 − 2x + 5, y = 5x − 5 54. y = 2x2 + 2x − 5, y = x2 + 3x + 7,

Exercise Group. Find F ′ (x).

Z x3 −2x Z −9
1
55. F (x) = dt 56. F (x) = t3 dt
8 t x3
Z x4 Z ln(x)
57. F (x) = (t − 1) dt 58. F (x) = et dt
x sin(x)
Z x4 Z √
p

x
59. F (x) = (sin 3t2 ) dt 60. F (x) = ( t4 + 5t2 ) dt
5 cos(x)
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 273

5.5 Numerical Integration

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives a concrete technique for finding
the exact value of a definite integral. That technique is based on computing an-
tiderivatives. Despite the power of this theorem, there are still situations where
we must approximate the value of the definite integral instead of finding its exact
value. The first situation we explore is where we cannot compute the antideriv-
ative of the integrand. The second case is when we actually do not know the
function in the integrand, but only its value when evaluated at certain points.
An elementary function is any function that is a combination of polynomial,
nth root, rational, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions. We can
compute the derivative of any elementary function, but there are many elemen-
tary functions of which we cannot compute an antiderivative. For example, the
following functions do not have antiderivatives that we can express with elemen-
tary functions:
2 sin(x)
ex , sin(x3 ), x .

The simplest way to refer to the antiderivatives of e−x is to simply write

2

R −x2
e dx.
This section outlines three common methods of approximating the value of
definite integrals. We describe each as a systematic method of approximating
area under a curve. By approximating this area accurately, we find an accurate
approximation of the corresponding definite integral.
We will apply the methods we learn in this section to the following definite
integrals:
R 1 −x2 R π2 R 4π sin(x)
0
e dx, −π
sin(x3 ) dx, 0.5 x dx,
4

as pictured in Figure 5.5.1.

y y y
1
1
y = e−x
2
1 y = sin(x3 )
sin(x)
y=
x
0.5
0.5
0.5

x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 x
x
5 10 15
−0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
−0.5

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.5.1 Graphically representing three definite integrals that cannot be eval-
uated using antiderivatives

5.5.1 The Left and Right Hand Rule Methods

In Section 5.3 we addressed the problem of evaluating definite integrals by ap-
proximating the area under the curve using rectangles. We revisit those ideas
here before introducing other methods of approximating definite integrals.
We start with a review of notation. Let f be a continuous function on the
Z b
interval [a, b]. We wish to approximate f (x) dx. We partition [a, b] into n
a
b−a
equally spaced subintervals, each of length ∆x = . The endpoints of these
n
subintervals are labeled as
x0 = a, x1 = a + ∆x, x2 = a + 2∆x, . . . , xi = a + i∆x, . . . , xn = b.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 274

Key Idea 5.3.20 states that to use the Left Hand Rule we use the summation
X
n Xn
f (xi−1 )∆x and to use the Right Hand Rule we use f (xi )∆x. We review
i=1 i=1
the use of these rules in the context of examples.

Example 5.5.2 Approximating definite integrals with rectangles.

Z 1
e−x dx using the Left and Right Hand Rules with 5
2
Approximate
0
equally spaced subintervals.
Solution. We begin by partitioning the interval [0, 1] into 5 equally spaced
intervals. We have ∆x = 1−05 = 1/5 = 0.2, so

x0 = 0, x1 = 0.2, x2 = 0.4, x3 = 0.6, x4 = 0.8, and x5 = 1.

Using the Left Hand Rule, we have:
X
n


f (xi−1 )∆x = f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) ∆x
i=1


= f (0) + f (0.2) + f (0.4) + f (0.6) + f (0.8) ∆x
≈ (1 + 0.9608 + 0.8521 + 0.6977 + 0.5273)(0.2)
≈ 0.8076.
Using the Right Hand Rule, we have:
X
n


f (xi )∆x = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + f (x5 ) ∆x
i=1


= f (0.2) + f (0.4) + f (0.6) + f (0.8) + f (1) ∆x
≈ (0.9608 + 0.8521 + 0.6977 + 0.5273 + 0.3678)(0.2)
≈ 0.6812.

y y
−x2
y = e−x
2
1 y=e 1

0.5 0.5

x x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

(a) Using the Left Hand Rule (b) Using the Right Hand Rule
R1
e−x dx in Example 5.5.2
2
Figure 5.5.3 Approximating 0

Figure 5.5.3 shows the rectangles used in each method to approxi-

mate the definite integral. These graphs show that in this particular case,
the Left Hand Rule is an over approximation and the Right Hand Rule is
an under approximation. To get a better approximation, we could use
more rectangles, as we did in Section 5.3. We could also average the
Left and Right Hand Rule results together, giving
0.8076 + 0.6812
= 0.7444.
2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 275

The actual answer, accurate to 4 places after the decimal, is 0.7468,

showing our average is a good approximation.

Example 5.5.4 Approximating definite integrals with rectangles.

Z π
2
Approximate sin(x3 ) dx using the Left and Right Hand Rules with
−π
4
10 equally spaced subintervals.
Solution. We begin by finding ∆x:

b−a π/2 − (−π/4) 3π

= = ≈ 0.2356.
n 10 40 xi Exact Approx. sin(x3i )
It is useful to write out the endpoints of the subintervals in a table; in
Figure 5.5.5, we give the exact values of the endpoints, their decimal ap- x0 −π/4 −0.7854 −0.4657
proximations, and decimal approximations of sin(x3 ) evaluated at these x1 −7π/40 −0.5498 −0.1654
points. x2 −π/10 −0.3142 −0.0310
Once this table is created, it is straightforward to approximate the x3 −π/40 −0.0785 −0.0005
definite integral using the Left and Right Hand Rules. (Note: the table x4 π/20 0.1571 0.0039
itself is easy to create, especially with a standard spreadsheet program x5 π/8 0.3927 0.0605
on a computer. The last two columns are all that are needed.) The Left
x6 π/5 0.6283 0.2455
Hand Rule sums the first 10 values of sin(x3i ) and multiplies the sum by
x7 11π/40 0.8639 0.6011
∆x; the Right Hand Rule sums the last 10 values of sin(x3i ) and multiplies
by ∆x. Therefore we x8 7π/20 1.0996 0.9710
Z have:
π
2 x9 17π/40 1.3352 0.6899
Left Hand Rule: sin(x3 ) dx ≈ (1.9093)(0.2356) ≈ 0.4498. x10 π/2 1.5708 −0.6700
−π
Z4
π
2
Figure 5.5.5 Values used to approxi-
Right Hand Rule: sin(x3 ) dx ≈ (1.705)(0.2356) ≈ 0.4017. Rπ
−π
4
mate −2 π sin(x3 ) dx in Example 5.5.4
4
Average of the Left and Right Hand Rules: 0.4258.

y y y = sin(x3 )
1 1
y = sin(x3 )

0.5 0.5

x x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5

−0.5 −0.5

(a) (b)
R π
Figure 5.5.6 Approximating 2
−π
sin(x3 ) dx in Example 5.5.4
4

The actual answer, accurate to 4 places after the decimal, is 0.4609.

Our approximations were once again fairly good. The rectangles used
in each approximation are shown in Figure 5.5.6(a). It is clear from the
graphs that using more rectangles (and hence, narrower rectangles) should
result in a more accurate approximation.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 276 y
y = e−x
2
1
5.5.2 The Trapezoidal Rule
Z 1
e−x dx with 5 rectangles of
2
In Example 5.5.2 we approximated the value of 0.5
0
equal width. Figure 5.5.3 shows the rectangles used in the Left and Right Hand
Rules. These graphs clearly show that rectangles do not match the shape of the
graph all that well, and that accurate approximations will only come by using x
lots of rectangles. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Instead of using rectangles to approximate the area, we can instead use
trapezoids. In Figure 5.5.7, we show the region under f (x) = e−x on [0, 1] R1
2

Figure 5.5.7 Approximating 0 e−x dx

2

approximated with 5 trapezoids of equal width; the top “corners” of each trape-
using 5 trapezoids of equal widths
zoid lies on the graph of f (x). It is clear from this figure that these trapezoids
more accurately approximate
R1 the area under f and hence should give a better
approximation of 0 e−x dx. (In fact, these trapezoids seem to give a great
2

approximation of the area!)

TheR 1formula for the area of a trapezoid is given in Figure 5.5.8. We approxi- a+b
mate 0 e−x dx with these trapezoids in the following example.
2
b Area = 2 h
a
Example 5.5.9 Approximating definite integrals using trapezoids.
h
Z 1
e−x dx.
2
Use 5 trapezoids of equal width to approximate Figure 5.5.8 The area of a trapezoid
0
Solution. To compute the areas of the 5 trapezoids in Figure 5.5.7, it
will again be useful to create a table of values as shown in Figure 5.5.10.
The leftmost trapezoid has legs of length 1 and 0.9607 and a height
of 0.2. Thus, by our formula, the area of the leftmost trapezoid is:

e−xi
2
1 + 0.9608 xi
(0.2) = 0.1961.
2
Moving right, the next trapezoid has legs of length 0.9607 and 0.8521 0 1
and a height of 0.2. Thus its area is: 0.2 0.9608
0.4 0.8521
0.9608 + 0.8521 0.6 0.6977
(0.2) = 0.1813.
2 0.8 0.5273
The sum of the areas of all 5 trapezoids is: 1 0.3679

Figure 5.5.10 A table of values of e−x

2
1 + 0.9608 0.9608 + 0.8521 0.8521 + 0.6977
(0.2) + (0.2) + (0.2)+
2 2 2
0.6977 + 0.5273 0.5273 + 0.3679
(0.2) + (0.2) = 0.7444.
2 2
R1
We approximate 0 e−x dx ≈ 0.7444.
2

There are many things to observe in this example. Note how each term in
the final summation was multiplied by both 1/2 and by ∆x = 0.2. We can factor
these coefficients out, leaving a more concise summation as:
1 h
(0.2) (1 + 0.9608) + (0.9608 + 0.8521) + (0.8521 + 0.6977)
2 i
+ (0.6977 + 0.5273) + (0.5273 + 0.3679) .

Now notice that all numbers except for the first and the last are added twice.
Therefore we can write the summation even more concisely as
0.2 h i
1 + 2(0.9608 + 0.8521 + 0.6977 + 0.5273) + 0.3679 .
2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 277

Rb
This is the heart of the Trapezoidal Rule, wherein a definite integral a f (x) dx
is approximated by using trapezoids of equal widths to approximate the corre-
sponding area under f . Using n equally spaced subintervals with endpoints x0 ,
b−a
x1 , . . ., xn , we again have ∆x = . Thus:
n
Z b Xn
f (xi−1 ) + f (xi )
f (x) dx ≈ ∆x
a i=1
2
∆x X

n
= f (xi−1 ) + f (xi )
2 i=1
!
∆x h X i
n−1
= f (x0 ) + 2 f (xi ) + f (xn ) .
2 i=1

Example 5.5.11 Using the Trapezoidal Rule.

Z π
2
Revisit Example 5.5.4 and approximate sin(x3 ) dx using the Trape-
−π
4
zoidal Rule and 10 equally spaced subintervals.
Solution. We refer back to Figure 5.5.5 for the table of values of sin(x3 ).
Recall that ∆x = 3π/40 ≈ 0.236. Thus we have:
Z π
2
sin(x3 ) dx
−π
4

0.236 h   i
≈ − 0.4657 + 2 − 0.1654 + (−0.031) + . . . + 0.68999 + (−0.67)
2
= 0.4258.

The actual answer, accurate to 4 decimal places is 0.4609. So the Trape-

zoidal Rule with 10 subintervals is an under-approximation by about 0.0351.

Notice how “quickly” the Trapezoidal Rule can be implemented once the ta-
ble of values is created. This is true for all the methods explored in this section;
the real work is creating a table of xi and f (xi ) values. Once this is completed,
approximating the definite integral is not difficult. Again, using technology is
wise. Spreadsheets can make quick work of these computations and make us-
ing lots of subintervals easy.
Also notice the approximations the Trapezoidal Rule gives. It is the average
of the approximations given by the Left and Right Hand Rules! This effectively
renders the Left and Right Hand Rules obsolete. They are useful when first learn-
ing about definite integrals, but if a real approximation is needed, one is gener-
ally better off using the Trapezoidal Rule instead of either the Left or Right Hand
Rule. However, there are two other methods that are also generally more accu-
rate than the Left or Right Hand Rule.

5.5.3 The Midpoint Rule

Another method that can be more accurate than the Trapezoidal Rule is the Mid-
point Rule:
Xn  
xi−1 + xi
SM (n) = f ∆x
i=1
2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 278

X
n
= f (xi ) ∆x
i=1
where xi is the midpoint of each subinterval,
 
1
xi = a + ∆x i −
2
Example 5.5.12 Using the Midpoint Rule.
Z 1
e−x dx.
2
Use the Midpoint Rule with n = 5 to approximate
0
Solution. We cannot use the table in Figure 5.5.10 that we used for the
Trapezoidal, Right and Left Hand Rules when using the Midpoint Rule.
The Trapezoidal rule averages the outputs of the function to obtain a
more accurate estimate of the definite integral. The Midpoint Rule av-
erages
 the inputs
 of each subinterval to create a rectangle with height
xi−1 +xi xi−1 +xi
f 2 . Generally f 2 ̸= f (xi−12)+f (xi ) .
So we will create a new table of values as shown in Figure 5.5.13. We
have ∆x = (1 − 0)/5 = 0.2. The midpoint of the first subinteval is at
e−xi
2
xi
0 + 0.2(1/2) = 0.1 and each successive midpoint is 0.2 from the last.
So we have
Z 1 0.1 0.9900
e−x dx ≈ 0.2(0.99 + 0.9139 + 0.7788 + 0.6126 + 0.4449)
2
0.3 0.9139
0 0.5 0.7788
≈ 0.7480 0.7 0.6126
Z 0.9 0.4449
1
e−x dx ≈ 0.7480.
2
We approximate
Figure 5.5.13 A table of values of e−x
2

Example 5.5.14 Using the Midpoint Rule.

Z π
2
Revisit Example 5.5.11 and approximate sin(x3 ) dx using the Mid-
−π
4
point Rule and 10 equally spaced subintervals.
Solution. Again, a table will be useful. Recall that ∆x = 3π/40 ≈ xi Exact Approx. sin(x3i )
0.2356. The midpoint of the first subinterval is x1 = a+∆x/2 = −π/4+
3π/40(1/2) = −17π/80 (notice that x1 is half of a subinterval width to
x1 −17π/80 −0.6676 −0.2932
the right of a). Each successive midpoint is ∆x = 3π/40 = 6π/80 to
x2 −11π/80 −0.4320 −0.0805
the right of the last. So we have:
Thus we have: x3 −5π/80 −0.1963 −0.0076
Z π2 x4 1π/80 −0.0393 0.0001
sin(x3 ) dx x5 7π/80 0.2749 0.0208
−π x6 13π/80 0.5105 0.1327
4
h i
x7 19π/80 0.7461 0.4035
≈ 0.2356 − 0.2932 + (−0.0805) + (−0.0076) + · · · + 0.9729 + 0.0740
x8 25π/80 0.9817 0.8112
= 0.2356 · 2.0339 x9 31π/80 1.2174 0.9729
≈ 0.4792. x10 37π/80 1.4530 0.0740

The actual answer, accurate to 4 decimal places is 0.4609. So the Mid- Figure 5.5.15 Values used to approxi-
Rπ
point Rule with 10 subintervals is an overrapproximation by about 0.0183. mate −2 π sin(x3 ) dx in Example 5.5.14
4
Notice that this error is about half of the error in using the Trapezoidal
Rule.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 279

In many cases, the Midpoint Rule will more accurate than the Trapezoidal
Rule. You may wonder though, how can we improve on the Trapezoidal and
Midpoint Rules, apart from using more and more subintervals? The answer is
clear once we look back and consider what we have really done so far. The
Left Hand Rule, Right Hand Rule and Midpoint Rules are not really about using
rectangles to approximate area. Instead, they approximate a function f with
constant functions on small subintervals and then compute the definite integral
of these constant functions. The Trapezoidal Rule is really approximating a func-
tion f with a linear function on a small subinterval, then computing the definite
integral of this linear function. In all of these cases the definite integrals are easy
to compute in geometric terms.
So we have a progression: we start by approximating f with a constant func-
tion and then with a linear function. What is next? A quadratic function. By
approximating the curve of a function with lots of parabolas, we generally get
an even better approximation of the definite integral. We call this process Simp-
son’s Rule, named after Thomas Simpson (1710-1761), even though others had
used this rule as much as 100 years prior.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 280

5.5.4 Simpson’s Rule

Given one point, we can create a constant function that goes through that point.
Given two points, we can create a linear function that goes through those points.
Given three points, we can create a quadratic function that goes through those
three points (given that no two have the same x-value).
Consider three points (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) whose x-values are equally
spaced and x0 < x1 < x2 . Let f be the quadratic function that goes through
these three points. It is not hard to show that
Z x2
x2 − x0

f (x) dx = y0 + 4y1 + y2 . (5.5.1) While it’s not hard to show the
x0 6
results of Equation (5.5.1), it’s also
Consider Figure 5.5.16. A function f goes through the 3 points shown and
not exactly easy. This video might
the parabola g that also goes through those points is graphed with a dashed line.
help: [Link]/uc4xJsi99bk
Using our equation from above, we know exactly that
Z 3
3−1

g(x) dx = 3 + 4(1) + 2 = 3. y
1 6
3
Since g is a good approximation for f on [1, 3], we can state that
Z 3
2
f (x) dx ≈ 3.
1
Notice how the interval [1, 3] was split into two subintervals as we needed 3 1
points. Because of this, whenever we use Simpson’s Rule, we need to break the
interval into an even number ofZ subintervals. x
b
1 2 3
In general, to approximate f (x) dx using Simpson’s Rule, subdivide [a, b]
a Figure 5.5.16 A graph of a function f
into n subintervals, where n is even and each subinterval has width ∆x =
and a parabola that approximates it
(b − a)/n. We approximate f with n/2 parabolic curves, using Equation (5.5.1)
well on [1, 3]
to compute the area under these parabolas. Adding up these areas gives the
formula:
Z b
∆x h i
f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 )+4f (x1 )+2f (x2 )+4f (x3 )+. . .+2f (xn−2 )+4f (xn−1 )+f (xn ) .
a 3
Note how the coefficients of the terms in the summation have the pattern 1,
4, 2, 4, 2, 4, . . ., 2, 4, 1.
Figure
R 5 5.5.17 illustrates how the area calculated by Simpson’s Rule approxi-
mates 0 f (x) dx for the function f (x) = sin(πx). In this case, 8 subintervals
were used, resulting in 4 quadratic curves (dashed lines) being fitted to each 3
y y = sin(πx) + 2
pair of subintervals. The actual answer (accurate to 4 decimal places) is about
10.6366, while Simpson’s rule gives 10.7294. Of course more subintervals would
result in better accuracy. However 8 intervals were chosen specifically so that 2
you could see how the parabolas compare to the original function. With larger
values of n, it becomes difficult to distinguish the function and its quadratic ap-
proximations on each subinterval. 1
Let’s demonstrate Simpson’s Rule with a concrete example.
x
Example 5.5.18 Using Simpson’s Rule.
−1 1 2 3 4 5
Z 1
Approximate e−x dx using Simpson’s Rule and 4 equally spaced subin-
2
Figure 5.5.17 An illustration of Simp-
0 son’s rule on f (x) = sin(πx)+2 over
tervals. [0, 5] using 8 subintervals, resulting in
Solution. We begin by making a table of values as we have in the past, 4 quadratic approximations
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 281

as shown in Figure 5.5.19(a).

e−xi
2
xi y
y = e−x
2
1
0 1
0.25 0.939
0.5 0.779
0.5
0.75 0.570
1 0.368

(a) x
0.25 0.5 0.75 1

(b)
R1
e−x dx, along with a
2
Figure 5.5.19 A table of values to approximate 0
graph of the function
Simpson’s Rule states that
Z 1
0.25 h i
e−x dx ≈
2
1+4(0.939)+2(0.779)+4(0.570)+0.368 = 0.74683.
0 3

Recall in Example 5.5.2 we stated that the correct answer, accurate

xi sin(x3i )
to 4 places after the decimal, was 0.7468. Our approximation with Simp-
son’s Rule, with 4 subintervals, is better than our approximation with −0.7854 −0.4657
the Trapezoidal Rule using 5! −0.5498 −0.1654
Figure 5.5.19(b) shows f (x) = e−x along with its approximating
2
−0.3142 −0.0310
parabolas, demonstrating how good our approximation is. The approxi- −0.0785 −0.0005
mating curves are nearly indistinguishable from the actual function. 0.1571 0.0039
0.3927 0.0605
0.6283 0.2455
Example 5.5.20 Using Simpson’s Rule.
0.8639 0.6011
Z π
2
1.0996 0.9710
Approximate sin(x3 ) dx using Simpson’s Rule and 10 equally spaced 1.3352 0.6899
−π
4
1.5708 −0.6700
intervals.
Solution. Figure 5.5.21 shows the table of values that we used in the Figure 5.5.21 Values used to approxi-
R π2
past for this problem, shown here again for convenience. Again, ∆x = mate − π sin(x3 ) dx in Example 5.5.20
(π/2 + π/4)/10 ≈ 0.236.
4

Simpson’s Rule states that

y
Z π2
0.2356 h 1
y = sin(x3 )
sin(x3 ) dx ≈ (−0.4657) + 4(−0.1654) + 2(−0.0310) + . . .
−π 3
4

. . . + 2(0.9710) + 4(0.6899) + (−0.6700) 0.5

≈ 0.4701
x
Recall that the actual value, accurate to 3 decimal places, is 0.4609. −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5
Our approximation is within one 1/100th of the correct value. The graph
in Figure 5.5.22 shows how closely the parabolas match the shape of the −0.5
graph.
Rπ
Figure 5.5.22 Approximating −2 π sin(x3 ) dx
4
in Example 5.5.20 with Simpson’s Rule
and 10 equally spaced intervals
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 282

5.5.5 Summary and Error Analysis

We summarize the key concepts of this section thus far in the following Key Idea.

Key Idea 5.5.23 Numerical Integration.

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b], let n be a positive integer, and

b−a
let ∆x = .
n
Set x0 = Za, x1 = a + ∆x, . . ., xi = a + i∆x, xn = b.
b
Consider f (x) dx.
a Z b
 
Left Hand Rule: f (x) dx ≈ ∆x f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + . . . + f (xn−1 ) .
Z b
a
 
Right Hand Rule: f (x) dx ≈ ∆x f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + . . . + f (xn ) .
Za b
∆x 
Trapezoidal Rule: f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) +
a  2
. . . + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn ) .
Z b Xn  
xi−1 + xi
Midpoint Rule: f (x) dx ≈ f ∆x.
a 2
Z b i=1
∆x 
Simpson’s Rule: f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 )+4f (x1 )+2f (x2 )+. . .+
 a 3
4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn ) for n even.

In our examples, we approximated the value of a definite integral using a

given method then compared it to the “right” answer. This should have raised
several questions in the reader’s mind, such as:
1. How was the “right” answer computed?
2. If the right answer can be found, what is the point of approximating?
3. If there is value to approximating, how are we supposed to know if the
approximation is any good?
These are good questions, and their answers are educational. In the exam-
ples, the right answer was never computed. Rather, an approximation accurate
to a certain number of places after the decimal was given. In Example 5.5.2, we
do not know the exact answer, but we know it starts with 0.7468. These more
accurate approximations were computed using numerical integration but with
more precision (i.e., more subintervals and the help of a computer).
Since the exact answer cannot be found, approximation still has its place.
How are we to tell if the approximation is any good?
“Trial and error” provides one way. Using technology, make an approxima-
tion with, say, 10, 100, and 200 subintervals. This likely will not take much time
at all, and a trend should emerge. If a trend does not emerge, try using yet more
subintervals. Keep in mind that trial and error is never foolproof; you might
stumble upon a problem in which a trend will not emerge.
A second method is to use Error Analysis. While the details are beyond the
scope of this text, there are some formulas that give bounds for how good your
approximation will be. For instance, the formula might state that the approxima-
tion is within 0.1 of the correct answer. If the approximation is 1.58, then one
knows that the correct answer is between 1.48 and 1.68. By using lots of subin-
tervals, one can get an approximation as accurate as one likes. Theorem 5.5.24
states what these bounds are.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 283

Theorem 5.5.24 Error Bounds in the Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s

Rule.

Z b
1. Let ET and EM be the error in approximating f (x) dx using
a
the Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rules respectively, with n subinter-
vals. If f has a continuous second derivative on [a, b] and K is any
upper bound of |f ′′ (x)| on [a, b], then

(b − a)3
ET ≤ K.
12n2
and
(b − a)3
EM ≤ K.
24n2
Z b
2. Let ES be the error in approximating f (x) dx using Simpson’s
a
Rule with n subintervals.. If f has a continuous 4th derivative on
[a, b] and K is any upper bound of f (4) (x) on [a, b], then

(b − a)5
ES ≤ K.
180n4

There are some key things to note about this theorem.

1. The larger the interval, the larger the error. This should make sense intu-
itively.
2. The error shrinks as more subintervals are used (i.e., as n gets larger).
3. The maximum error in the Midpoint Rule is half of the maximum error in
the Trapezoidal Rule. (Usually the errors in these two rules have opposite
signs as well, that is one will be an under approximation and the other will
be an over approximation).
4. The error in Simpson’s Rule has a term relating to the 4th derivative of f .
Consider a cubic polynomial: its 4th derivative is 0. Therefore, the error in
approximating the definite integral of a cubic polynomial with Simpson’s
Rule is 0 — Simpson’s Rule computes the exact answer!
We revisit Examples 5.5.9 and Example 5.5.18 and compute the error bounds
using Theorem 5.5.24 in the following example.

Example 5.5.25 Computing error bounds.

Z 1
e−x dx using the Trape-
2
Find the error bounds when approximating
0
zoidal and Midpoint Rules and 5 subintervals, and using Simpson’s Rule
with 4 subintervals.
Solution. Trapezoidal and Midpoints Rules with n = 5:
We start by computing the 2nd derivative of f (x) = e−x :
2

f ′′ (x) = e−x (4x2 − 2).

2

Figure 5.5.26 shows a graph of f ′′ (x) on [0, 1]. It is clear that the
largest value of f ′′ , in absolute value, is 2.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 284

Thus we let K = 2 and apply the error formula from Theorem 5.5.24. 0.5
y

(1 − 0)3 x
ET ≤ · 2 = 0.006. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
12 · 52
−0.5
Since the maximum error in the Midpoint rule is half the error in the
Trapezoidal Rule, we can say: EM ≤ 0.003 −1
Our error estimation formula states that our approximation of 0.7444
found in Example 5.5.9 is within 0.0067 of the correct answer. Hence we −1.5 y = e−x (4x2 − 2)
2

know that the actual value is within [0.7444−0.0067, 0.7444+0.0067] =

[0.7377, 0.7511]. So: −2

Z 1 Figure 5.5.26 Graphing f ′′ (x) in Exam-

−x2
0.7377 ≤ e dx ≤ 0.7511 ple 5.5.25 to help establish error bounds
0

But we can do better than this with the Midpoint Rule since its error is
at most half of the error of the Trapezoidal Rule. Our error estimate for-
mula state that our approximate of 0.7480 found in Example 5.5.12 is
within 0.0034 of the correct answer. Hence Hence we know that the ac-
tual value is within [0.7480−0.0034, 0.7480+0.0033] = [0.7447, 0.7513].
We had earlier stated the actual answer, correct to 4 decimal places,
to be 0.7468, affirming the validity of Theorem 5.5.24.
Simpson’s Rule with n = 4:
We start by computing the 4th derivative of f (x) = e−x :
2

f (4) (x) = e−x (16x4 − 48x2 + 12).

2

y
Figure 5.5.27 shows a graph of f (4) (x) on [0, 1]. It is clear that the
y = e−x (16x4 − 48x2 + 12)
2

largest value of f (4) , in absolute value, is 12. Thus we let K = 12 and 10

apply the error formula from Theorem 5.5.24.
5
(1 − 0)5
Es =≤ · 12 = 0.00026.
180 · 44 x
Our error estimation formula states that our approximation of 0.74683 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
found in Example 5.5.18 is within 0.00026 of the correct answer, hence
we know that the correct answer is in the interval [0.74683−0.00026, 0.74683+ −5
0.00026] = [0.74657, 0.74709]. So:
Z 1 Figure 5.5.27 Graphing f (4) (x) in Ex-
−x2
0.74657 ≤ e dx ≤ 0.74709. ample 5.5.25 to help establish error
0
bounds
Once again we affirm the validity of Theorem 5.5.24 since the answer
to 4 decimal places is actually 0.7468.

At the beginning of this section we mentioned two main situations where

numerical integration was desirable. We have considered the case where an
antiderivative of the integrand cannot be computed. We now investigate the
situation where the integrand is not known. This is, in fact, the most widely
used application of Numerical Integration methods. “Most of the time” we ob-
serve behavior but do not know “the” function that describes it. We instead
collect data about the behavior and make approximations based on this data.
We demonstrate this in an example.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 285

Example 5.5.28 Approximating distance traveled.

One of the authors drove his daughter home from school while she recorded Time Speed
their speed every 30 seconds. The data is given in Figure 5.5.29. Approx- (min) (mph)
imate the distance they traveled. 0 0
Solution. Recall that by integrating a speed function we get distance 1 25
traveled. We have information about v(t); we will use Simpson’s Rule to 2 22
Z b
3 19
approximate v(t) dt.
a 4 39
The most difficult aspect of this problem is converting the given data 5 0
into the form we need it to be in. The speed is measured in miles per 6 43
hour, whereas the time is measured in minutes. 7 59
We need to compute ∆x = (b−a)/n. With 25 data points collected, 8 54
there are n = 24 subintervals. What are a and b? Since we start at time
9 51
t = 0, we have a = 0. The final recorded time was t = 12 minutes,
10 43
which is 1/5 of an hour. Thus we have
11 35
b−a 1/5 − 0 1 ∆x 1 12 40
∆x = = = ; = .
n 24 120 3 360 13 43
Thus the distance traveled is approximately: 14 30
15 0
Z 0.2
1 h i 16 0
v(t) dt ≈ f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
0 360 17 28
1 h i 18 40
= 0 + 4 · 25 + 2 · 22 + · · · + 2 · 40 + 4 · 23 + 0
360 19 42
≈ 6.2167 miles. 20 40
21 39
We approximate the author drove 6.2 miles. (Because we are sure 22 40
the reader wants to know, the author’s odometer recorded the distance 23 23
as about 6.05 miles.)
24 0

Figure 5.5.29 Speed data collected at

30 second intervals for Example 5.5.28
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 286

5.5.6 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. T/F: Simpson’s Rule is a method of approximating antiderivatives. (□ True □ False)

2. What are the two basic situations where approximating the value of a definite integral is necessary?
3. Why are the Left and Right Hand Rules rarely used?
4. Simpson’s Rule is based on approximating portions of a function with what type of function?

Problems

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, approximate the definite integral with the Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s
Rule, with n = 4. Then find the exact value.
R1 R 10
5. For the integral −1 x2 dx: 6. For the integral 0 5x dx:
(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

(c) Find the exact value: (c) Find the exact value:

Rπ R4√
7. For the integral 0
sin(x) dx: 8. For the integral x dx:
0

(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

(c) Find the exact value: (c) Find the exact value:

R3 R1
9. For the integral 0
(x3 + 2x2 − 5x + 7) dx: 10. For the integral 0
x4 dx:
(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

(c) Find the exact value: (c) Find the exact value:

R 2π R3 √
11. For the integral 0
cos(x) dx: 12. For the integral −3
9 − x2 dx:

(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

(c) Find the exact value: (c) Find the exact value:

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, approximate the definite integral with the Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s
Rule, with n = 6.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 287
R1
R1 2
13. For the integral 0
cos x2 dx: 14. For the integral −1
ex dx:
(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

R5√ Rπ
15. For the integral x2 + 1 dx: 16. For the integral 0
x sin(x) dx:
0

(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

R π/2 p R4
17. For the integral 0
cos(x) dx: 18. For the integral 1
ln(x) dx:

(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

R1 1
R6 1
19. For the integral −1 sin(x)+2
dx: 20. For the integral 0 sin(x)+2
dx:

(a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule: (a) Approximate using the trapezoidal rule:

(b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule: (b) Approximate using Simpson’s rule:

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, find n such that the error in approximating the given definite integral is
less than 0.0001 when using the Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s Rule.
Rπ R4
21. For the integral 0 sin(x) dx: 22. For the integral 1 √1x dx:
(a) Trapezoid rule: (a) Trapezoid rule:
n >= n >=
(b) Simpson’s rule: (b) Simpson’s rule:
n >= n >=
Rπ
R5
23. For the integral 0 cos x2 dx: 24. For the integral 0 x4 dx:
(a) Trapezoid rule: (a) Trapezoid rule:
n >= n >=
(b) Simpson’s rule: (b) Simpson’s rule:
n >= n >=

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, a region is given. Find the area of the region using Simpson’s Rule:

(a) where the measurements are in centimeters, taken in 1 cm increments, and

(b) where the measurements are in hundreds of feet, taken in 100 ft increments.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 288

25. 26.

3.6
4.7

6.3

6.6
6.9

3.6

4.5
6.6

5.6
5.1
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 289

5.6 Substitution
We motivate this section with an example. Let f (x) = (x2 + 3x − 5)10 . We
can compute f ′ (x) using the Chain Rule. It is:

f ′ (x) = 10(x2 + 3x − 5)9 · (2x + 3) [Link]/watch?v=mElhuqXsPhQ

= (20x + 30)(x + 3x − 5) .
2 9
Figure 5.6.1 Video introduction to Sec-
R tion 5.6
Now consider this: What is (20x + 30)(x2 + 3x − 5)9 dx? We have the
answer in front of us;
Z
(20x + 30)(x2 + 3x − 5)9 dx = (x2 + 3x − 5)10 + C.

How would we have evaluated this indefinite integral without starting with
f (x) as we did?
This section explores integration by substitution. It allows us to “undo the
Chain Rule.” Substitution allows us to evaluate the above integral without know-
ing the original function first.
R The underlying principle is to rewrite a R“complicated” integral of the form
f (x) dx as a not-so-complicated integral h(u) du. We’ll formally establish
later
R how this is done. First, consider again our introductory indefinite integral,
(20x + 30)(x2 + 3x − 5)9 dx. Arguably the most “complicated” part of the
integrand is (x2 + 3x − 5)9 . We wish to make this simpler; we do so through a
substitution. Let u = x2 + 3x − 5. Thus

(x2 + 3x − 5)9 = u9 .

We have established u as a function of x, so now consider the differential of

u:
du = (2x + 3)dx.
Keep in mind that (2x + 3) and dx are multiplied; the dx is not “just sitting
there.”
Return to the original integral and do some substitutions through algebra:
Z Z
(20x + 30)(x2 + 3x − 5)9 dx = 10(2x + 3)(x2 + 3x − 5)9 dx
Z
= 10(x2 + 3x − 5)9 (2x + 3) dx
| {z } | {z }
u du
Z
= 10u9 du

= u10 + C (replace u with x2 + 3x − 5)

= (x2 + 3x − 5)10 + C

One might well look at this and think “I (sort of) followed how that worked,
but I could never come up with that on my own,” but the process is learnable.
This section contains numerous examples through which the reader will gain
understanding and mathematical maturity enabling them to regard substitution
as a natural tool when evaluating integrals.
We stated before that integration by substitution “undoes” the Chain Rule.
Specifically, let F (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions and consider the de-
rivative of their composition:
d 

F g(x) = F ′ (g(x))g ′ (x).
dx
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 290

Thus Z
F ′ (g(x))g ′ (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C.

Integration by substitution works by recognizing the “inside” function g(x)

and replacing it with a variable. By setting u = g(x), we can rewrite the deriva-
tive as
d 

F u = F ′ (u)u′ .
dx
Since du = g ′ (x)dx, we can rewrite the above integral as
Z Z
F ′ (g(x))g ′ (x) dx = F ′ (u)du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C.

This concept is important so we restate it in the context of a theorem.

Theorem 5.6.2 Integration by Substitution.

Let F and g be differentiable functions, where the range of g is an interval
I contained in the domain of F . Then
Z
F ′ (g(x))g ′ (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C.

If u = g(x), then du = g ′ (x)dx and

Z Z
F (g(x))g (x) dx = F ′ (u) du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C.
′ ′

The
R point of substitution is to make the integration step easy. Indeed, the
step F ′ (u) du = F (u) + C looks easy, as the antiderivative of the deriva-
tive of F is just F , plus a constant. The “work” involved is making the proper
substitution. There is not a step-by-step process that one can memorize; rather,
experience will be one’s guide. To gain experience, we now embark on many
examples.

Example 5.6.3 Integrating by substitution.

Z
Evaluate x sin(x2 + 5) dx.
Solution. Knowing that substitution is related to the Chain Rule, we
choose to let u be the “inside” function of sin(x2 +5). (This is not always
a good choice, but it is often the best place to start.)
Let u = x2 + 5, hence du = 2x dx. The integrand has an x dx term,
but not a 2x dx term. (Recall that multiplication is commutative, so the
x does not physically have to be next to dx for there to be an x dx term.)
We can divide both sides of the du expression by 2:
1
du = 2x dx ⇒ du = x dx.
2
We can now substitute.
Z Z
x sin(x2 + 5) dx = sin(x2 + 5) x dx
| {z } |{z}
u 1
2 du
Z
1
= sin(u) du
2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 291

1
= − cos(u) + C (now replace u with x2 + 5)
2
1
= − cos(x2 + 5) + C.
2
R
Thus x sin(x2 + 5) dx = − 12 cos(x2 + 5) + C. We can check our
work by evaluating the derivative of the right hand side.

Example 5.6.4 Integrating by substitution.

Z
Evaluate cos(5x) dx.
Solution. Again let u replace the “inside” function. Letting u = 5x,
we have du = 5 dx. Since our integrand does not have a 5 dx term, we
can divide the previous equation by 5 to obtain 51 du = dx. We can now
substitute.
Z Z
cos(5x) dx = cos(|{z} 5x ) |{z}
dx
u 1
5 du
Z
1
= cos(u) du
5
1
= sin(u) + C
5
1
= sin(5x) + C.
5
We can again check our work through differentiation.

The previous example exhibited a common, and simple, type of substitution.

The “inside” function was a linear function (in this case, y = 5x). When the
inside function is linear, the resulting integration is very predictable, outlined
here.

Key Idea 5.6.5 Substitution With A Linear Function.

R
Consider F ′ (ax + b) dx, where a ̸= 0 and b are constants. Letting
u = ax + b gives du = a · dx, leading to the result
Z
1
F ′ (ax + b) dx = F (ax + b) + C.
a
R
Thus sin(7x − 4) dx = − 17 cos(7x − 4) + C. Our next example can use
Key Idea 5.6.5, but we will only employ it after going through all of the steps.

Example 5.6.6 Integrating by substituting a linear function.

Z
7
Evaluate dx.
−3x + 1
Solution. View the integrand as the composition of functions f (g(x)),
where f (x) = 7/x and g(x) = −3x + 1. Employing our understanding
of substitution, we let u = −3x + 1, the inside function. Thus du =
−3 dx. The integrand lacks a −3; hence divide the previous equation by
−3 to obtain −du/3 = dx. We can now evaluate the integral through
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 292

substitution.
Z Z
7 7 du
dx =
−3x + 1 u −3
Z
−7 du
=
3 u
−7
= ln |u| + C
3
7
= − ln |−3x + 1| + C.
3
Using Key Idea 5.6.5 is faster, recognizing that u is linear and a =
−3. One may want to continue writing out all the steps until they are
comfortable with this particular shortcut. [Link]/watch?v=-6CFSvtMCDU
Figure 5.6.7 Video presentation of Ex-
Not all integrals that benefit from substitution have a clear “inside” function.
amples 5.6.3–5.6.6
Several of the following examples will demonstrate ways in which this occurs.

Example 5.6.8 Integrating by substitution.

Z Video Solution
Evaluate sin(x) cos(x) dx.
Solution. There is not a composition of functions here to exploit; rather,
just a product of functions. Do not be afraid to experiment; when given
an integral to evaluate, it is often beneficial to think “If I let u be this,
then du must be that …” and see if this helps simplify the integral at all.
In this example, let’s set u = sin(x). Then du = cos(x) dx, which we
have as part of the integrand! The substitution becomes very straight-
forward:
Z Z
[Link]/watch?v=UdGVU8H5w3M
sin(x) cos(x) dx = u du
1 2
= u +C
2
1
= sin2 (x) + C.
2
One would do well to ask “What would happen if we let u = cos(x)?”
The result is just as easy to find, yet looks very different. The challenge
to the reader is to evaluate the integral letting u = cos(x) and discover
why the answer is the same, yet looks different.

Our examples so far have required “basic substitution.” The next example
demonstrates how substitutions can be made that often strike the new learner
as being “nonstandard.”

Example 5.6.9 Integrating by substitution.

Z
√
Evaluate x x + 3 dx.
Solution. Recognizing the composition of functions, set u = x + 3.
Then du = dx, giving what seems initially to be a simple substitution.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 293

But at this stage, we have:

Z Z
√ √
x x + 3 dx = x u du.

We cannot evaluate an integral that has both an x and an u in it. We

need to convert the x to an expression involving just u.
Since we set u = x + 3, we can also state that u − 3 = x. Thus
we can replace
√ x in the integrand with u − 3. It will also be helpful to
1
rewrite u as u 2 .
Z Z
√ 1
x x + 3 dx = (u − 3)u 2 du
Z
3 1

= u 2 − 3u 2 du
2 5 3
= u 2 − 2u 2 + C
5
2 5 3
= (x + 3) 2 − 2(x + 3) 2 + C.
5
Checking your work is always a good idea. In this particular case,
some algebra will be needed to make one’s answer match the integrand
in the original problem.

Example 5.6.10 Integrating by substitution.

Z
1
Evaluate dx.
x ln(x)
Solution. This is another example where there does not seem to be
an obvious composition of functions. The line of thinking used in Exam-
ple 5.6.9 is useful here: choose something for u and consider what this
implies du must be. If u can be chosen such that du also appears in the
integrand, then we have chosen well.
Choosing u = 1/x makes du = −1/x2 dx; that does not seem help-
ful. However, setting u = ln(x) makes du = 1/x dx, which is part of
the integrand. Thus:
Z Z
1 1 1
dx = dx
x ln(x) ln(x) |x{z }
| {z }
u du
Z
1
= du
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln |ln(x)| + C.

The final answer is interesting; the natural log of the natural log. Take
the derivative to confirm this answer is indeed correct.

5.6.1 Integrals Involving Trigonometric Functions

[Link]/watch?v=Qzj4UJX_69c
Section 6.2 delves deeper into integrals of a variety of trigonometric functions;
here we use substitution to establish a foundation that we will build upon. Figure 5.6.11 Video presentation of Ex-
amples 5.6.9–5.6.10
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 294

The next three examples will help fill in some missing pieces of our antideriv-
ative knowledge. We know the antiderivatives of the sine and cosine functions;
what about the other standard functions tangent, cotangent, secant and cose-
cant? We discover these next.

Example 5.6.12 Integrating by substitution: the antiderivative of tan(x).

R Video Solution
Evaluate tan(x) dx.
Solution. The previous paragraph established that we did not know
the antiderivatives of tangent, hence we must assume that we have
learned something in this section that can help us evaluate this indefi-
nite integral.
Rewrite tan(x) as sin(x)/ cos(x). While the presence of a composi-
tion of functions may not be immediately obvious, recognize that cos(x)
is “inside” the 1/x function. Therefore, we see if setting u = cos(x)
returns usable results. We have that du = − sin(x) dx, hence −du = [Link]/watch?v=sJryXwwdqM4
sin(x) dx. We can integrate:
Z Z
sin(x)
tan(x) dx = dx
cos(x)
Z
1
= sin(x) dx
cos(x) | {z }
| {z } −du
u
Z
−1
= du
u
= − ln |u| + C
= − ln |cos(x)| + C.

Some texts prefer to bring the −1 inside the logarithm as a power of

cos(x), as in:

− ln |cos(x)| + C = ln (cos(x))−1 + C
1
= ln +C
cos(x)
= ln |sec(x)| + C.
R
Thus the result they give is tan(x) dx = ln |sec(x)| + C. These
two answers are equivalent.

Example 5.6.13 Integrating by substitution: the antiderivative of sec(x).

R Video Solution
Evaluate sec(x) dx.
Solution. This example employs a wonderful trick: multiply the inte-
grand by “1” so that we see how to integrate more clearly. In this case,
we write “1” as
sec(x) + tan(x)
1= .
sec(x) + tan(x)
This may seem like it came out of left field, but it works beautifully.
Consider:
Z Z
sec(x) + tan(x) [Link]/watch?v=ivQ5GFSvEGg
sec(x) dx = sec(x) · dx
sec(x) + tan(x)
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 295

Z
sec2 (x) + sec(x) tan(x)
= dx.
sec(x) + tan(x)

Now let u = sec(x)+tan(x); this means du = (sec(x) tan(x)+sec2 (x)) dx,

which is our numerator. Thus:
Z
du
=
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln |sec(x) + tan(x)| + C.

We can use similar techniques to those used in Examples 5.6.12 and Exam-
ple 5.6.13 to find antiderivatives of cot(x) and csc(x) (which the reader can
explore in the exercises.) We summarize our results here.

Theorem 5.6.14 Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions.

R
1. sin(x) dx = − cos(x) + C,
R
2. cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C,
R
3. tan(x) dx = − ln |cos(x)| + C,
R
4. csc(x) dx = − ln |csc(x) + cot(x)| + C,
R
5. sec(x) dx = ln |sec(x) + tan(x)| + C,
R
6. cot(x) dx = ln |sin(x)| + C,

We explore one more common trigonometric integral.

Example 5.6.15 Integration by substitution: powers of cos(x) and sin(x).

R
Evaluate cos2 (x) dx.

2
Solution. We have a composition of functions as cos2 (x) = cos(x) .
However, setting u = cos(x) means du = − sin(x) dx, which we do not
have in the integral. Another technique is needed. The power reduction identities
The process we’ll employ is to use a Power Reducing formula for can be found in List B.3.5 in Ap-
cos2 (x), which states pendix B.

1 + cos(2x)
cos2 (x) = .
2
The right hand side of this equation is not difficult to integrate. We
have:
Z Z
1 + cos(2x)
cos2 (x) dx = dx
2
Z  
1 1
= + cos(2x) dx
2 2
1 1 sin(2x)
= x+ +C
2 2 2
1 sin(2x)
= x+ + C,
2 4
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 296

where we used Key Idea 5.6.5 for the antiderivative of cos(2x).

We’ll make significant use of this power-reducing technique in future
sections.

5.6.2 Simplifying the Integrand

[Link]/watch?v=XB_PG1Z_n1M
It is common to be reluctant to manipulate the integrand of an integral; at first,
our grasp of integration is tenuous and one may think that working with the inte- Figure 5.6.16 Video presentation of Ex-
grand will improperly change the results. Integration by substitution works using ample 5.6.15 and two other trigono-
a different logic: as long as equality is maintained, the integrand can be manipu- metric examples
lated so that its form is easier to deal with. The next two examples demonstrate
common ways in which using algebra first makes the integration easier to per-
form.

Example 5.6.17 Integration by substitution: simplifying first.

Z Video Solution
x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 5
Evaluate dx.
x2 + 2x + 1
Solution. One may try to start by setting u equal to either the numer-
ator or denominator; in each instance, the result is not workable.
When dealing with rational functions (i.e., quotients made up of poly-
nomial functions), it is an almost universal rule that everything works
better when the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator. Hence we use polynomial division.
We skip the specifics of the steps, but note that when x2 + 2x + 1 is
divided into x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 5, it goes in x + 2 times with a remainder [Link]/watch?v=kuHKfsyaOAI
of 3x + 3. Thus
x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 5 3x + 3
=x+2+ 2 .
x2 + 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1
Integrating x + 2 is simple. The fraction can be integrated by setting
u = x2 + 2x + 1, giving du = (2x + 2) dx. This is very similar to
the numerator. Note that du/2 = (x + 1) dx and then consider the
following:
Z 3 Z  
x + 4x2 + 8x + 5 3x + 3
dx = x + 2 + dx
x2 + 2x + 1 x2 + 2x + 1
Z Z
3(x + 1)
= (x + 2) dx + dx
x2 + 2x + 1
Z
1 3 du
= x2 + 2x + C1 +
2 u 2
1 2 3
= x + 2x + C1 + ln |u| + C2
2 2
1 2 3
= x + 2x + ln x2 + 2x + 1 + C.
2 2
In some ways, we “lucked out” in that after dividing, substitution was
able to be done. In later sections we’ll develop techniques for handling
rational functions where substitution is not directly feasible.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 297

Example 5.6.18 Integration by alternate methods.

Z
x2 + 2x + 3
Evaluate √ dx with, and without, substitution.
x
Solution.√ We already know how to integrate this particular example.
1
Rewrite x as x 2 and simplify the fraction:

x2 + 2x + 3
= x 2 + 2x 2 + 3x− 2 .
3 1 1

x1/2
We can now integrate using the Power Rule:
Z 2 Z  
x + 2x + 3
2 + 2x 2 + 3x− 2
3 1 1
dx = x dx
x1/2
2 5 4 3 1
= x 2 + x 2 + 6x 2 + C
5 3
This is a perfectly fine approach. We demonstrate how this can also
be solved using
√ substitution as its implementation is rather clever.
1
Let u = x = x 2 ; therefore
1 1
du = √ dx ⇒ 2du = √ dx.
2 x x
Z 2 Z
x + 2x + 3
This gives us √ dx = (x2 + 2x + 3) · 2 du. What are
x
1
we to do with the other x terms? Since u = x 2 , u2 = x, etc. We can
then replace x2 and x with appropriate powers of u. We thus have
Z 2 Z
x + 2x + 3
√ dx = (x2 + 2x + 3) · 2 du
x
Z
= 2(u4 + 2u2 + 3) du
2 5 4 3
= u + u + 6u + C
5 3
2 5 4 3 1
= x 2 + x 2 + 6x 2 + C,
5 3
which is obviously the same answer we obtained before. In this situation,
substitution is arguably more work than our other method. The fantastic
thing is that it works. It demonstrates how flexible integration is.

5.6.3 Substitution and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

When studying derivatives of inverse functions, we learned that
d
1
tan−1 (x) = .
dx 1 + x2
Applying the Chain Rule to this is not difficult; for instance,
d
5
tan−1 (5x) = .
dx 1 + 25x2
We now explore how Substitution can be used to “undo” certain derivatives
that are the result of the Chain Rule applied to Inverse Trigonometric functions.
We begin with an example.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 298

Example 5.6.19 Integrating by substitution: inverse trigonometric func-

tions.
Z Video Solution
1
Evaluate dx.
25 + x2
Solution. The integrand looks similar to the derivative of the arctan-
gent function. Note:
1 1
2
= 2

25 + x 25 1 + x25
1
=
2
25(1 + x5 )
1 1 [Link]/watch?v=skYWHK8feRs
=
.
25 1 + x 2
5

Thus Z Z
1 1 1
2
dx =

x 2
dx.
25 + x 25 1+ 5

This can be integrated using Substitution. Set u = x/5, hence du =

dx/5 or dx = 5 du. Thus
Z Z
1 1 1
dx =
2 dx
25 + x2 25 1 + x5
Z
1 1
= du
5 1 + u2
1
= tan−1 (u) + C
5
1 x
= tan−1 +C
5 5

Example 5.6.19 demonstrates a general technique that can be applied to

other integrands that result in inverse trigonometric functions. The results are
summarized here.

Theorem 5.6.20 Integrals Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

Let a > 0.
Z  
1 1 −1 x
1. dx = tan +C
a2 + x2 a a
Z x
1
2. √ dx = sin−1 +C
a2 − x2 a
Z  
1 1 |x|
3. √ dx = sec−1 +C
x x −a
2 2 a a

Let’s practice using Theorem 5.6.20.

Example 5.6.21 Integrating by substitution: inverse trigonometric func-

tions.
Evaluate the given indefinite integrals:
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 299

Z Z Z
1 1 1
1. dx 2. √ dx 3. q dx
9 + x2 5 − x2 x x −
2 1
100

Solution. Each can be answered using a straightforward application of

Theorem 5.6.20.
Z  
1 1 −1 x
1. dx = tan + C, as a = 3.
9 + x2 3 3
Z  
1 −1 x √
2. √ = sin √ + C, as a = 5.
5−x 2 5
Z
1
3. q dx = 10 sec−1 (10x) + C, as a = 10
1
.
x x − 100
2 1

Most applications of Theorem 5.6.20 are not as straightforward. The next

examples show some common integrals that can still be approached with this
theorem.

Example 5.6.22 Integrating by substitution: completing the square.

Z Video Solution
1
Evaluate dx.
x − 4x + 13
2
Solution. Initially, this integral seems to have nothing in common with
the integrals in Theorem 5.6.20. As it lacks a square root, it almost cer-
tainly is not related to arcsine or arcsecant. It is, however, related to the
arctangent function.
We see this by completing the square in the denominator. We give a
brief reminder of the process here.
Start with a quadratic with a leading coefficient of 1. It will have the
form of x2 + bx + c. Take 1/2 of b, square it, and add/subtract it back [Link]/watch?v=wSrXvtTvUjI
into the expression. i.e.,
b2 b2
x2 + bx + c = x2 + bx + − +c
| {z 4} 4
(x+b/2)2
 2
b b2
= x+ +c−
2 4
In our example, we take half of −4 and square it, getting 4. We add/
subtract it into the denominator as follows:
1 1
= 2
x2 − 4x + 13 x − 4x + 4 −4 + 13
| {z }
(x−2)2
1
=
(x − 2)2 + 9
We can now integrate this using the arctangent rule. Technically, we
need to substitute first with u = x−2, but we can employ Key Idea 5.6.5
instead. Thus we have
Z Z
1 1
dx = dx
x2 − 4x + 13 (x − 2)2 + 9
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 300

 
1 x−2
= tan−1 + C.
3 3

Example 5.6.23 Integrals requiring multiple methods.

Z Video Solution
4−x
Evaluate √ dx.
16 − x2
Solution. This integral requires two different methods to evaluate it.
We get to those methods by splitting up the integral into two terms:
Z Z Z
4−x 4 x
√ dx = √ dx − √ dx.
16 − x 2 16 − x 2 16 − x2
We handle each separately. The first integral is handled using a straight-
forward
Z application of Theorem5.6.20:
4 x [Link]/watch?v=tEPUnupFCfs
√ dx = 4 sin−1 + C.
16 − x2 4
Z The second integral is handled by substitution, with u = 16 − x .
2
x
√ dx: Set u = 16 − x2 , so du = −2x dx and x dx = −du/2.
16 − x2
We have
Z Z
x −du/2
√ dx = √
16 − x 2 u
Z
1 1
=− √ du
2 u
√
=− u+C
p
= − 16 − x2 + C.

Combining these together, we have

Z x p
4−x
√ dx = 4 sin−1 + 16 − x2 + C.
16 − x2 4

As with all definite integrals, you can check your work by differentiation.

5.6.4 Substitution and Definite Integration

This section has focused on evaluating indefinite integrals as we are learning
a new technique for finding antiderivatives. However, much of the time integra-
tion is used in the context of a definite integral. Definite integrals that require
substitution can be calculated using the following workflow: [Link]/watch?v=JGD5OtxoKoI
Z b Figure 5.6.24 Video introduction to Sub-
1. Start with a definite integral f (x) dx that requires substitution. section 5.6.4
a
Z
2. Ignore the bounds; use substitution to evaluate f (x) dx and find an
antiderivative F (x).
b
3. Evaluate F (x) at the bounds; that is, evaluate F (x) = F (b) − F (a).
a

This workflow works fine, but substitution offers an alternative that is pow-
erful and amazing (and a little time saving).
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 301

At its heart, (using

R the notation of Theorem 5.6.2) substitution converts
R in-
tegrals of the form F ′ (g(x))g ′ (x) dx into an integral of the form F ′ (u) du
with the substitution of u = g(x). The following theorem states how the bounds
of a definite integral can be changed as the substitution is performed.

Theorem 5.6.25 Substitution with Definite Integrals.

Let F and g be differentiable functions, where the range of g is an interval
I that is contained in the domain of F and u = g(x). Then
Z Z
b
′

′
g(b)
F g(x) g (x) dx = F ′ (u) du.
a g(a)

In effect, Theorem 5.6.25 states that once you convert to integrating with
respect to u, you do not need to switch back to evaluating with respect to x. A
few examples will help one understand.

Example 5.6.26 Definite integrals and substitution: changing the bounds.

Z 2
Evaluate cos(3x − 1) dx using Theorem 5.6.25.
0
Solution. Observing the composition of functions, let u = 3x − 1,
hence du = 3 dx. As 3 dx does not appear in the integrand, divide the
latter equation by 3 to get du/3 = dx.
By setting u = 3x − 1, we are implicitly stating that g(x) = 3x − 1.
Theorem 5.6.25 states that the new lower bound is g(0) = −1; the new
upper bound is g(2) = 5. We now evaluate the definite integral:
Z 2 Z 5
du
cos(3x − 1) dx = cos(u)
0 −1 3
1 5
= sin(u)
3 −1
1

= sin(5) − sin(−1)
3
≈ −0.039.

Notice how once we converted the integral to be in terms of u, we

never went back to using x.

1 y 1 y
y = cos(3x − 1)

0.5 0.5

1
x y= 3 cos(u) u
−1 1 2 3 4 5 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−0.5 −0.5

−1 −1

(a) (b)
Figure 5.6.27 Graphing the areas defined by the definite integrals of Ex-
ample 5.6.26
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 302

The graphs in Figure 5.6.27 tell more of the story. In Figure 5.6.27(a)
the area defined by the original integrand is shaded, whereas in Fig-
ure 5.6.27(b) the area defined by the new integrand is shaded. In this
particular situation, the areas look very similar; the new region is “shorter”
but “wider,” giving the same area.

Example 5.6.28 Definite integrals and substitution: changing the bounds.

Z π/2 Video Solution
Evaluate sin(x) cos(x) dx using Theorem 5.6.25.
0
Solution. We saw the corresponding indefinite integral in Example 5.6.8.
In that example we set u = sin(x) but stated that we could have let
u = cos(x). For variety, we do the latter here.
Let u = g(x) = cos(x), giving du = − sin(x) dx and hence sin(x) dx =
−du. The new upper bound is g(π/2) = 0; the new lower bound is
g(0) = 1. Note how the lower bound is actually larger than the upper
bound now. We have
Z π/2 Z 0 [Link]/watch?v=U3B47kxjidk
sin(x) cos(x) dx = −u du (switch bounds and change sign)
0 1
Z 1
= u du
0
1 2 1
= u = 1/2.
2 0

In Figure 5.6.29 we have again graphed the two regions defined by

our definite integrals. Unlike the previous example, they bear no resem-
blance to each other. However, Theorem 5.6.25 guarantees that they
have the same area.

1 y 1 y y=u

y = sin(x) cos(x)
0.5 0.5

x u
π 1 π
2 2

−0.5 −0.5

(a) (b)
Figure 5.6.29 Graphing the areas defined by the definite integrals of Ex-
ample 5.6.28

Integration by substitution is a powerful and useful integration technique.

The next section introduces another technique, called Integration by Parts. As
substitution “undoes” the Chain Rule, integration by parts “undoes” the Product
Rule. Together, these two techniques provide a strong foundation on which most
other integration techniques are based.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 303

5.6.5 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1. Substitution “undoes” what derivative rule?

2. (□ True □ False) One can use algebra to rewrite the integrand of an integral to make it easier to evaluate.

Problems

Exercise Group. Evaluate the indefinite integral to develop an understanding of Substitution.

Z Z
3 4

7
9
3. 4x x + 8 dx 4. (2x + 9) x2 + 9x + 1 dx
Z Z

4
9
5. x x − 7 dx
2
6. (21 − 36x) 7x − 6x2 + 5 dx
Z Z
1 1
7. dx 8. √ dx
4x + 6 5x + 3
Z Z 4
x x + 3x
9. √ dx 10. √ dx
x+1 x
Z √ Z
e x x6
11. √ dx 12. √ dx
x x7 + 7
Z 1 Z
x2 + 9
ln(x)
13. dx 14. dx
x3 x

Exercise Group. Use Substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral involving trigonometric functions.
Z Z
15. sin3 (x) cos(x) dx 16. cos4 (x) sin(x) dx
Z Z
17. sin(1 − 6x) dx 18. sec2 (7 − 5x) dx
Z Z
19. sec(7x) dx 20. tan8 (x) sec2 (x) dx
Z Z
8 9


21. x cos x dx 22. tan2 (x)dx
Z Z
23. cot(x) dx 24. csc(x) dx
Do not just refer to Theorem 5.6.14 for the Do not just refer to Theorem 5.6.14 for the
answer; justify it through Substitution. answer; justify it through Substitution.

Exercise Group. Use Substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral involving exponential functions.
Z Z
5
25. e4x−5 dx 26. ex x4 dx
Z Z x
2 e +3
27. ex +2x+1 (x + 1) dx 28. dx
ex
Z Z x
ex e + e−x
29. dx 30. dx
ex + 7 e4x
Z Z
31. 99x dx 32. 28x dx

Exercise Group. Use Substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral involving logarithmic functions.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 304
Z Z 4
ln(x) (ln(x))
33. dx 34. dx
x x
Z
Z
ln x5 1
35. dx 36. dx
x x ln(x6 )

Exercise Group. Use Substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral involving rational functions.
Z 2 Z 3
x + 3x − 8 x + x2 + x + 1
37. dx 38. dx
x x
Z 3 Z 2
x −2 x + 9x − 9
39. dx 40. dx
x+1 x+8
Z Z
4x − 8x2 − 2 x2 − 4x
41. dx 42. dx
x−6 x − 6x2 + 9
3

Exercise Group. Use Substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral involving inverse trigonometric functions.
Z Z
6 5
43. dx 44. √ dx
x2 + 6 25 − x2
Z Z
7 9
45. √ dx 46. √ dx
10 − x 2 x x − 49
2
Z Z
6x x
47. √ dx 48. √ dx
x − 64x
6 4 1 − x4
Z Z
1 3
49. dx 50. √ dx
x2 + 18x + 96 −x + 16x − 28
2
Z Z
6 8
51. √ dx 52. 2 − 8x + 80
dx
−x + 12x − 27
2 x

Exercise Group. Evaluate the indefinite integral.

Z Z
x4

5
53. 2 dx
54. 5x5 − 4x3 5x6 − 6x4 + 6 dx
(x5 − 2)
Z Z
x

55. √ dx 56. x7 sec2 x8 + 3 dx
6 + 6x2
Z p Z
57. sin(x) cos(x) dx 58. sin(9x + 5) dx
Z Z
1 2
59. dx 60. dx
x−8 x+5
Z Z
4x3 − 13x2 + 10x + 11 2x − 2
61. dx 62. dx
x2 − 4x + 5 x2 − 2x − 3
Z Z
2(2x − 9) −x3 + 6x2 + 25x + 39
63. dx 64. dx
x2 − 9x + 3 x2 + 3x + 4
Z Z
x 8
65. dx 66. dx
x4 + 49 64x2 + 1
Z Z
1 1
67. √ dx 68. √ dx
x 81x2 − 1 4 − 25x2
Z Z
5x − 38 3x − 2
69. dx 70. dx
x2 − 12x + 117 x2 − 8x + 52
Z 2 Z
x + 14x + 18 x3
71. dx 72. dx
x2 − 4x + 9 x2 + 36
Z 3 Z
x − 9x − 53 sin(x)
73. dx 74. dx
x2 + 6x + 19 cos2 (x) + 1
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 305
Z Z
cos(x) sin(x)
75. dx 76. dx
sin2 (x) + 1 1 − cos2 (x)
Z Z
5x + 40 x+6
77. √ dx 78. √ dx
2
x + 16x + 56 x2 + 12x + 34

Exercise Group. Evaluate the definite integral.

Z −1 Z
1 38 √
79. dx 80. x x − 2 dx
−4 x − 4 3
Z π Z 1
7
81. cos2 (x) sin(x) dx 82. 2x 1 − x2 dx
−π
2 0
Z −3 Z 1
2 1
83. (x + 5) ex +10x+25
dx 84. dx
−7 −1 1 + x2
Z −8 Z √
− 3
1 1
85. dx 86. √ dx
−10 x2 + 18x + 82 −2 4 − x2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 306

5.7 Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic functions are a set of functions that have many applications to
mathematics, physics, and engineering. Among many other applications, they
are used to describe the formation of satellite rings around planets, to describe
the shape of a rope hanging from two points, and have application to the theory
of special relativity. This section defines the hyperbolic functions and describes
many of their properties, especially their usefulness to calculus.
These functions are sometimes referred to as the “hyperbolic trigonometric
functions” as there are many, many connections between them and the stan-
dard trigonometric functions. Figure 5.7.2 demonstrates one such connection.
Just as cosine and sine are used to define points on the circle defined by x2 +
y 2 = 1, the functions hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine are used to define
points on the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 1.

x2 + y 2 = 1 1 y x2 − y 2 = 1 y
(cos(θ),sin(θ)) (cosh(θ),sinh(θ))
2 [Link]/watch?v=-6y0xCwCy4s
θ Figure 5.7.1 Video introduction to Sec-
θ tion 5.7
2 x x
2
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 −2 2

−2

−1

(a) (b)

Figure 5.7.2 Using trigonometric functions to define points on a circle and hyper-
bolic functions to define points on a hyperbola. The area of the shaded regions
are included in them.

5.7.1 The Hyperbolic Functions and their Properties

We begin with their definition.

Definition 5.7.3 Hyperbolic Functions.

ex + e−x 1
1. cosh(x) = 4. sech(x) =
2 cosh(x)
ex − e−x 1
2. sinh(x) = 5. csch(x) =
2 sinh(x)
sinh(x) cosh(x)
3. tanh(x) = 6. coth(x) = Pronunciation Note:
cosh(x) sinh(x)
“cosh” rhymes with “gosh,”
These hyperbolic functions are graphed in Figure 5.7.4 and Figure 5.7.6. “sinh” rhymes with “pinch,”
In the graph of cosh(x) in Figure 5.7.4(a), the graphs of ex /2 and e−x /2 are and
included with dashed lines. In the graph of sinh(x) in Figure 5.7.4(b), the graphs “tanh” rhymes with “ranch.”
of ex /2 and −e−x /2 are included with dashed lines. As x gets “large,” cosh(x)
and sinh(x) each act like ex /2; when x is a large negative number, cosh(x) acts
like e−x /2 whereas sinh(x) acts like −e−x /2.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 307

10 y f (x) = cosh(x) 10 y f (x) = sinh(x)

5 5

ex /2 e−x /2 x ex /2 −e−x /2 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−5 −5

−10 −10

(a) (b)
Figure 5.7.4 Graphs of sinh(x) and cosh(x)
In Figure Figure 5.7.6, notice the domains of tanh(x) and sech(x) are (−∞, ∞),
whereas both coth(x) and csch(x) have vertical asymptotes at x = 0. Also note
the ranges of these functions, especially tanh(x): as x → ∞, both sinh(x) and [Link]/watch?v=0YP4mVrroVk
cosh(x) approach e−x /2, hence tanh(x) approaches 1.
Figure 5.7.5 Video presentation of graphs
y y
and basic properties of hyperbolic func-
tions
2 coth(x) sech(x) 2
csch(x)
tanh(x)

x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−2 −2

(a) (b)
Figure 5.7.6 Graphs of tanh(x), coth(x), csch(x) and cosh(x)
The following example explores some of the properties of these functions
that bear remarkable resemblance to the properties of their trigonometric coun-
terparts.

Example 5.7.7 Exploring properties of hyperbolic functions.

Use Definition 5.7.3 to rewrite the following expressions.

1. cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) d

5. sinh(x)
dx
2. tanh2 (x) + sech2 (x)
d

3. 2 cosh(x) sinh(x) 6. tanh(x)
dx
d

4. cosh(x) Video Solution
dx
Solution.
1. By Definition 5.7.3
 2  2
ex + e−x ex − e−x
cosh (x) − sinh (x) =
2 2
−
2 2

[Link]/watch?v=VunyFD8keVg
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 308

e2x + 2ex e−x + e−2x e2x − 2ex e−x + e−2x

= −
4 4
4
= = 1.
4
So cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1.
2. Again, use Definition 5.7.3

sinh2 (x) 1
tanh2 (x) + sech2 (x) = +
cosh2 (x) cosh2 (x)
sinh2 (x) + 1
= Now use identity from Part 1
cosh2 (x)
cosh2 (x)
= = 1.
cosh2 (x)

So tanh2 (x) + sech2 (x) = 1.

3. Again, use Definition 5.7.3
  x 
ex + e−x e − e−x
2 cosh(x) sinh(x) = 2
2 2
e2x − e−2x
=2·
4
e2x − e−2x
= = sinh(2x).
2
Thus 2 cosh(x) sinh(x) = sinh(2x).
4. Again, use Definition 5.7.3
 
d
d ex + e−x
cosh(x) =
dx dx 2
−x
e −e
x
=
2
= sinh(x)
d


So dx cosh(x) = sinh(x).
5. Apply derivatives to Definition 5.7.3:
 
d
d ex − e−x
sinh(x) =
dx dx 2
ex + e−x
=
2
= cosh(x).
d


So dx sinh(x) = cosh(x).
6. Apply derivatives to Definition 5.7.3:
 
d
d sinh(x)
tanh(x) =
dx dx cosh(x)
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 309

cosh(x) cosh(x) − sinh(x) sinh(x)

=
cosh2 (x)
1
=
cosh2 (x)
= sech2 (x).


So d
dx tanh(x) = sech2 (x).

The following Key Idea summarizes many of the important identities relat-
ing to hyperbolic functions. Each can be verified by referring back to Defini-
tion 5.7.3.

Key Idea 5.7.8 Useful Hyperbolic Function Properties.

List 5.7.9 Basic Identities

1. cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1

2. tanh2 (x) + sech2 (x) = 1
3. coth2 (x) − csch2 (x) = 1
4. cosh(2x) = cosh2 (x) + sinh2 (x)

5. sinh(2x) = 2 sinh(x) cosh(x)

cosh(2x) + 1
6. cosh2 (x) =
2
cosh(2x) − 1
7. sinh2 (x) =
2

List 5.7.10 Derivatives

d

1. cosh(x) = sinh(x)
dx
d

2. sinh(x) = cosh(x)
dx
d

3. tanh(x) = sech2 (x)
dx
d

4. sech(x) = − sech(x) tanh(x)
dx
d

5. csch(x) = − csch(x) coth(x)
dx
d

6. coth(x) = − csch2 (x)
dx
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 310

List 5.7.11 Integrals

Z
1. cosh(x) dx = sinh(x) + C
Z
2. sinh(x) dx = cosh(x) + C
Z
3. tanh(x) dx = ln(cosh(x)) + C
Z
4. coth(x) dx = ln |sinh(x) | + C

We practice using Key Idea 5.7.8.

Example 5.7.12 Derivatives and integrals of hyperbolic functions.

Evaluate the following derivatives and integrals.

d
Z ln(2)
1. cosh(2x) 3. cosh(x) dx
dx
Z 0

2. sech2 (7t − 3) dt Video Solution

Solution.
d


1. Using the Chain Rule directly, we have dx cosh(2x) = 2 sinh(2x).
Just to demonstrate that it works, let’s also use the Basic Identity
found in Key Idea 5.7.8: cosh(2x) = cosh2 (x) + sinh2 (x).
d
d

cosh(2x) = cosh2 (x) + sinh2 (x)
dx dx
= 2 cosh(x) sinh(x) + 2 sinh(x) cosh(x) [Link]/watch?v=MwYZHh9UaRo
= 4 cosh(x) sinh(x).
Using another Basic Identity, we can see that 4 cosh(x) sinh(x) =
2 sinh(2x). We get the same answer either way.
2. We employ substitution, with u = 7t − 3 and du = 7dt. Applying
Key Ideas 5.6.5 and Key Idea 5.7.8 we have:
Z
1
sech2 (7t − 3) dt = tanh(7t − 3) + C.
7
3.
Z ln(2) ln(2)
cosh(x) dx = sinh(x)
0 0

= sinh(ln(2)) − sinh(0)
= sinh(ln(2)).
We can simplify this last expression as sinh(x) is based on expo-
nentials:
eln(2) − e− ln(2)
sinh(ln(2)) =
2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 311

2 − 1/2
=
2
3
= .
4

5.7.2 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Just as the inverse trigonometric functions are useful in certain applications, the
inverse hyperbolic functions are useful with others. Figure 5.7.15(a) shows re-
striction on the domain of cosh(x) to make the function one-to-one and the re-
sulting domain and range of its inverse function. Since sinh(x) is already one-to-
one, no domain restriction is needed as shown in Figure 5.7.15(b). Since sech(x)
is not one to one, it also needs a restricted domain in order to be invertible. Fig-
ure 5.7.15(d) shows the graph of sech−1 (x). You should carefully compare the
graph of this function to the graph given in Figure 5.7.6(b) to see how this inverse
was constructed. The rest of the hyperbolic functions area already one-to-one
and need no domain restrictions. Their graphs are also shown in Figure 5.7.15.
Because the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of exponential func-
tions, their inverses can be expressed in terms of logarithms as shown in Key
Idea 5.7.16. It is often more convenient to refer to sinh−1 (x) than to ln x +
√

x2 + 1 , especially when one is working on theory and does not need to com-
pute actual values. On the other hand, when computations are needed, technol-
ogy is often helpful but many hand-held calculators lack a convenient sinh−1 (x)
button. (Often it can be accessed under a menu system, but not conveniently.) [Link]/watch?v=znJxWgMJPw8
In such a situation, the logarithmic representation is useful. The reader is not Figure 5.7.13 Finding the inverse of f (x) =
encouraged to memorize these, but rather know they exist and know how to sinh(x)
use them when needed.
Table 5.7.14 Domains and ranges of the hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic func-
tions
Function Domain Range Function Domain Range
cosh(x) [0, ∞) [1, ∞) cosh−1 (x) [1, ∞) [0, ∞)
sinh(x) (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞) sinh−1 (x) (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
tanh(x) (−∞, ∞) (−1, 1) tanh−1 (x) (−1, 1) (−∞, ∞)
sech(x) [0, ∞) (0, 1] sech−1 (x) (0, 1] [0, ∞)
csch(x) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) csch−1 (x) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
coth(x) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) coth−1 (x) (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 312

y 10 y
10 y = cosh(x)
y = sinh(x)
8 5

6
x

4 y = cosh −1
(x) −10 −5 5 10

2 −5 y = sinh−1 (x)

x
2 4 6 8 10 −10

(a) (b)
y y
3
2
2
y = coth−1 (x)

1
y = sech−1 (x)
x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
y = tanh−1 (x) y = csch−1 (x)

−2 −2

−3

(c) (d)
Figure 5.7.15 Graphs of the hyperbolic functions (with restricted domains) and
their inverses
Key Idea 5.7.16 Logarithmic definitions of Inverse Hyperbolic Func-
tions.
p

1. cosh−1 (x) = ln x + x2 − 1 ; x ≥ 1
 
1 1+x
2. tanh−1 (x) = ln ; |x| < 1
2 1−x
√ !
−1 1 + 1 − x2
3. sech (x) = ln ;0<x≤1
x
p

4. sinh−1 (x) = ln x + x2 + 1
 
1 x+1
5. coth−1 (x) = ln ; |x| > 1
2 x−1
√ !
−1 1 1 + x2
6. csch (x) = ln + ; x ̸= 0
x |x|

The following Key Ideas give the derivatives and integrals relating to the in-
verse hyperbolic functions. In Key Idea 5.7.18, both the inverse hyperbolic and
logarithmic function representations of the antiderivative are given, based on
Key Idea 5.7.16. Again, these latter functions are often more useful than the
former. Note how inverse hyperbolic functions can be used to solve integrals
we used Trigonometric Substitution to solve in Section 6.3.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 313

Key Idea 5.7.17 Derivatives Involving Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.

d
1
1. cosh−1 (x) = √ ;
dx x −1
2
x>1
d
1
2. sinh−1 (x) = √
dx 2
x +1
d
1
3. tanh−1 (x) = ;
dx 1 − x2
|x| < 1
d
−1
4. sech−1 (x) = √ ;
dx x 1 − x2
0<x<1
d
−1
5. csch−1 (x) = √ ;
dx |x| 1 + x2
x ̸= 0
d
1
6. coth−1 (x) = ;
dx 1 − x2
|x| > 1

Key Idea 5.7.18 Integrals Involving Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.

Assume a > 0.

1.
Z p
1
√ dx = ln x + x2 − a2 + C
−a
x2 2
x
(for 0 < x < a) = cosh−1 +C
a

2.
Z p
1
√ dx = ln x + x2 + a2 + C
x2 + a2
x
= sinh−1 +C
a

3.
Z
1 1 a+x
dx = ln +C
a2 −x 2 2a a−x
(

1
tanh−1 xa + C x2 < a2
= 1 a
−1 x


a coth a +C a2 < x2

4.
Z  
1 1 x
√ dx = ln √ +C
x a2 − x2 a a + a2 − x2
1 x
(for 0 < x < a) = − sech−1 +C
a a
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 314

5.
Z
1 1 x
√ dx = ln √ +C
x x2 + a2 a a + a2 + x2
1 x
= − csch−1 +C
a a

Hyperbolic functions can be used as an alternative to trigonometric substi-

tution, as illustrated in Figure 5.7.19.
We practice using the derivative and integral formulas in the following exam-
ple.

Example 5.7.20 Derivatives and integrals involving inverse hyperbolic [Link]/watch?v=xYG0fnGDakI

functions.
Figure 5.7.19 Using a hyperbolic sub-
Evaluate the following. stitution to evaluate an integral
  Z Z
d 3x − 2 1 1
1. cosh−1 2. dx 3. √ dx
dx 5 x −1
2
9x2 + 10

Solution. Video Solution

1. Applying Key Idea 5.7.17 with the Chain Rule gives:
  
d 3x − 2 1 3
cosh−1 =q
· .
dx 5 3x−2 2 5
5 −1
Z
1
2. Multiplying the numerator and denominator by (−1) gives: 2−1
dx =
Z x
−1
dx. The second integral can be solved with a direct ap- [Link]/watch?v=vlW6Og4hk-w
1 − x2
plication of item #3 from Key Idea 5.7.18, with a = 1. Thus
Z Z
1 1
dx = − dx
x2 − 1 1 − x2
 −1
 − tanh (x) + C x2 < 1
=

− coth−1 (x) + C 1 < x2
1 x+1
= − ln +C
2 x−1
1 x−1
= ln + C. (5.7.1)
2 x+1
We should note that this exact problem was solved at the begin-
ning of Section 6.4. In that example the answer was given as 21 ln |x − 1|−
2 ln |x + 1| + C. Note that this is equivalent to the answer given
1

in Equation (5.7.1), as ln(a/b) = ln(a) − ln(b).

3. This requires a substitution, then item #2 of Key Idea 5.7.18 can
be applied. Let u = 3x, hence du = 3dx. We have
Z Z
1 1 1
√ dx = √ du.
2
9x + 10 3 2
u + 10
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 315

√
Note a2 = 10, hence a = 10. Now apply the integral rule.
 
1 3x
= sinh−1 √ +C
3 10
1 p
= ln 3x + 9x2 + 10 + C.
3

This section covers a lot of ground. New functions were introduced, along
with some of their fundamental identities, their derivatives and antiderivatives,
their inverses, and the derivatives and antiderivatives of these inverses. Four
Key Ideas were presented, each including quite a bit of information.
Do not view this section as containing a source of information to be mem-
orized, but rather as a reference for future problem solving. Key Idea 5.7.18
contains perhaps the most useful information. Know the integration forms it
helps evaluate and understand how to use the inverse hyperbolic answer and
the logarithmic answer.
The next section takes a brief break from demonstrating new integration
techniques. It instead demonstrates a technique of evaluating limits that return
indeterminate forms. This technique will be useful in Section 6.5, where limits
will arise in the evaluation of certain definite integrals.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 316

5.7.3 Exercises
Terms and Concepts

Z
1. In Key Idea 5.7.8, the equation tanh(x) dx = ln(cosh(x)) + C is given. Why is “ln |cosh(x)|” not used — i.e.,
why are absolute values not necessary?
2. The hyperbolic functions are used to define points on the right hand portion of the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 1, as
shown in Figure 5.7.2. How can we use the hyperbolic functions to define points on the left hand portion of the
hyperbola?

Problems

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, verify the given identity using Definition 5.7.3, as done in Example 5.7.7.
3. Verify the identity coth2 (x) − csch2 (x) = 1 using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.
4. Verify the identity cosh(2x) = cosh2 (x) + sinh2 (x) using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.
cosh(2x) + 1
5. Verify the identity cosh2 (x) = using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.
2
cosh(2x) − 1
6. Verify the identity sinh2 (x) = using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.
2
d
7. Verify the identity [sech(x)] = − sech(x) tanh(x) using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.
dx
d
8. Verify the identity [coth(x)] = − csch2 (x) using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.
dx
Z
9. Verify the identity tanh(x) dx = ln(cosh(x)) + C using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.
Z
10. Verify the identity coth(x) dx = ln |sinh(x)| + C using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions.

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, find the derivative of the given function.
11. Find the derivative of f (x) = sinh(2x). 12. Find the derivative of f (x) = cosh2 x.
13. Find the derivative of f (x) = tanh(x2 ). 14. Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(sinh(x)).
15. Find the derivative of f (x) = sinh(x) cosh(x). 16. Find the derivative of
f (x) = x sinh(x) − cosh(x).
17. Find the derivative of f (x) = sech−1 (x2 ). 18. Find the derivative of f (x) = sinh−1 (3x).
19. Find the derivative of f (x) = cosh−1 (2x2 ). 20. Find the derivative of f (x) = tanh−1 (x + 5).
21. Find the derivative of f (x) = tanh−1 (cos(x)). 22. Find the derivative of f (x) = cosh−1 (sec(x)).

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, find the equation of the line tangent to the function at the given x-value.
23. Find the equation of the tangent line to 24. Find the equation of the tangent line to
y = f (x) at x = 0, where f (x) = sinh(x). y = f (x) at x = ln(2), where f (x) = cosh(x).
y= y=
25. Find the equation of the tangent line to 26. Find the equation of the tangent line to
y = f (x) at x = − ln(3), where y = f (x) at x = ln(3), where f (x) = sech2 (x).
f (x) = tanh(x). y=
y=
27. Find the equation of the tangent line to 28. Find the equation√of the tangent line to
y = f (x) at x = 0, where f (x) = sinh−1 (x). y = f (x) at x = 2, where f (x) = cosh−1 (x).
y= y=
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 317

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, evaluate the given indefinite integral.
Z
30. Evaluate
Z the indefinite integral
29. Evaluate the indefinite integral tanh(2x) dx.
cosh(3x − 7) dx.
Z
31. Evaluate
Z the indefinite integral
32. Evaluate the indefinite integral x cosh(x) dx.
sinh(x) cosh(x) dx.
Z Z
1
33. Evaluate the indefinite integral x sinh(x) dx. 34. Evaluate the indefinite integral √ dx.
x2 +1
Z Z
1 1
35. Evaluate the indefinite integral √ dx. 36. Evaluate the indefinite integral dx.
−9 x2 9 − x2
Z Z √
2x x
37. Evaluate the indefinite integral √ dx. 38. Evaluate the indefinite integral √ dx.
x4 − 4 1 + x3
Z Z
1 1
39. Evaluate the indefinite integral dx. 40. Evaluate the indefinite integral dx.
x4 − 16 x2 + x
Z Z
ex
41. Evaluate the indefinite integral dx. 42. Evaluate the indefinite integral sinh−1 (x) dx.
e2x + 1
Z
43. Evaluate
Z the indefinite integral
44. Evaluate the indefinite integral sech(x) dx.
tanh−1 (x) dx.
cosh(x)
(Hint: mutiply by cosh(x) ; set u = sinh(x).)

Exercise Group. In the following exercises, evaluate the given definite integral.
Z 1 46. Evaluate the definite integral
45. Evaluate the definite integral sinh(x) dx. Z ln(2)
−1 cosh(x) dx.
− ln(2)
Z 1 Z 2
1
47. Evaluate the definite integral sech2 (x) dx. 48. Evaluate the definite integral √ dx.
0 0 x2 + 1
INTEGRATION 318

We started this chapter learning about antiderivatives and indefinite integrals.

We then seemed to change focus by looking at areas between the graph of a
function and the x-axis. We defined these areas as the definite integral of the
function, using a notation very similar to the notation of the indefinite integral.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus tied these two seemingly separate con-
cepts together: we can find areas under a curve, i.e., we can evaluate a definite
integral, using antiderivatives.
We ended the chapter by noting that antiderivatives are sometimes more
than difficult to find: they are impossible. Therefore we developed numerical
techniques that gave us good approximations of definite integrals.
We used the definite integral to compute areas, and also to compute dis-
placements and distances traveled. There is far more we can do than that. In
Chapter 7 we’ll see more applications of the definite integral. Before that, in
Chapter 6 we’ll learn advanced techniques of integration, analogous to learning
rules like the Product, Quotient and Chain Rules of differentiation.
Appendices

1001
Appendix A

Answers to Selected Exercises

I · Math 1565: Accelerated Calculus I

I · Math 1565: Accelerated Calculus I
1 · Limits
I · Math 1565: Accelerated Calculus I
1 · Limits
1.1 · An Introduction To Limits
1.1 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1.1.2. an indeterminate form

1.1.3. False
1.1.6. 1

Problems

1.1.7. 5 1.1.8. 3
1.1.9. DNE 1.1.10. 23
1.1.11. −4 1.1.12. DNE or ∞
1.1.13. DNE 1.1.14. 6
1.1.15. 1 1.1.16. DNE
1.1.17. 1 1.1.18. DNE
1.1.19. DNE 1.1.20. 1

1.1.21. −7 1.1.22. 9
1.1.23. 5 1.1.24. −0.111111
1.1.25. 29 1.1.26. 0.2
1.1.27. −1 1.1.28. 0

1.2 · Epsilon-Delta Definition of a Limit

1.2 · Exercises

1002
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1003

Terms and Concepts

1.2.2. y-tolerance
1.2.3. True
1.2.4. True

1.3 · Finding Limits Analytically

1.3 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1.3.6. True

Problems

1.3.7. 9 1.3.8. 6
1.3.9. 0 1.3.10. DNE
1.3.11. 3 1.3.12. not possible to know
1.3.13. 3 1.3.14. −45

1.3.15. 0 1.3.16. cos(3.14159)

1.3.17. π 1.3.18. 1

1.3.19. 23  4
π−5
1.3.20. π−8
√
1.3.21. 3 1.3.22. − 16
5
4
1.3.23. DNE 1.3.24. 256
√
1.3.25. 2 3 1.3.26. ln(4)
3
π 2 −4π−2 1.3.28. 2π−4
1.3.27. 2π 2 −2π+1 5π−5

1.3.29. 1
4 1.3.30. − 72
17 13
1.3.31. 4 1.3.32. 3
4 5
1.3.33. 9 1.3.34. 4

1.3.35. 0 1.3.36. 0
1.3.37. 1 1.3.38. 9

1.3.39. 8 1.3.40. 9
8
π
1.3.41. 1 1.3.42. 180

1.4 · One-Sided Limits

1.4 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1.4.2. False
1.4.3. False
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1004

1.4.4. True

Problems

1.4.5. 1.4.6.
(a) 2 (a) 0
(b) 2 (b) 4
(c) 2 (c) DNE
(d) 1 (d) 4
(e) DNE (e) DNE
(f) 4 (f) 1
1.4.7. 1.4.8.
(a) DNE or ∞ (a) 2
(b) DNE or ∞ (b) 3
(c) DNE or ∞ (c) DNE
(d) DNE (d) 4
(e) 5
(f) 4
1.4.9. 1.4.10.
(a) 1 (a) −5
(b) 1 (b) 1
(c) 1 (c) DNE

(d) 1 (d) 3
1.4.11. 1.4.12.
(a) 2 (a) a − 1
(b) 2 (b) a
(c) 2 (c) DNE
(d) 0 (d) a
(e) 2

(f) 2
(g) 2
(h) DNE
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1005

1.4.13. 1.4.14.

(a) 2 (a) −17

(b) 6 (b) 0

(c) DNE (c) DNE

(d) 2 (d) 0
1.4.15. 1.4.16.
(a) 9 (a) −1
(b) 9 (b) 0
(c) 9 (c) DNE
(d) 9 (d) 0
(e) 126

(f) 126
(g) 126
(h) 126
1.4.17. 1.4.18.
(a) 1 − cos2 (a) (a) 0
(b) sin2 (a) (b) 1
(c) 1 − cos2 (a) or sin2 (a) (c) DNE
(d) sin2 (a) (d) −2
1.4.19. 1.4.20.
(a) −4 (a) c
(b) −4 (b) c

(c) −4 (c) c
(d) −2 (d) c
1.4.21.
(a) −1
(b) 1

(c) DNE
(d) 0

1.5 · Continuity
1.5 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1.5.5. False
1.5.6. True
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1006

1.5.7. True
1.5.8. False
1.5.9. False
1.5.10. True

Problems

1.5.11. No. 1.5.12. No.

1.5.13. No. 1.5.14. Yes.
1.5.15. Yes. 1.5.16. Yes.
1.5.17. (a) No. 1.5.18. Yes.
(b) Undefined
(c) Yes.

1.5.19. 1.5.20.
(a) Yes. (a) Yes.

(b) Undefined (b) Undefined

1.5.21. 1.5.22.

(a) Yes. (a) Yes.

(b) Undefined (b) Undefined

1.5.23. (−∞, ∞) 1.5.24. (−∞, −2] , [2, ∞)

1.5.25. [−2, 2] 1.5.26. [−3, 3]
1.5.27. (−∞, −1.73205] , [1.73205, ∞) 1.5.28. (−7, 7)
1.5.29. (−∞, ∞) 1.5.30. (−∞, ∞)
1.5.31. (0, ∞) 1.5.32. (−∞, ∞)
1.5.33. (−∞, 1.09861] 1.5.34. (−∞, ∞)

1.5.39. 1.23633
1.5.40. 0.523633
1.5.41. 0.693164
1.5.42. 0.785547

1.6 · Limits Involving Infinity

1.6 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

1.6.1. False
1.6.2. True
1.6.3. False
1.6.4. True
1.6.5. True
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1007

Problems

1.6.9. 1.6.10.
(a) −∞ (a) −∞
(b) ∞ (b) ∞
(c) DNE
(d) ∞

(e) ∞
(f) ∞
1.6.11. 1.6.12.

(a) 0 (a) DNE

(b) 3 (b) DNE
(c) 1.5 (c) 0
(d) 1.5 (d) 0
1.6.13. 1.6.14.
(a) DNE (a) −9
(b) DNE (b) ∞

1.6.15. 1.6.16.
(a) −∞ (a) −∞

(b) ∞ (b) −∞
(c) DNE (c) −∞
1.6.17. 1.6.18.
(a) ∞ (a) 1.8
(b) ∞ (b) 1.8
(c) ∞ (c) 1.8

1.6.19. y = 2, x = −2, x = 9 1.6.20. y = 5

= −9
−2 , x
1.6.21. y = 0, x = 0, x = 4 1.6.22. x = −3
1.6.23. NONE 1.6.24. y = 4
−1

1.6.25. ∞ 1.6.26. ∞
1.6.27. ∞ 1.6.28. ∞

2 · Derivatives
2 · Derivatives
2.1 · Instantaneous Rates of Change: The Derivative
2.1 · Exercises
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1008

Terms and Concepts

2.1.1. True
2.1.2. True

Problems

2.1.7. 0 2.1.8. 2
2.1.9. −3 2.1.10. 2x
2.1.11. 3x2 2.1.12. 6x − 1
2.1.13. −1
x2 2.1.14. −1
(s−2)2

2.1.15. (a) y = 6 2.1.16. (a) y − 2x = 0

(b) x = −2 (b) 0.5x + y = 7.5
2.1.17. (a) 3x + y = 4 2.1.18. (a) y − 4x = −4
(b) y − 0.333333x = −19.3333 (b) 0.25x + y = 4.5
2.1.19. (a) y − 48x = −128 2.1.20. (a) 7x + y = 1
(b) 0.0208333x + y = 64.0833 (b) y − 0.142857x = 8.14286
2.1.21. (a) 0.25x + y = −1 2.1.22. (a) x + y = 4
(b) y − 4x = 7.5 (b) y − x = −2

2.1.23. 5.9x + y = 1.2 2.1.24. y − 0.0688705x = −1.10881

2.1.25. y − 0.0192627x = 0.0953664 2.1.26. 0.04996x + y = 1
2.1.27.

(a) −2, 0, 4
(b) 2x
(c) Undefined
2.1.28.

(a) −1, −0.25

−1
(b) (x+1)2

(c) Undefined
2.1.33. (a) (−2, 0) ∪ (2, ∞) 2.1.34. (a) (−2, 2)
(b) (−∞, −2) ∪ (0, 2) (b) (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞)
(c) {−2, 0, 2} (c) {−2, 2}
(d) (−1, 1) (d) (−1, 0) ∪ (1, ∞)
(e) (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) (e) (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, 1)
(f) {−1, 1} (f) {−1, 0, 1}

2.1.35. no
2.1.36. yes

2.2 · Interpretations of the Derivative

2.2 · Exercises
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1009

Terms and Concepts

2.2.1. velocity
2.2.3. linear functions

Problems

2.2.4. 20
2.2.5. −89
2.2.6. 91
2.2.7. f(10.1)
2.2.8. −2
2.2.9. 7
2.2.10. decibels per customer
2.2.11. foot per second squared
2.2.12. foot per hour
2.2.15. Choice 1 2.2.16. Choice 2
2.2.17. Choice 2 2.2.18. Choice 2

2.3 · Basic Differentiation Rules

2.3 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

2.3.1. the power rule

1
2.3.2. x
x
2.3.3. e
2.3.4. 10
2.3.5. Choice 1, Choice 2, Choice 5, Choice 6
2.3.7. 17x − 205
2.3.9. (a) a velocity function
(b) an acceleration function
2.3.10. pound per foot squared

Problems

2.3.11. − (14x + 8) 2.3.12. 28x − 48x2 + 5

2.3.13. 9 − 20t + 4 3 2
4t
2.3.14. 19 sin(θ) − 3 cos(θ)
2.3.15. 3er 2.3.16. 21t2 + 5 sin(t) − 2 cos(t)
6
2.3.17. x +9 2.3.18. s3 + s2 + s + 1
2.3.19. sin(t) − (et + cos(t)) 2.3.20. 8
x
2.3.21. 0 2.3.22. 18t + 24
2.3.23. 24x2 + 96x + 96 2.3.24. 3x2 + 18x + 27
2.3.25. 8x + 28
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1010

2.3.27. (a) 9x8 2.3.28. (a) −8 sin(x)

(b) 9 · 8x 7 (b) − (8 cos(x))
(c) 9 · 8 · 7x6 (c) 8 sin(x)
(d) 9 · 8 · 7 · 6x 5 (d) 8 cos(x)
2.3.29. (a) − (4 · 2t + 3 + et ) 2.3.30. (a) 2θ + 8θ7
(b) − (8 + et ) (b) 2 + 8 · 7θ6
(c) −e t
(c) 8 · 7 · 6θ5
(d) −et (d) 8 · 7 · 6 · 5θ4
2.3.31. (a) − (cos(θ) − sin(θ)) 2.3.32. (a) 0
(b) sin(θ) + cos(θ) (b) 0
(c) cos(θ) − sin(θ) (c) 0
(d) − (sin(θ) + cos(θ)) (d) 0

2.3.33. (a) y = 20(x − 2) + 24 2.3.34. (a) y = e0 ln(e) (t − 0) + e0 − 2

− 20 − 2) + 24 −1
(b) y = 1
(x (b) y = − 0) + e0 − 2
e0 ln(e) (t
√

2.3.35. (a) y = x − 1 2.3.36. (a) y = 4 2 3 x − π6 + 4·1
(b) y = − (x − 1)  √  2

4·1
(b) y = − 4 312 3
x− 6 + 2
π

√
2.3.37. (a) y = 2·1
x− π
+−2 3 2.3.38. (a) 9 − 9x
2 6 2


√
(b) y = −1
− (−9)) + 90
(b) y = − 1
· 2 x − π6 + −2 3 −9 (x
2 2

2.4 · The Product and Quotient Rules

2.4 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

2.4.1. False
2.4.2. False
2.4.3. True
2.4.4. the quotient rule
2.4.5. False

Problems

2.4.15. sin(y) + y cos(y) 2.4.16. 3t2 cos(t) − t3 sin(t)

 5 
2.4.17. eq ln(q) + eq 1q 2.4.18. − (y6y6 )2 (csc(y) − 5) + 1
csc(y) cot(y)
y6

2.4.19. t−4−(t+8) 3q 2 (sin(q)−8q 2 )−q 3 (cos(q)−8·2q)

(t−4)2 2.4.20. (sin(q)−8q 2 )2

2.4.21. − (csc(y) cot(y) + ey ) 2.4.22. sec2 (t) ln(t) + 1

t tan(t)
2.4.23. 7 · 2q − 6 2.4.24. 5y 4


2
2.4.25. 5r + 17r + 10 e r 9z 8 −z 9 −z 5 +5z 4
2.4.26. ez


2.4.27. 3 2.4.28. 5r (tan(r) + e ) + r5 sec2 (r) + er
4 r

2.4.29. csc(z) sin(z)−csc(z) cot(z)(cos(z)+2) 2.4.30.

(cos(z)+2)2
4
−4θ 3 sec(θ)
4θ3 sec(θ) + θ4 sec(θ) tan(θ) + sec(θ) tan(θ)θ
(θ 4 )2
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1011

2.4.31. tan(r)−r sec2 (r)

− csc2 (r)r+cot(r) 2.4.32. 0
tan2 (r) r2
2.4.33. 2.4.34. 2
7 · 5x4 ex + 7x5 ex − (cos(x) cos(x) − sin(x) sin(x)) (2r sin(r)+r cos(r))(r2 cos(r)−9)−(r2 sin(r)−7)(2r cos(r)−r2 sin(r))
(r 2 cos(r)−9)2


2.4.35. 4z 3 ln(z) + z 4 z1 cos(z) − z 4 ln(z) sin(z) 2.4.36.
(9 cos(x) − 9x sin(x)) tan(x) + 9x cos(x) sec2 (x)


2.4.37. (a) y = − (7x + 7) 2.4.38. (a) y = 5.0345 x − 5π3 +
5π



6
(b) y = 17 x − 7 (b) y = 5π 6 − 64630031 x − 5π
12837432
3


2.4.39. (a) y = − (15(x + 5) + 25) 2.4.40. (a) y = 18 x


(b) y = 15 1
(x + 5) − 25 (b) y = −8x

2.4.41. 17 2.4.42. 0
2
2.4.43. NONE 2.4.44. 0, 4

2.4.45. 2 cos(x) − x sin(x) 2.4.46. −4 cos(x) + x sin(x)

2.4.47. csc(x) cot(x) cot(x) + csc (x) csc(x) 2 2.4.48. 0

2.5 · The Chain Rule

2.5 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

2.5.1. True
2.5.2. False
2.5.3. False
2.5.4. True
2.5.5. True
2.5.6. True

Problems

9
4
2.5.7. 10 4x3 − x 12x2 − 1 2.5.8. 15(3t − 2)
2 2
2.5.9. 3(sin(θ) + cos(θ)) (cos(θ) − sin(θ)) 2.5.10. (6t + 1) e3t +t−1

3 1
5

2.5.11. 4 ln(x) − x4 x − 4x
3 2.5.12. 0.693147 · 2q +4q
5q 4 + 4
 4  
2.5.14. −5 sin(5t)
2.5.13. 5 y + y1 1 − y12


2.5.15. 2 sec2 (2q) 2.5.16. − csc2 θ2 + 3 · 2θ
 

2
2.5.17. 6t5 − (t3t3 )2 cos t6 + 1 2.5.18. −5 cos4 (7q) · 7 sin(7q)
t3

2.5.19.

2.5.20. − cos(t)

1
sin(t)
−3 cos2 y 2 + 3y − 3 (2y + 3) sin y 2 + 3y − 3
2.5.21. 1
q8 · 8q 7 2.5.22. 3 y1
2.5.23. 1.79176 · 6t 2.5.24. −0.693147 · 2csc(z) csc(z) cot(z)
2.5.25. 0 2.5.26. 1.38629·4t ·9t −4t ·2.19722·9t
(9t )2
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1012

1.79176·6w (5w +6)−(6w +5)·1.60944·5w 1.94591·7y ·5y −(7y +8)·1.60944·5y

2.5.27. (5w +6)2
2.5.28. (5y )2
  2  2 
2 2
1.60944·5r ·2r−1 ·6r − 5r −r ·1.79176·6r ·2r 2.5.30. 3w2 cot(5w) − w3 · 5 csc2 (5w)
2.5.29. r2 2
(6 )

5
3 2.5.32.
2.5.31. 6 x2 + 4x (2x + 4) 7x4 + x +




6
2
− 4 cos(8 − 4r) cos 6r + r2 + (6 + 2r) sin 6r + r2 sin(8 − 4r)
x2 + 4x · 3 7x4 + x 7 · 4x3 + 1



2.5.33. 7 cos(9 + 7w) cos(4w − 5) − 2
2.5.34. e8x · 8 · 2x sin 1
− e8x
2
1
cos 1
x x2 x
4 sin(4w − 5) sin(9 + 7w)
3 2
3·2(3z+5) sin(9z)−(3z+5)2 ·9 cos(9z)
2.5.35. − 6 sin(6r+4)(3r+1) +3·3(3r+1)
2
cos(6r+4)
2.5.36. sin2 (9z)
((3r+1)3 )

2.5.37. (a) y = 0 2.5.38. (a) y = 15(x − 1) + 1

−1
(b) x = 0 (b) y = 15 (x − 1) + 1


2.5.39. (a) y = −3 x − π
+1 2.5.40. (a) y = −5e(x + 1) + e

2
1
(b) y = 13 x − π2 + 1 (b) y = 5e (x + 1) + e

1
2.5.41. x
k
2.5.42. x

2.6 · Implicit Differentiation

2.6 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

2.6.2. the chain rule

2.6.3. True
2.6.4. True

Problems

1
√ 1 1 5

1
2.6.5. 1
√ + 2 w 2.6.6. √ 5 + y 0.166667
2 w √ 2 6 ( 6 y) 6
( w)
√
2.6.7. √1
2 9+t2
· 2t 2.6.8. 1
√
2 w
tan(w) + sec2 (w) w
2.6.9. 1.2y 0.2 2.6.10. πrπ−1 + 3.8r2.8
√ √
1 1
(cos(x) + ex ) + (ex − sin(x))
1
√
2.6.11.
w−(w−8) 2 w 2.6.12. √ 5
6
x
√ 2 6 ( 6 x)
( w)

−4x3 −y 0.6
2.6.13. 2y+1 2.6.14. x0.6
y
2.6.15. sin(x) sec(y) 2.6.16. x
y
2.6.17. −(ex x(x+2)·2−y )
x 2.6.18. ln(2)

2.6.19. −2 sin(y) cos(y) 2.6.20. − yx2

x
2.6.21. 1 y−x2 −2xy 2
2y+2 2.6.22. x−y 2 −2x2 y
1−cos(x) −x
2.6.23. 2.6.24. y
sin(y)+1
−(2x+y)
2.6.25. 2y+x
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1013

2.6.27. 2.6.28.
(a) y = 0 (a) x = 1
√
−3 3
√
√
(b) y = −1.859(x − 0.1) + 0.2811 (b) y = 8 x− 0.6 + 0.8
2.6.29. 2.6.30.
(a) y = 4 (a) y = −x + 1
1 √
(b) y = 3
1 (x − 2) − 108 4 (b) y = 3 3
4
108 4
2.6.31. 2.6.32.
−1

√
(a) y = √
3
x− 7
2 + 6+3 3
2 (a) y = 1
√ √ −2
√

3(x−(4+3 3)) 3
(b) y = √
5
(x + 1) + 1
2 −1 + 5
(b) y = +
2 2
√

(c) y = √2 (x
5
+ 1) + 1
2 −1 − 5

!  0.6 0.6 ·3 
( ( )) x0.6 ·3 −0.4 −y
2 − 4x3 − y −y x−0.4
− (2y+1)·12x2 −4x3 5 x0.6 5
2y+1 2.6.34. x1.2
2.6.33. (2y+1)2

2.6.35. sin2 (x) sec2 (y) tan(y) + cos(x) sec(y) 2.6.36. 0

 
1
ln(1+x) x2
2.6.37. (a) (1 + x) x 1
x(x+1) − x2
2.6.38. (a) (2x) (2x ln(2x) + x)
(b) y = (1 − 2 ln(2)) (x − 1) + 2 (b) y = (2 + 4 ln(2)) (x − 1) + 2
   
xx
2.6.39. (a) x+1 ln(x) + 1 − x+1
1
2.6.40. (a) xsin(x)+2 cos(x) ln(x) + sin(x)+2
x



(b) y = 14 (x − 1) + 12 3π 2
(b) y = 4 x − 2 + 2 π π 3
   
x+2 x+1 −
2.6.41. (a) x+1 1 1
x+2 2.6.42. (a) (x+1)(x+2) 1
(x+3)(x+4) x+1 + 1
x+2 − 1
x+3 − 1
x+4

(b) y = 19 (x − 1) + 2
3 (b) y = 11
72 x + 1
6

2.7 · Derivatives of Inverse Functions

2.7 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

2.7.1. False

Problems

1
2.7.9. 7

2.7.10. − 14
1

2.7.11. −0.5
1
2.7.12. 132

2.7.13. − 25
4
1
2.7.14. 12

2.7.15. − √ 1
·4 2.7.16. − √1 ·7
1−(4w)2 |7x| (7x)2 −1
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1014

2.7.17. 1
1+(2r)2
·2 2.7.18. cos−1 (w) − w √1−w
1
2

2.7.19. (sec(x)) cos−1 (x) − et

2
√ 1 tan(x) 2.7.20. + ln(t) et
1−x2 t
1
sin−1 (z)− √ 1
tan−1 (z)
√ 2
1+z 2 1−z 2 2.7.22. (sec( 4 x)) 41 √
1
3
2.7.21. 2 ( 4 x)
( sin−1 (z)
)
   
2.7.23. csc q13 cot q13 3q 2 2.7.24. 1
(q 3 )2

 √ 
 √ 
− 3
2.7.29. y = 2 x − 2 + − π3 2.7.30. y = −4 x − 4
3
+ π
6

3 · The Graphical Behavior of Functions

3 · The Graphical Behavior of Functions
3.1 · Extreme Values
3.1 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

3.1.2. Answers will vary.

3.1.4. Answers will vary.
3.1.5. False
3.1.6. (a) 0
(b) undefined

Problems

3.1.7. (a) B 3.1.8. (a) C

(b) NONE (b) A
(c) B, G (c) C
(d) C, F (d) A

3.1.9. 0 3.1.10. (a) 0

(b) 0
3.1.11. (a) 0 3.1.12. (a) 0
(b) 0 (b) 0
(c) DNE
3.1.13. (a) DNE 3.1.14. (a) DNE
(b) 0 (b) DNE
3.1.15. 0 3.1.16. DNE

3.1.17. (a) 14 3.1.18. (a) −6

(b) −2 (b) −28
3.1.19. (a) −2.82843 3.1.20. (a) 30.4664
(b) −4 (b) 0
9 4
3.1.21. (a) 2 3.1.22. (a) 11
(b) 2.82843 (b) 0
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1015
π 3π
e
√4 e√4
3.1.23. (a) 2
3.1.24. (a) 2
(b) −eπ (b) 0
1 3.1.26. (a) 0.47247
3.1.25. (a) 2e
(b) 0 (b) −6.31821

3.2 · The Mean Value Theorem

3.2 · Exercises
Problems

3.2.3. Undefined 3.2.4. Undefined

3.2.5. Undefined 3.2.6. Undefined
3.2.7. Undefined 3.2.8. Undefined
3.2.9. Undefined 3.2.10. Undefined

3.2.11. Undefined 3.2.12. Undefined

3.2.13. Undefined 3.2.14. Undefined
3.2.15. Undefined 3.2.16. Undefined
3.2.17. Undefined 3.2.18. Undefined
3.2.19. Undefined 3.2.20. Undefined

3.3 · Increasing and Decreasing Functions

3.3 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

3.3.3. Answers will vary; graphs should be steeper near x = 0 than near x = 2.
3.3.5. False

Problems

3.3.15. (a) (−∞, ∞) 3.3.16. (a) (−∞, ∞)

(b) −2 (b) − 43 , 0
(c) [−2, ∞) (c) (−∞, −1.33333] , [0, ∞)
(d) (−∞, −2] (d) [−1.33333, 0]
(e) NONE (e) −1.33333
(f) −2 (f) 0
3.3.17. (a) (−∞, ∞) 3.3.18. (a) (−∞, ∞)
(b) − 57 , 73 (b) 3
(c) (−∞, −0.714286] , [2.33333, ∞) (c) (−∞, ∞)
(d) [−0.714286, 2.33333] (d) NONE
(e) − 57 (e) NONE
7
(f) 3 (f) NONE
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1016

3.3.19. (a) (−∞, ∞) 3.3.20. (a) (−∞, −6) ∪ (−6, 6) ∪ (6, ∞)

(b) 5 (b) 0
(c) (−∞, 5] (c) (−∞, −6) , (−6, 0]
(d) [5, ∞) (d) [0, 6) , (6, ∞)
(e) 5 (e) 0
(f) NONE (f) NONE
3.3.21. (a) (−∞, −7) ∪ (−7, −5) ∪ (−5, ∞) 3.3.22. (a) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
(b) −5.91608, 5.91608 (b) −5, −15
(c) [−5.91608, −5) , (−5, 5.91608] (c) [−15, −5]
(d) (−∞, −7) , (−7, −5.91608] , [5.91608, ∞) (d) (−∞, −15] , [−5, 0) , (0, ∞)
(e) 5.91608 (e) −5
(f) −5.91608 (f) −15
3.3.23. (a) (−π, π) 3.3.24. (a) (−∞, ∞)
(b) −2.35619, −0.785398, 0.785398, 2.35619 (b) −2
(c) (−3.14159, −2.35619) , (−0.785398, 0.785398) , (2.35619,
(c) [−2, ∞)
3.14159)
(d) (−2.35619, −0.785398) , (0.785398, 2.35619) (d) (−∞, −2]
(e) −2.35619, 0.785398 (e) NONE
(f) −0.785398, 2.35619 (f) −2

3.4 · Concavity and the Second Derivative

3.4 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

3.4.1. Answers will vary.

3.4.2. Answers will vary.
3.4.3. Yes; Answers will vary.
3.4.4. No.

Problems

3.4.15. (a) NONE 3.4.16. (a) NONE

(b) (−∞, ∞) (b) NONE
(c) NONE (c) (−∞, ∞)
3.4.17. (a) 0 3.4.18. (a) − 14
(b) [0, ∞) (b) [−0.25, ∞)
(c) (−∞, 0] (c) (−∞, −0.25]
3.4.19. (a) − 32
3 ,0
3.4.20. (a) 4.42265, 5.57735
(b) (−∞, −10.6667] , [0, ∞) (b) (−∞, 4.42265] , [5.57735, ∞)
(c) [−10.6667, 0] (c) [4.42265, 5.57735]
3.4.21. (a) −2 3.4.22. (a) NONE
(b) (−∞, ∞) (b) (−1.5708, 1.5708)
(c) NONE (c) (−4.71239, −1.5708) , (1.5708, 4.71239)
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1017

3.4.23. (a) −0.57735, 0.57735 3.4.24. (a) NONE

(b) (−∞, −0.57735] , [0.57735, ∞) (b) (−∞, 2) , (5, ∞)
(c) [−0.57735, 0.57735] (c) (2, 5)
3.4.25. (a) −0.785398, 2.35619 3.4.26. (a) −0.585786, −3.41421
(b) (−3.14159, −0.785398] , [2.35619, 3.14159) (b) (−∞, −3.41421] , [−0.585786, ∞)
(c) [−0.785398, 2.35619] (c) [−3.41421, −0.585786]
3.4.27. (a) 0.22313 3.4.28. (a) 0.707107, −0.707107
(b) [0.22313, ∞) (b) (−∞, −0.707107] , [0.707107, ∞)
(c) (0, 0.22313] (c) [−0.707107, 0.707107]

3.4.29. (a) −7 3.4.30. (a) − 52

(b) NONE (b) − 52
(c) −7 (c) NONE
3.4.31. (a) −1.1547, 1.1547 3.4.32. (a) NONE
(b) −1.1547 (b) NONE
(c) 1.1547 (c) NONE
3.4.33. (a) −4 3.4.34. (a) −3, −2, 2
(b) NONE (b) −2
(c) −4 (c) −3, 2
3.4.35. (a) 3 3.4.36. (a) −3.14159, 0, 3.14159
(b) NONE (b) −3.14159, 3.14159
(c) NONE (c) 0
3.4.37. (a) −9 3.4.38. (a) 0
(b) −9 (b) 0
(c) NONE (c) NONE
3.4.39. (a) −2.35619, 0.785398 3.4.40. (a) −2, 0
(b) 0.785398 (b) −2
(c) −2.35619 (c) 0
3.4.41. (a) 0.606531 3.4.42. (a) 0
(b) NONE (b) 0
(c) 0.606531 (c) NONE

3.4.43. (a) NONE 3.4.44. (a) NONE

(b) NONE (b) NONE
3.4.45. (a) NONE 3.4.46. (a) − 27
8

(b) 0 (b) NONE

3.4.47. (a) − 28
3
3.4.48. (a) 1.42265
(b) 0 (b) 2.57735
3.4.49. (a) NONE 3.4.50. (a) NONE
(b) NONE (b) NONE
3.4.51. (a) 0 3.4.52. (a) NONE
(b) 2 (b) NONE
3.4.53. (a) −0.785398 3.4.54. (a) −3.41421
(b) 2.35619 (b) −0.585786
3.4.55. (a) NONE 3.4.56. (a) −0.707107
(b) 0.22313 (b) 0.707107
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1018

3.5 · Curve Sketching

3.5 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

3.5.3. True
3.5.4. True
3.5.5. True

4 · Applications of the Derivative

4 · Applications of the Derivative
4.1 · Newton’s Method
4.1 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

4.1.1. False
4.1.2. False

Problems

4.1.3. (a) 1.57091 4.1.4. (a) −0.557408

(b) 1.5708 (b) 0.0659365
(c) 1.5708 (c) −9.57219 × 10−5
(d) 1.5708 (d) 0
(e) 1.5708 (e) 0
4.1.5. (a) 2 4.1.6. (a) 1.41667
(b) 1.2 (b) 1.41422
(c) 1.01176 (c) 1.41421
(d) 1.00005 (d) 1.41421
(e) 1 (e) 1.41421
4.1.7. (a) 0.613706 4.1.8. (a) 1.44444
(b) 0.913341 (b) 1.13057
(c) 0.996132 (c) 1.01498
(d) 0.999993 (d) 1.00022
(e) 1 (e) 1

4.1.9. {−5.15633, −0.369102, 0.525428}

4.1.10. {−3.71448, −0.856723, 1, 1.5712}
4.1.11. {−1.0134, 0.988312, 1.39341}
4.1.12. {−2.16477, 0, 0.524501, 1.81328}

4.1.13. {−0.824132, 0.824132}

4.1.14. {−0.636733, 1.40962}
4.1.15. {0}
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1019

4.1.16. {−4.49341, 0, 4.49341}

4.2 · Related Rates

4.2 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

4.2.1. True
4.2.2. False

Problems

4.2.3.
cm
(a) 0.198944 s

cm
(b) 0.0198944 s

cm
(c) 0.00198944 s

4.2.4.
cm
(a) 0.397887 s

cm
(b) 0.00397887 s

(c) 3.97887 × 10−5 cm

s
mi
4.2.5. 51.066 h

4.2.6.
mi
(a) 68.75 h

mi
(b) 75 h

4.2.7.
rad
(a) 258.537 hr

rad
(b) 413.417 hr

rad
(c) 424 hr

4.2.8.
rad
(a) 0.0225641 s

rad
(b) 0.553459 s

rad
(c) 7.33333 s

4.2.9.
ft
(a) 0.0417029 s

ft
(b) 0.458349 s
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1020

ft
(c) 3.35489 s

(d) ∞
4.2.10.
ft
(a) 30.5941 min

ft
(b) 36.0555 min

ft
(c) 301.496 min

4.2.11.
ft
(a) 19.1658 s

ft
(b) 0.191658 s

ft
(c) 0.0395988 s

(d) 381.791 s
4.2.12.
ft
(a) 0.632456 s

ft
(b) 1.6 s

(c) 51.9615 ft
4.2.13.
(a) 80 ft
ft
(b) 1.71499 s

ft
(c) 1.83829 s

(d) 74.162 ft
4.2.14.
(a) 96 ft
ft
(b) 9.42478 s
ft
4.2.15. 0.00230973 s

4.3 · Optimization
4.3 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

4.3.1. True
4.3.2. False

Problems

4.3.3. 5625
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1021
√
4.3.4. 2 560
4.3.5. DNE
8450
4.3.6. 29
4.3.7. 1
225


4.3.8. 150 ft; 2 ft
4.3.9. (a) 3.83722 cm
(b) 7.67443 cm
4.3.10. (a) 3.20058 in
(b) 6.40117 in
4.3.11. (a) 3.0456 cm
(b) 12.1824 cm
4.3.12. 11664 in3
4.3.13. 10.3923 in; 14.6969 in
4.3.14. (a) 0.535898 mi
(b) $503,730.67
4.3.15. (a) 0 mi
(b) $474,341.65
4.3.16. 33.6239 ft
4.3.17. 23.7599 ft
√ √
4.3.18. 2; 2

4.4 · Differentials
4.4 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

4.4.1. True
4.4.2. True
4.4.3. False
4.4.4. True
4.4.6. True

Problems

4.4.7. 4.28 4.4.8. 8.7

4.4.9. 83.2 4.4.10. 102.5
4.4.11. 5.05 4.4.12. 5.88333
4.4.13. 4.98667 4.4.14. 6.00556
4.4.15. 0.141593 4.4.16. 1.1


4.4.17. (2x − 5) dx 4.4.18. 5x4 + 9x8 dx
5
4.4.19. − (4x
24x
6 )2 dx
4.4.20. 2(6x + sin(x)) (6 + cos(x)) dx

4
4.4.21. 7x6 + 8e 8x
dx 4.4.22. − (x
40x
5 )2 dx

9(tan(x)+2)−9x sec2 (x) 9

4.4.23. dx 4.4.24. 9x dx
(tan(x)+2)2
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1022

4.4.25. (ex sin(x) + ex cos(x)) dx 4.4.26. − sin(sin(x)) cos(x) dx

5x ·1


4.4.27. x+5−(x−4)
dx 4.4.28. 1.60944 · 5x ln(x) + x dx
(x+5)2

4.4.29. tan−1 (x) dx 4.4.30. cot(x) dx

4.4.31. 5.02655 cm3

4.4.32.
(a) 51.2

(b) 76.8
4.4.33. 3.92699
4.4.34. −4 ft2

4.4.35. 4.4.36.
(a) 297.717 ft (a) 298.868 ft
(b) 62.3155 ft (b) 17.335 ft
(c) 20.9% (c) 5.8%
4.4.37. 4.4.38. Isosceles ... feet
(a) 298.868 ft

(b) 8.66751 ft
(c) 2.9%
4.4.39. 1%

4.5 · Taylor Polynomials

4.5 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

4.5.2. True
4.5.3. 6 + 3x − 4x2
4.5.4. 30

Problems

4.5.5. 1 − x + 0.5x2 − 0.166667x3 4.5.6.

x − 0.166667x3 + 0.00833333x5 − 0.000198413x7
4.5.7. x + x2 + 0.5x3 + 0.166667x4 + 0.0416667x5 4.5.8. x + 0.333333x3 + 0.133333x5
4.5.9. 1 + 2x + 2x2 + 1.33333x3 + 0.666667x4 4.5.10. 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4
4.5.11. 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 4.5.12. 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 − x5 + x6 − x7

2 2
4.5.13. 1 + 0.5(x − 1) − 0.125(x − 1) + 4.5.14. 0.693147 + 0.5(x − 1) − 0.125(x − 1) +
3 4 3 4
0.0625(x − 1) − 0.0390625(x − 1) 0.0416667(x − 1) − 0.015625(x − 1)
4.5.15.

2


2 4.5.16. 0.5 + 0.866025 x − π6 − 0.25 x − π6 −
0.707107 − 0.707107 x − π4 − 0.353553 x − π4 +
3
4

3
4 0.144338 x − π6 + 0.0208333 x − π6 +
0.117851 x − π4 + 0.0294628 x − π4 −
5

5
6 0.00721688 x − π6
0.00589256 x − π4 − 0.000982093 x − π4
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1023

4.5.17. 4.5.18.
2 3
0.5 − 0.25(x − 2) + 0.125(x − 2) − 0.0625(x − 2) + 2 3 4
1 − 2(x − 1) + 3(x − 1) − 4(x − 1) + 5(x − 1) −
4 5
0.03125(x − 2) + 0.015625(x − 2) 5 6 7
6(x − 1) + 7(x − 1) − 8(x − 1) + 9(x − 1)
8

2 π 2 −2 2
4.5.19. 0.5 + 0.5(x + 1) + 0.25(x + 1) 4.5.20. −π 2 − 2π(x − π) + 2 (x − π)

4.5.31. The nth term is: when n even, 0; when n is

(n−1)/2
odd, (−1) n! xn .

4.6 · L’Hospital’s Rule

4.6 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

4.6.2. False
4.6.3. False

Problems

4.6.9. 3 4.6.10. −1.66667

4.6.11. −1 4.6.12. −0.707107
4.6.13. 5 4.6.14. 0
4.6.15. 0.666667 4.6.16. a cos(a·0)
b cos(b·0)
4.6.17. ∞ 4.6.18. 0.5
4.6.19. 0 4.6.20. 0
4.6.21. 0 4.6.23. ∞
4.6.24. ∞ 4.6.25. 0
4.6.26. 2 4.6.27. −2
4.6.28. 0 4.6.29. 0
4.6.30. 0 4.6.31. 0
4.6.32. 0 4.6.33. ∞
4.6.34. ∞ 4.6.35. ∞
4.6.36. 0 4.6.37. 0
4.6.38. e 4.6.39. 1
4.6.40. 1 4.6.41. 1
4.6.42. 1 4.6.43. 1
4.6.44. 0 4.6.45. 1
4.6.46. 1 4.6.47. 1
4.6.48. 1 4.6.49. 2
4.6.50. 1 4.6.51. −∞
2
4.6.52. 1 4.6.53. 0
4.6.54. 3

5 · Integration
5 · Integration
5.1 · Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration
5.1 · Exercises
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1024

Terms and Concepts

5.1.2. an antiderivative
5.1.4. (a) opposite
(b) opposite
5.1.6. velocity
5.1.7. velocity
5.1.8. F (x) + G(x)

Problems

5.1.9. 1x8 + C 5.1.10. 1 10

10 x +C


5.1.11. 53 x3 + 3x + C 5.1.12. t + C
5.1.13. s + C 5.1.14. C − 40t
1
8
√
5.1.15. C − 1
t6
5.1.16. 2 x + C
5.1.17. sec(θ) + C 5.1.18. − cos(θ) + C
5.1.19. sec(x) + csc(x) + C 5.1.20. 2eθ + C
t
3 4t
5.1.21. ln(3) +C 5.1.22. 3 ln(4) +C
25

72


t3 + 30t2 + 36t + t10 6
5.1.23. 3 5 +C 5.1.24. 10 − 3 t2 + 4t2 + C
5.1.25. x9
+C 5.1.26. 1.41421e x + C
9
5.1.27. rx + C

5.1.30. − (cos(x) + 7)
5.1.31. 2ex + 8
4 3

5.1.32. 3 x4 − 2 x3 − 5
3

5.1.33. sec(x) + (−10)

5x
5.1.34. ln(5) − 25
ln(5) +7
5


5.1.35. 2 x2 + 4x + 9
1

9


5.1.36. 2 x3 + (−10) x + 2
5.1.37. 7e − 3x − 2
x

5.1.38. 2θ − cos(θ) + 10
29x6 6x
5.1.39. 30 + 3.2104 − cos(x) − 3.55811x − 0.311487
5.1.40. 3x + 23

5.2 · The Definite Integral

5.2 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

5.2.3. 0
R
5.2.4. 02 (2x + 3) dx
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1025

Problems

5.2.5. 5.2.6.
(a) 3 (a) −4
(b) 4 (b) −5
(c) 3 (c) −3
(d) 0 (d) 1
(e) −4 (e) −2
(f) 9 (f) 10
5.2.7. 5.2.8.
(a) 4 (a) − 12
(b) 2 (b) 0
3
(c) 4 (c) 2
3
(d) 2 (d) 2
9
(e) 1 (e) 2
15
(f) 2 (f) 2
5.2.9. 5.2.10.
(a) π (a) 15
(b) π (b) 12
(c) 2π (c) 0

(d) 10π (d) 3(b − a)

5.2.11. 5.2.12.

(a) −59 (a) 4

π
−4
(b) −48 (b) π

(c) −27 (c) 0

(d) −33 (d) 2
π
5.2.13. 5.2.14.
40
(a) 4 (a) 3
26
(b) 4 (b) 3

(c) −4 (c) 8
3

(d) −2 (d) 38
3

5.2.15. 5.2.16.
ft ft
(a) 2 s (a) 3 s

(b) 2 ft (b) 9.5 ft

(c) 1.5 ft (c) 9.5 ft
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1026

5.2.17.
ft
(a) 64 s

(b) 64 ft
(c) 2 s

(d) 4.64575 s
5.2.18.
ft
(a) 96 s

(b) 6 s
(c) 6 s
(d) 208 ft
5.2.19. 2 5.2.20. 5
5.2.21. 16 5.2.22. a = − 27 b

5.2.23. 22 5.2.24. −7
5.2.25. 0 5.2.26. a = − 18
11 b

5.3 · Riemann Sums

5.3 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

5.3.1. limits
5.3.2. 14
5.3.3. rectangles
5.3.4. True

Problems

5.3.5. (a) 9 + 16 + 25 5.3.6. (a) −8 + (−3) + 2 + 7 + 12 + 17

(b) 50 (b) 27
5.3.7. (a) 0 + (−1) + 0 + 1 + 0 5.3.8. (a) 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5
(b) 0 (b) 40
5.3.9. (a) 1 + 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1 5.3.10.
2 3 4 5 6
(b) 49 (a) −1 + 2 + (−3) + 4 + (−5) + 6 + (−7) + 8
20
(b) 4
1 1 1 5.3.12. (a) 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
5.3.11. (a) 2 + 6 + 12
3 (b) 7
(b) 4

5.3.13. 1; 4; 5i 5.3.14. 0; 6; i2 − 2
i i
5.3.15. 1; 5; i+4 5.3.16. 1; 5; − (−e)

5.3.17. 40 5.3.18. 406

5.3.19. 1794 5.3.20. 36552
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1027

5.3.21. 3308 5.3.22. 903

5.3.23. 4560 5.3.24. 4324

5.3.25. 155 5.3.26. 170729

5.3.27. 48 5.3.28. 22491

(n−1)2 −9 9
5.3.35. (a) 5.3.36. (a) 6 + 1n + 1n2
4n2
(b) 0.2025 (b) 5.19
(c) 0.245025 (c) 5.9109
(d) 0.2495 (d) 5.99101
(e) 1 (e) 6
4
3 844

−256 128
5.3.37. (a) 2 5.3.38. (a) 3 + 1n + 3n2
3
(b) 2 (b) 256.16
3
(c) 2 (c) 278.778
3
(d) 2 (d) 281.077
3 844
(e) 2 (e) 3
5.3.39. (a) 60 − 200
n 5.3.40. (a) − 12
1
+ 1
12n2
(b) 40 (b) −0.0825
(c) 58 (c) −0.083325
(d) 59.8 (d) −0.0833332
(e) 60 (e) − 12
1

5.4 · The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5.4 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

5.4.2. 0
5.4.3. True

Problems

5.4.5. 40 5.4.6. 98
3
5.4.7. 0 5.4.8. 1
√
5.4.9. 2 − 2 5.4.10. 7
( 4095
512 )
5.4.12. −14
5.4.11. ln(8)
5.4.13. 6 5.4.14. e2 − e1
5.4.15. 248 5.4.16. 4
3
968 5.4.18. ln(6)
5.4.17. 5
6 242
5.4.19. 7 5.4.20. 1215
1 1
5.4.21. 2 5.4.22. 3
1 1
5.4.23. 4 5.4.24. 90
5.4.25. 14 5.4.26. 16
5.4.27. 0 5.4.28. 1
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1028

5.4.31. 1.1547 5.4.32. −4.6188, 4.6188

5.4.33. 0.541325 5.4.34. 4
1
π− π
·3.14159 π−0 ·3.14159
0

5.4.35. 2 5.4.36. π
π
7 64
5.4.37. 2 5.4.38. 3
729 1
5.4.39. 4 5.4.40. e1 −1

5.4.41. −144 ft 5.4.42. 504 ft

5.4.43. 28 ft 5.4.44. 246.212 mi
5.4.45. −1 ft 5.4.46. 160
3 ft

ft ft
5.4.47. −256 s 5.4.48. 99 s
1 ft ft
5.4.49. 2 s 5.4.50. 0 s

5.4.55. 3x2 −2 5.4.56. −3x11

x3 −2x


5.4.57. 4x3 x4 − 1 − (x − 1) 5.4.58. x1 eln(x) − esin(x) cos(x)

q
5.4.59. 4x3 sin 3x8 1 √ 4 √ 2
5.4.60. 2√ ( x) + 5( x) +
p x
sin(x) cos4 (x) + 5 cos2 (x)

5.5 · Numerical Integration

5.5 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

5.5.1. False
5.5.4. A quadratic function (i.e., parabola)

Problems

5.5.5. 5.5.6.
(a) 0.75 (a) 250
(b) 0.666667 (b) 250
(c) 0.666667 (c) 250
5.5.7. 5.5.8.
(a) 1.89612 (a) 5.14626
(b) 2.00456 (b) 5.25221
(c) 2 (c) 5.33333
5.5.9. 5.5.10.

(a) 38.5781 (a) 0.220703

(b) 36.75 (b) 0.200521
(c) 36.75 (c) 0.2
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1029

5.5.11. 5.5.12.
(a) 0 (a) 12.2942
(b) 0 (b) 13.3923
(c) 0 (c) 14.1372

5.5.13. 5.5.14.

(a) 0.900628 (a) 3.02419

(b) 0.904523 (b) 2.93151

5.5.15. 5.5.16.
(a) 13.9604 (a) 3.06949
(b) 13.9066 (b) 3.14295
5.5.17. 5.5.18.
(a) 1.17029 (a) 2.52971
(b) 1.18728 (b) 2.54465
5.5.19. 5.5.20.

(a) 1.08025 (a) 3.46822

(b) 1.07699 (b) 3.4985

5.5.21. 5.5.22.
(a) 161 (a) 130
(b) 12 (b) 18
5.5.23. 5.5.24.
(a) 994 (a) 5591

(b) 62 (b) 46

5.5.25. (a) 30.8667 cm2 5.5.26. (a) 25.0667 cm2

(b) 308667 ft2 (b) 250667 ft2

5.6 · Substitution
5.6 · Exercises
Terms and Concepts

5.6.1. the Chain Rule

5.6.2. True

Problems

1

8 1

10
5.6.3. 8 x4 + 8 +C 5.6.4. x2 + 9x + 1
10 +C

5

10
10 x − 7 7x − 6x2 + 5
1 2 3
5.6.5. +C 5.6.6. 10 +C
1 2

√
5.6.7. 4 ln(|4x + 6|) + C 5.6.8. 5 5x + 3 + C
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1030

√

5.6.9. 23 (x − 2) x+1+C 5.6.10. x( 2 ) 29 x3 + 2 + C
3

√
√
5.6.11. 2e x
+C 5.6.12. 27 x7 + 7 + C

2 ln2 (x)
5.6.13. C − 1 1
4 x2 +9 5.6.14. 2 +C

(sin(x))4 (cos(x))5
5.6.15. 4 +C 5.6.16. C − 5
cos(1−6x) tan(7−5x)
5.6.17. 6 +C 5.6.18. C − 5
1 9
5.6.19. 7 ln(|sec(7x) + tan(7x)|) + C 5.6.20. 19 (tan(x)) + C


5.6.21. 1
9 sin x 9
+C 5.6.22. tan(x) − x + C
5.6.23. ln(|sin(x)|) + C 5.6.24. − ln(|csc(x) + cot(x)|) + C

5.6.25. 14 e4x−5 + C
5
5.6.26. 15 ex + C
5.6.27. 12 e(x+1) + C
2
5.6.28. x − 3e−x + C
1 −3x


5.6.29. ln(ex + 7) + C 5.6.30. C − 3e + 51 e−5x
99x 28x
5.6.31. 19.775 +C 5.6.32. 5.54518 +C

ln2 (x) (ln(x))5

5.6.33. 2 +C 5.6.34. 5 +C

2 1 6



5 5.6.36.
5.6.35. 2 (ln(x)) + C 6 ln ln x +C

x2 x3 x2
5.6.37. 2 + 3x − 8 ln(|x|) + C 5.6.38. 3 + 2 + x + ln(|x|) + C
5.6.39.
5.6.40. (x+8)2
− 7(x + 8) − 17 ln(|x + 8|) + C
1 3 3 2 2
3 (x + 1) + 2 (x + 1) +3(x + 1)−ln(|x + 1|)+C



5.6.41.  5.6.42. 1
3 ln x3 − 6x2 + 9 +C
2
C − 4(x − 6) + 92(x − 6) + 266 ln(|x − 6|)

5.6.43. 2.44949 tan−1 x
2.44949 +C 5.6.44. 5 sin−1 x5 + C


 
5.6.45. 7 sin−1 x
3.16228 +C 5.6.46. 97 sec−1 |x| +C
7

 

5.6.47. 3
sec−1 |x|
+C 5.6.48. 0.5 sin−1 x2 + C
4 8



5.6.49. 0.258199 tan−1 x+9
15 +C 5.6.50. 3 sin−1 x−86 +C
−1 x−6

−1 x−4


5.6.51. 6 sin 3 +C 5.6.52. tan 8 +C

6
5.6.53. C − 5(x51−2) 5.6.54. 5x6 − 6x4 + 6
1
+C
36

√

5.6.55. 16 6 + 6x2 + C 5.6.56. tan x8 + 3 + C

5.6.57. C − 23 (cos(x))( 2 )
3
5.6.58. C − 1
9 cos(9x + 5)
5.6.59. ln(|x − 8|) + C 5.6.60. 2 ln(|x + 5|) + C



5.6.61. 2x + 3x + ln x − 4x + 5
2 2
+C 5.6.62. ln x2 − 2x − 3 + C




5.6.63. 2 ln x2 − 9x + 3 + C 5.6.64. − 12 x2 + 9x + ln x2 + 3x + 4 + C
 2
1
5.6.65. 14 tan−1 x7 + C 5.6.66. tan−1 (8x) + C


5.6.67. sec−1 (|9x|) + C 5.6.68. 1
5 sin−1 5 x2 + C
5.6.69.




5.6.70.





2 ln x − 12x + 117 −
5 2 8
9 tan−1 x−6
9 +C 5
3 tan
−1 x−4
6 + 3
2 ln x2 − 8x + 52 +C
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1031

5.6.71. x2




5.6.72. − 18 ln x2 + 36 +C
x+20.1246 tan−1
2
+9 ln x2 − 4x + 9 +C
x−2
2.23607


5.6.73. 12 x2 − 6x + 4 ln x2 + 6x + 19 + 5.6.74. − tan−1 (cos(x)) + C


11.7004 tan−1 3.16228
x+3
+C
5.6.75. tan−1 (sin(x)) + C 5.6.76. C − ln(|csc(x) + cot(x)|)
√ √
5.6.77. 5 x2 + 16x + 56 + C 5.6.78. x2 + 12x + 34 + C

5


10190
5.6.79. ln 8
5.6.80. 3
1 1
5.6.81. 3 5.6.82. 8

π
5.6.83. 1
2 e4 − e 4 5.6.84. 2
π

5.6.85. 2 5.6.86. 1
6 π

5.7 · Hyperbolic Functions

5.7 · Exercises
Problems

5.7.11. 2 cosh(2x) 5.7.12. 2 cosh(x) sinh(x)

5.7.13. sech2 x2 · 2x 5.7.14. 1
sinh(x) cosh(x)
5.7.15. cosh(x) cosh(x) + sinh(x) sinh(x) 5.7.16. sinh(x) + x cosh(x) − sinh(x)
5.7.17. − √ 1 2
· 2x 5.7.18. 3 √ 1 2
x2 1−(x2 ) 1+(3x)

5.7.19. √ 1 2 · 2 · 2x 5.7.20. 1
(2x2 ) −1 1−(x+5)2

5.7.21. − 1−cos1 2 (x) sin(x) 5.7.22. √ 1

sec(x) tan(x)
sec2 (x)−1

5.7.23. 1(x − 0) + 0 5.7.24. 0.75(x − 0.693147) + 1.25

5.7.25. 0.36(x − (−1.09861)) + (−0.8) 5.7.26. −0.576(x − 1.09861) + 0.36
5.7.27. 1(x − 0) + 0 5.7.28. 1(x − 1.41421) + 0.881374

5.7.29. 0.5 ln(cosh(2x)) + C 5.7.30. 0.333333 sinh(3x − 7) + C

5.7.31. 0.5 sinh (x) + C2 5.7.32. x sinh(x) − cosh(x) + C
√

5.7.33. x cosh(x) − sinh(x) + C 5.7.34. sinh−1 x + C = ln x + x2 + 1 + C
√

5.7.35. cosh−1 x/3 + C = ln x + x2 − 9 + C 5.7.36. 0.5 ln(|x + 1|) − 0.5 ln(|x − 1|) + C
 2

5.7.37. cosh−1 x2 + C 5.7.38. 0.666667 sinh−1 x1.5 + C


5.7.39. −0.0625 tan−1 x2 + 0.03125 ln(|x − 2|) − 5.7.40. ln(x) − ln(|x + 1|) + C
0.03125 ln(|x + 2|) + C
√
5.7.41. tan−1 (ex ) + C 5.7.42. x sinh−1 (x) − x2 + 1 + C


5.7.43. x tanh−1 (x) + 0.5 ln x2 − 1 +C 5.7.44. tan−1 (sinh(x)) + C

5.7.45. 0 5.7.46. 1.5

5.7.47. 0.761594 5.7.48. 1.44364
Appendix B

Quick Reference

B.1 Differentiation Formulas

List B.1.1 Derivative Rules

d d
1. (cx) = c 5. (u(v)) = u′ (v)v ′
dx dx
d
2. (u ± v) = u′ ± v ′
dx d
6. (c) = 0
d dx
3. (u · v) = uv ′ + u′ v
dx
d u vu′ − uv ′ d
4. ( )= 7. (x) = 1
dx v v2 dx

List B.1.2 Derivatives of Elementary Functions

d n d
1. (x ) = nxn−1 10. (tan x) = sec2 x
dx dx
d x d
2. (e ) = ex 11. (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx
d x
3. (a ) = ln a · ax d
dx 12. (cosh x) = sinh x
dx
d 1
4. (ln x) =
dx x d
13. (sinh x) = cosh x
d 1 1 dx
5. (loga x) = ·
dx ln a x d
14. (sech x) = − sech x tanh x
d dx
6. (sin x) = cos x
dx
d
d 15. (tanh x) = sech2 x
7. (cos x) = − sin x dx
dx
d d
8. (csc x) = − csc x cot x 16. (csch x) = − csch x coth x
dx dx
d d
9. (sec x) = sec x tan x 17. (coth x) = − csch2 x
dx dx

1087
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1088

List B.1.3 Derivatives of Inverse Functions

d 1 d 1
1. (sin−1 x) = √ 7. (cosh−1 x) = √
dx 1 − x2 dx x −1
2

d −1 d 1
2. (cos−1 x) = √ 8. (sinh−1 x) = √
dx 1 − x2 dx 2
x +1
d −1 d −1
3. (csc−1 x) = √ 9. (sech−1 x) = √
dx |x| x2 − 1 dx x 1 − x2
d 1 d −1
4. (sec−1 x) = √ 10. (csch−1 x) = √
dx |x| x2 − 1 dx |x| 1 + x2
d 1 d 1
5. (tan−1 x) = 11. (tanh−1 x) =
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 − x2
d −1 d 1
6. (cot−1 x) = 12. (coth−1 x) =
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 − x2

B.2 Integration Formulas

List B.2.1 Basic Rules

Z Z Z
1. c · f (x) dx = c f (x) dx 3. 0 dx = C
Z Z Z Z


2. f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx 4. 1 dx = x + C

List B.2.2 Integrals of Elementary (non-Trig) Functions

Z Z
1
1. x x
e dx = e + C 4. dx = ln |x| + C
x
Z Z
1
2. ln x dx = x ln x − x + C 5. xn dx = xn+1 + C, n ̸= −1
n+1
Z
1
3. ax dx = · ax + C
ln a

List B.2.3 Integrals Involving Trigonometric Functions

Z
1. cos x dx = sin x + C
Z
2. sin x dx = − cos x + C
Z
3. tan x dx = − ln |cos x| + C
Z
4. sec x dx = ln |sec x + tan x| + C
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1089

Z
5. csc x dx = − ln |csc x + cot x| + C
Z
6. cot x dx = ln |sin x| + C
Z
7. sec2 x dx = tan x + C
Z
8. csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
Z
9. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
Z
10. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C
Z
1 1

11. cos2 x dx = x + sin 2x + C
2 4
Z
1 1

12. x − sin 2x + C
sin2 x dx =
2 4
Z  
1 1 −1 x
13. dx = tan +C
x2 + a2 a a
Z x
1
14. √ = sin−1 +C
a2 − x2 a
Z  
1 1 |x|
15. √ = sec−1 +C
x x −a
2 2 a a

List B.2.4 Integrals Involving Hyperbolic Functions

Z
1. cosh x dx = sinh x + C
Z
2. sinh x dx = cosh x + C
Z
3. tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C
Z
4. coth x dx = ln |sinh x| + C
Z p
1
5. √ dx = ln x + x2 − a2 + C
−a x2
2
Z p
1
6. √ dx = ln x + x2 + a2 + C
x2 + a2
Z
1 1 a+x
7. dx = ln +C
a −x
2 2 2a a−x
Z  
1 1 x
8. √ dx = ln √ +C
x a2 − x2 a a + a2 − x2
Z
1 1 x
9. √ = ln √ +C
2
x x +a 2 a a + x2 + a2
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1090

B.3 Trigonometry Reference

The Unit Circle.

y

( √ ) (0, 1) ( √ )
−1, 3 1
, 3
( √ √ 2) 2 2 ( 2√ √ )
− 2
2
, 22 π/2
2
2
, 2
2

( √ ) 2π/3 π/3 (√ )
− 23 , 12 3π/4 90◦ π/4
3 1
,2
120◦ 60 ◦ 2
◦ 45◦ π/6
5π/6 135
150◦ 30◦

(−1, 0) π 180◦ 0◦ 0 (1, 0) x

210◦ 330◦
7π/6 225◦ 315◦ 11π/6
( √ ) ◦ (√ )
5π/4 240 300◦ 7π/4
− 23 , − 12 270◦ 2
3
, − 21
( √ √ ) 4π/3 5π/3 (√ √ )
− 22 , − 22 3π/2
2
, − 2
( √ ) ( √2 ) 2
− 12 , − 23 1
2
, − 23
(0, −1)

B.3.1 Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

Unit Circle Definition.

y sin θ = y cos θ = x

1 1
(x, y) csc θ =
y
sec θ =
x
y x
y θ tan θ =
x
cot θ =
y

x
x
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1091

Right Triangle Definition.

O H
sin θ = csc θ =
se H O

Opposite
u
ten A H
o cos θ = sec θ =
H yp H A
O A
θ tan θ =
A
cot θ =
O
Adjacent

B.3.2 Common Trigonometric Identities

1. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 1. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

2. tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x 2.

3. 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x

= 2 cos2 x − 1
List B.3.1 Pythagorean Identities
= 1 − 2 sin2 x

2 tan x
3. tan 2x =
1 − tan2 x

List B.3.2 Double Angle Formulas

π 
1. sin − x = cos x 1. sin(−x) = − sin x
2
π  2. cos(−x) = cos x
2. cos − x = sin x
2 3. tan(−x) = − tan x
π 
3. tan − x = cot x 4. csc(−x) = − csc x
2
π 
5. sec(−x) = sec x
4. csc − x = sec x
2
π  6. cot(−x) = − cot x
5. sec − x = csc x
2 List B.3.4 Even/Odd Identities
π 
6. cot − x = tan x
2

List B.3.3 Cofunction Identities

APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1092

   
2 1 − cos 2x x+y x−y
1. sin x = 1. sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2 2
1 + cos 2x    
2. cos2 x = x−y x+y
2 2. sin x − sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
1 − cos 2x
3. tan2 x = 3. cos x  + cos y  =
1 + cos 2x x+y x−y
2 cos cos
List B.3.5 Power-Reducing Formulas 2 2
4. cos x  −   cos y  =
x+y x−y
−2 sin sin
2 2

List B.3.6 Sum to Product Formulas

List B.3.7 Product to Sum Formulas

1

1. sin x sin y = cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)
2
1

2. cos x cos y = cos(x − y) + cos(x + y)
2
1

3. sin x cos y = sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)
2

List B.3.8 Angle Sum/Difference Formulas

1. sin(x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y

2. cos(x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y
tan x ± tan y
3. tan(x ± y) =
1 ∓ tan x tan y

B.4 Areas and Volumes

Triangles Right Circular Cone
c
h = a sin θ h a Volume = 13 πr2 h

Area = 12 bh
θ
Surface
√ Area = h
b πr r2 + h2 + πr2
Law of Cosines: r
c2 = a2 +b2 −2ab cos θ
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1093

Parallelograms Right Circular Cylinder

r
Area = bh h Volume = πr2 h

b Surface Area = 2πrh + h

2πr2

Trapezoids a Sphere
Area = 12 (a + b)h Volume = 43 πr3
h
Surface Area =4πr2
r
b

Circles General Cone

Area = πr2 Area of Base = A
Circumference = 2πr
r Volume = 13 Ah
h

Sectors of Circles General Right Cylinder

θ in radians s Area of Base = A

Area = 12 θr2 Volume = Ah

θ h
s = rθ
r
A

B.5 Algebra

Factors and Zeros of Polynomials.

Let p(x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +· · ·+a1 x+a0 be a polynomial. If p(a) = 0, then a is a zero of the polynomial
and a solution of the equation p(x) = 0. Furthermore, (x − a) is a f actor of the polynomial.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

An nth degree polynomial has n (not necessarily distinct) zeros. Although all of these zeros may be imaginary,
a real polynomial of odd degree must have at least one real zero.

Quadratic Formula.
√
If p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, and 0 ≤ b2 − 4ac, then the real zeros of p are x = (−b ± b2 − 4ac)/2a
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1094

Special Factors.

x2 − a2 = (x − a)(x + a)
x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )
x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − ax + a2 )
x4 − a4 = (x2 − a2 )(x2 + a2 )
n(n − 1) n−2 2
(x + y)n = xn + nxn−1 y + x y + · · · + nxy n−1 + y n
2!
n(n − 1) n−2 2
(x − y)n = xn − nxn−1 y + x y − · · · ± nxy n−1 ∓ y n
2!

Binomial Theorem.

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2
(x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3
(x − y)3 = x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4
(x − y)4 = x4 − 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 − 4xy 3 + y 4

Rational Zero Theorem.

If p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 has integer coefficients, then every rational zero of p is of the
form x = r/s, where r is a factor of a0 and s is a factor of an .

Factoring by Grouping.

acx3 + adx2 + bcx + bd = ax2 (cx + d) + b(cx + d) = (ax2 + b)(cx + d)

Arithmetic Operations.

a c ad + bc a+b a b
ab + ac = a(b + c) + = = +
a b  d bd c c c
a
 a   d  ad
 cb  = = b = a a
 =
ac
b c bc c bc b b
d c
 
b ab a−b b−a ab + ac
a = = =b+c
c c c−d d−c a

Exponents and Radicals.

√
a0 = 1, a ̸= 0 (ab)x = ax bx ax ay = ax+y a = a1/2
ax √  a x ax √
= ax−y n
a = a1/n = x n
am = am/n
ay b b r
√ √ √
1 √ a n
a
a−x = x = √
n n
ab = n
a b (ax )y = axy n
n
a b b
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1095

B.6 Additional Formulas

Summation Formulas:.

X
n X
n
n(n + 1)
c = cn i=
i=1 i=1
2
X
n Xn  2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
i2 = i3 =
i=1
6 i=1
2

Trapezoidal Rule:.
Z b
∆x  
f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
a 2
(b − a)3  
with Error ≤ 2
max |f ′′ (x)|
12n

Simpson’s Rule:.
Z b
∆x  
f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−2 ) + 4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
a 3
(b − a)5  
with Error ≤ max f (4) (x)
180n4

Arc Length:.
Z b p
L= 1 + f ′ (x)2 dx
a

Surface of Revolution:.
Z b p
2π f (x) 1 + f ′ (x)2 dx
a

(where f (x) ≥ 0)
Z b p
S = 2π x 1 + f ′ (x)2 dx
a

(where a, b ≥ 0)

Work Done by a Variable Force:.

Z b
W = F (x)dx
a

Force Exerted by a Fluid:.

Z b
F = w d(y) ℓ(y)dy
a
APPENDIX B. QUICK REFERENCE 1096

Taylor Series Expansion for f (x):.

f ′′ (c) f (n) (c)

pn (x) = f (c) + f ′ (c)(x − c) + (x − c)2 + · · · + (x − c)n + · · ·
2! n!

Maclaurin Series Expansion for f (x), where c = 0:.

f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3 f (n) (0) n

pn (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + ··· + x + ···
2! 3! n!

B.7 Summary of Tests for Series

Table B.7.1
Condition(s) of Condition(s) of
Test Series Comment
Convergence Divergence
∞
X Cannot be used to show
nth-Term an lim an ̸= 0
n→∞ convergence.
n=1
X∞
Geometric Series rn |r| < 1 |r| ≥ 1 1
Sum =
n=0 1−r
X∞ !
X
a
Telescoping Series (bn − bn+a ) lim bn = L Sum = bn −L
n→∞
n=1
n=1
X∞
1
p-Series p>1 p≤1
(an + b)p
n=1 Z ∞
∞
X Z ∞
a(n) dn an = a(n) must be
Integral Test an a(n) dn diverges
1
converges continuous
n=0 1
X∞ ∞
X
∞
X bn converges and bn diverges and
Direct Comparison an n=0 n=0
n=0 0 ≤ a n ≤ bn 0 ≤ bn ≤ a n
X∞ X∞
∞
X bn converges and bn diverges and Also diverges if
Limit Comparison an n=0 n=0 lim abnn = ∞
n=0 lim an ≥0 lim an >0 n→∞
n→∞ bn n→∞ bn
∞
X an+1 an+1
Ratio Test an lim <1 lim >1 {an } must be positive
n=0
n→∞ an n→∞ an
an+1
Also diverges if lim an =∞
n→∞
∞
X
1/n
1/n
Root Test an lim an <1 lim an >1 {an } must be positive
n→∞ n→∞
n=0
Also diverges if lim (an )1/n = ∞
n→∞
Index

!, 464 carrying capacity, 433

Absolute Convergence Theorem, center of mass, 856, 857, 859, 860,
518 889
absolute maximum, 132 Chain Rule, 106
absolute minimum, 132 multivariable, 766, 769
Absolute Value Theorem, 469 notation, 112
acceleration, 82, 723 chain rule
accumulated error as matrix multiplication, 810
using Euler’s method, 435 change of variables, 906
Alternating Harmonic Series, 487, circle of curvature, 749
516, 528 circulation, 958
Alternating Series Test, 512 closed, 614
aN , 740, 751 closed disk, 614
analytic function, 536 concave down, 154
angle of elevation, 728 concave up, 154
antiderivative, 223 concavity, 154, 573
of vector-valued function, 718 inflection point, 156
approximation test for, 156
linear, 195 conic sections, 547
tangent line, 195 degenerate, 547
arc length, 400, 575, 600, 720, 745 ellipse, 550
arc length parameter, 745, 747 hyperbola, 553
asymptote parabola, 547
horizontal, 54 connected, 953
vertical, 53 simply, 953
aT , 740, 751 conservative field, 953, 954, 956
average rate of change, 709 Constant Multiple Rule
average value of a function, 841 of derivatives, 89
average value of function, 269 of integration, 227
average velocity, 7 of series, 486
constrained optimization, 799
bacterial growth, 454 continuity
Binomial Series, 536 of exponential functions, 20
Bisection Method, 45 of logarithmic functions, 20
boundary point, 614 of polynomial functions, 20
bounded of rational functions, 20
interval, 40 of trigonometric functions, 20
bounded sequence, 471 continuous
convergence, 472 at a point, 39
bounded set, 614 everywhere, 39

1097
INDEX 1098

on an interval, 39 rectangular equation, 560

continuous function, 39, 619 smooth, 566
properties, 42, 620 curve sketching, 163
vector-valued, 712 cusp, 566
contour lines, 608 cycloid, 708
convergence cylinder, 639
absolute, 516, 518 cylindrical coordinates, 895
Alternating Series Test, 512
conditional, 516 decreasing function, 146
Direct Comparison Test, 497 finding intervals, 147
for integration, 364 definite integral, 234
Integral Test, 494 and substitution, 301
interval of, 523 of vector-valued function, 718
Limit Comparison Test, 499 properties, 235
for integration, 365 del operator, 941
nth-term test, 489 derivative
of geometric series, 481 acceleration, 82
of improper int., 359, 364, as a function, 69
365 at a point, 65
of monotonic sequences, 474 basic rules, 87
of p-series, 483 Chain Rule, 106, 112, 766, 769
of power series, 523 Constant Multiple Rule, 89
of sequence, 467, 472 Constant Rule, 87
of series, 478 differential, 195
radius of, 523 directional, 775, 776, 778, 781
Ratio Comparison Test, 505 exponential functions, 112
Root Comparison Test, 507 First Deriv. Test, 149
coordinates general, 809
cylindrical, 895 Generalized Power Rule, 107
polar, 580 higher order, 90
spherical, 898 interpretation, 91
critical number, 134 hyperbolic funct., 309
critical point, 134, 795, 797 implicit, 115, 770
critical value interpretation, 80
of a function of two variables, inverse function, 126
815 inverse hyper., 313
cross product inverse trig., 129
and derivatives, 715 logarithmic, 121
applications, 681 Mean Value Theorem, 141
area of parallelogram, 682 mixed partial, 628
torque, 684 motion, 82
volume of parallelepiped, multivariable differentiability,
684 757, 762
definition, 678 normal line, 67
properties, 680 notation, 69, 90
curl, 942 parametric equations, 570
of conservative fields, 956 partial, 623, 632
curvature, 747 Power Rule, 87, 101, 120
and motion, 751 power series, 526
equations for, 748 Product Rule, 95
of circle, 749 Quotient Rule, 98
radius of, 749 Second Deriv. Test, 159
curve Sum/Difference Rule, 89
parametrically defined, 560 tangent line, 65
INDEX 1099

trigonometric functions, 99 of improper int., 359, 364,

vector-valued functions, 713, 365
715 of p-series, 483
velocity, 82 of sequence, 467
difference quotient, 7 of series, 478
differentiability Ratio Comparison Test, 505
functions of several variables, Root Comparison Test, 507
807 Divergence Theorem
differentiable, 65, 757, 762 in space, 987
general functions, 805 in the plane, 964
on a closed interval, 74 dot product
differential, 195 and derivatives, 715
notation, 195 definition, 665
differential equation properties, 665, 666
definition, 427 double integral, 835, 836
first order linear, 446 in polar, 846
general solution, 428 properties, 838
graphical solution, 432
implicit soution, 431 eccentricity, 552, 554
integrating factor, 447 elementary function, 273
logistic, 433, 457 ellipse
modeling, 454 definition, 550
numerical solution, 433 eccentricity, 552
order of, 427 parametric equations, 565
particular solution, 428 reflective property, 552
separable, 440 standard equation, 550
Direct Comparison Test Euler’s Method, 434
for integration, 364 Euler’s method
for series, 497 accumulated error, 435
direction field, see slope field everywhere continuous, 39
directional derivative, 775, 776, exponential function
778, 781 continuity of, 20
directrix, 547, 639 extrema
discontinuity absolute, 132, 795
infinite, 43 and First Deriv. Test, 149
jump, 43 and Second Deriv. Test, 159
removable, 43 finding, 135
Disk Method, 381 relative, 133, 134, 795
displacement, 263, 708, 720 Extreme Value Theorem, 133, 799
distance extreme values, 132
between lines, 693
between point and line, 693 factorial, 464
between point and plane, 701 First Derivative Test, 149
between points in space, 637 first octant, 637
traveled, 730 floor function, 39
divergence, 941, 942 flow, 958, 959
Alternating Series Test, 512 fluid pressure/force, 419, 420
Direct Comparison Test, 497 flux, 958, 959, 981, 982
for integration, 364 focus, 547, 550, 553
Integral Test, 494 Fubini’s Theorem, 836
Limit Comparison Test, 499 function
for integration, 365 continuous, 39
nth-term test, 489 floor, 39
of geometric series, 481 of three variables, 611
INDEX 1100

of two variables, 606 for differential equations, 428

vector-valued, 705 Integral Test, 494
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, integration
260, 261 arc length, 400
and Chain Rule, 265 area, 234, 828
Fundamental Theorem of Line area between curves, 266,
Integrals, 953, 954 372
average value, 269
Gabriel’s Horn, 405 by parts, 321
Gauss’s Law, 990 by substitution, 290
general solution definite, 234
of a differential equation, 428 and substitution, 301
Generalized Power Rule, 107 properties, 235
geometric series, 480, 481 Riemann Sums, 256
gradient, 776, 778, 781, 791 displacement, 263
and level curves, 778 distance traveled, 730
and level surfaces, 791 double, 835
Green’s Theorem, 961, 962 fluid force, 419, 420
Fun. Thm. of Calc., 260, 261
half life, 462
general application technique,
Harmonic Series, 487
370
Head To Tail Rule, 655
hyperbolic funct., 309
Hooke’s Law, 412
improper, 359, 362, 364, 365
hyperbola
definition, 553 indefinite, 223
eccentricity, 554 inverse hyperbolic, 314
parametric equations, 565 iterated, 827
reflective property, 555 Mean Value Theorem, 267
standard equation, 553 multiple, 827
hyperbolic function notation, 224, 234, 261, 827
definition, 306 numerical, 273
derivatives, 309 Left/Right Hand Rule, 273,
identities, 309 282
integrals, 309 Simpson’s Rule, 280, 282,
inverse, 311 283
derivative, 313 Trapezoidal Rule, 276, 282,
integration, 314 283
logarithmic def., 312 of multivariable functions,
825
image of power series, 526
of a point, 908 of trig. functions, 295
of a subset, 908 of trig. powers, 331, 335
implicit differentiation, 115, 770 of vector-valued function, 718
improper integration, 359, 362 of vector-valued functions,
incompressible vector field, 942 718
increasing function, 146 partial fraction decomp., 351
finding intervals, 147 Power Rule, 227
indefinite integral, 223 Sum/Difference Rule, 227
of vector-valued function, 718 surface area, 403, 576, 601
indeterminate form, 3, 53, 216, trig. subst., 342
218 triple, 874, 886, 887
inflection point, 156 volume
initial condition, 428 cross-sectional area, 380
initial point, 652 Disk Method, 381
initial value problem, 228 Shell Method, 391, 395
INDEX 1101

Washer Method, 384, 395 Squeeze Theorem, 22

with cylindrical coordinates, Limit Comparison Test
896 for integration, 365
with spherical coordinates, for series, 499
900 line integral
work, 409 Fundamental Theorem, 953,
interior point, 614 954
Intermediate Value Theorem, 44 over scalar field, 930, 931,
interval of convergence, 523 948
inverse over vector field, 949
of a transformation, 919 path independent, 953, 954
iterated integration, 827, 835, 836, properties over a scalar field,
874, 886, 887 935
changing order, 830 properties over a vector field,
properties, 838, 881 951
linear function, 805
Jacobian linearization, 195, 804
of a transformation, 910 functions of several variables,
Jacobian matrix, 809 806
lines, 688
l’Hospital’s Rule distances between, 693
infinity over infinity, 215 equations for, 689
zero over zero, 214 intersecting, 690
Lagrange multipliers, 814 parallel, 690
lamina, 853 skew, 690
Left Hand Rule, 244, 248, 273 logarithmic differentiation, 121
Left/Right Hand Rule, 282 logarithmic function
level curves, 608, 778 continuity of, 20
level surface, 611, 791
limit Maclaurin Polynomial
Absolute Value Theorem, 469 definition, 204
at infinity, 54 Maclaurin Polynomial|see{Taylor
definition, 11 Polynomial}, 204
difference quotient, 7 Maclaurin Series
does not exist, 5, 32 definition, 533
indeterminate form, 3, 24, 53, Maclaurin Series|see{Taylor
216, 218 Series}, 533
l’Hospital’s Rule, 214, 215 magnitude of vector, 652
left-handed, 30 mass, 853, 854, 889, 935
of exponential functions, 20 center of, 856, 935
of infinity, 51 matrix
of logarithmic functions, 20 Jacobian, 809
of multivariable function, 615, maximum
616, 621 absolute, 132, 795
of polynomial functions, 20 and First Deriv. Test, 149
of rational functions, 20 and Second Deriv. Test, 159
of sequence, 467 relative/local, 134, 795, 798
of trigonometric functions, 20 Mean Value Theorem
of vector-valued functions, of differentiation, 141
711 of integration, 267
one-sided, 30 Midpoint Rule, 244, 248
properties, 18, 616 minimum
pseudo-definition, 3 absolute, 132, 795
right-handed, 30 and First Deriv. Test, 149, 159
INDEX 1102

relative/local, 133, 795, 798 definition, 547

moment, 858, 860, 889 general equation, 548
monotonic sequence, 472 reflective property, 549
multi-index notation, 821 parallel vectors, 658
multiple integration|see{iterated Parallelogram Law, 655
integration}, 827 parametric equations
multivariable function, 606, 611 arc length, 575
continuity, 619–621, 758, 762 concavity, 573
differentiability, 757, 758, 762 definition, 560
d2 y
domain, 606, 611 finding dx 2 , 573

level curves, 608 dy

finding dx , 570
level surface, 611 normal line, 570
limit, 615, 616, 621 of a surface, 968
range, 606, 611 surface area, 576
Möbius band, 968 tangent line, 570
parametrized surface, 968
Newton’s Law of Cooling, 455
partial derivative, 623, 632
Newton’s Method, 173
high order, 632
norm, 652
meaning, 625
normal line, 67, 570, 787
mixed, 628
normal vector, 697
second derivative, 628
nth-term test, 489
total differential, 756, 762
numerical integration, 273
partition, 250
Left/Right Hand Rule, 273,
size of, 250
282
path independent, 953, 954
Simpson’s Rule, 280, 282
perpendicular|see{orthogonal},
error bounds, 283
668
Trapezoidal Rule, 276, 282
piecewise smooth curve, 934
error bounds, 283
planes
octant coordinate plane, 638
first, 637 distance between point and
one to one, 968 plane, 701
one-to-one, 908 equations of, 697
onto, 908 introduction, 638
open, 614 normal vector, 697
open ball, 621 tangent, 790
open disk, 614 point of inflection, 156
optimization, 187 polar
constrained, 799 coordinates, 580
with Lagrange multipliers, 814 function
order arc length, 600
of a differential equation, 427 gallery of graphs, 587
orientable, 968 surface area, 601
orientation, 914 functions, 583
orthogonal, 668, 787 area, 596
decomposition, 672 area between curves, 598
dy
orthogonal decomposition of finding dx , 594
vectors, 672 graphing, 583
orthogonal projection, 670 polar coordinates, 580
osculating circle, 749 plotting points, 580
outer unit normal vector, 987 polynomial function
continuity of, 20
p-series, 483 potential function, 946, 954
parabola Power Rule
INDEX 1103

differentiation, 87, 95, 101, convergent, 467, 472, 474

120 definition, 464
integration, 227 divergent, 467
power series, 522 limit, 467
algebra of, 538 limit properties, 470
convergence, 523 monotonic, 472
derivatives and integrals, 526 series
projectile motion, 728, 741 absolute convergence, 516
Absolute Convergence
quadric surface Theorem, 518
definition, 643 alternating, 512
ellipsoid, 645 Approximation Theorem,
elliptic cone, 645 514
elliptic paraboloid, 644 Alternating Series Test, 512
gallery, 644, 646 Binomial, 536
hyperbolic paraboloid, 646 conditional convergence, 516
hyperboloid of one sheet, 645 convergent, 478
hyperboloid of two sheets, definition, 478
646 Direct Comparison Test, 497
sphere, 645 divergent, 478
trace, 643 geometric, 480, 481
Quotient Rule, 98 Integral Test, 494
interval of convergence, 523
R, 652
Limit Comparison Test, 499
radius of convergence, 523
Maclaurin, 533
radius of curvature, 749
Ratio Comparison Test nth-term test, 489
for series, 505 p-series, 483
rational function partial sums, 478
continuity of, 20 power, 522, 523
rearrangements of series, 517, 518 derivatives and integrals,
reduction formula 526
trigonometric integral, 338 properties, 486
regular value, 815 radius of convergence, 523
Related Rates, 178 Ratio Comparison Test, 505
related rates, 178 rearrangements, 517, 518
Riemann Sum, 244, 248, 250 Root Comparison Test, 507
and definite integral, 256 Taylor, 533
Right Hand Rule, 244, 248, 273 telescoping, 484
right hand rule Shell Method, 391, 395
of Cartesian coordinates, 636 signed area, 234
of the cross product, 681 signed volume, 835, 836
Rolle’s Theorem, 141 simple curve, 953
Root Comparison Test simply connected, 953
for series, 507 Simpson’s Rule, 280, 282
error bounds, 283
saddle point, 797, 798 slope field, 432
Second Derivative Test, 159, 798 smooth, 715
sensitivity analysis, 761 curve, 566
separation of variables, 440 surface, 968
sequence smooth curve
Absolute Value Theorem, 469 piecewise, 934
positive, 497 speed, 723
sequences sphere, 637
boundedness, 471 spherical coordinates, 898
INDEX 1104

Squeeze Theorem, 22 unit normal vector

Stokes’ Theorem, 992 aN , 740
Sum/Difference Rule and acceleration, 739, 740
of derivatives, 89 and curvature, 751
of integration, 227 definition, 737
of series, 486 in R2 , 739
summation unit tangent vector
notation, 246 and acceleration, 739, 740
properties, 247 and curvature, 747, 751
surface, 968 aT , 740
smooth, 968 definition, 736
surface area, 866 in R2 , 739
of parametrized surface, 974, unit vector, 657
976 properties, 658
solid of revolution, 403, 576, standard unit vector, 659
601 unit normal vector, 737
surface integral, 980 unit tangent vector, 736
surface of revolution, 641, 642
vector field, 939
tangent line, 65, 570, 594, 714 conservative, 953, 954
directional, 785 curl of, 942
tangent plane, 627, 790 divergence of, 941, 942
to a graph, 627 over vector field, 949
Taylor polynimial potential function of, 946, 954
of several variables, 821 vector-valued function
Taylor Polynomial algebra of, 707
definition, 204 arc length, 720
Taylor’s Theorem, 207 average rate of change, 709
Taylor Series continuity, 712
common series, 538 definition, 705
definition, 533 derivatives, 713, 715
equality with generating describing motion, 723
function, 535 displacement, 708
Taylor’s Theorem, 207 distance traveled, 730
in several variables, 821 graphing, 705
telescoping series, 484 integration, 718
terminal point, 652 limits, 711
theorem of constant length, 717, 727,
Intermediate Value, 44 728, 737
torque, 684 projectile motion, 728
total differential, 756, 762 smooth, 715
sensitivity analysis, 761 tangent line, 714
total signed area, 234 vectors, 652
trace, 643 algebra of, 654
transformation, 906, 912 algebraic properties, 656
Trapezoidal Rule, 276, 282 component form, 653
error bounds, 283 cross product, 678, 680
trigonometric function definition, 652
continuity of, 20 dot product, 665, 666
triple integral, 874, 886, 887 Head To Tail Rule, 655
properties, 881 magnitude, 652
norm, 652
unbounded sequence, 471 normal vector, 697
unbounded set, 614 orthogonal, 668
INDEX 1105

orthogonal decomposition, unit vector, 657, 658

672 zero vector, 655
orthogonal projection, 670 velocity, 82, 723
parallel, 658 average velocity, 7
volume, 835, 836, 872
Parallelogram Law, 655
resultant, 655 Washer Method, 384, 395
standard unit vector, 659 work, 409, 674