CSEC PHYSICS MANUAL OF ESSENTIAL NOTES By Kevin Jared Hosein Based purely on syllabus requirements. Worked example questions and practice questions at the back. Complete list of formulae and laws at back.STATICS The ST (Standard International unit system is the most widely used system in measurement and comprises seven fundamental units A fundamental quantity, also called a base quantity, is known as one that is independent from the others and usually cannot be expressed using other quantities. A derived quantity is one that ‘sa Gonibined protic OF difieeit fandamehtal ORES, e.g. ‘speed’ is derived from distance (length) and time, two base quantities. “Area” and ‘volume’ are derived from multiple lengths. The table betow shows units the seven“fundamental quantities”. Quantity Symbot_| Unit Name Measuring Instrument Length 1 Metre (m) Metre rule Measuring tape Vernier caliper Micrometer screw gauge Mass M Kilogram (kg) | Scale balance / Triple beam balance Time T Second (s) Stopwateh Electronic Current 1 Ampere (A) | Ammeter ‘Temperature Tor@ | Kelvin (K) ‘Thermometer Amount of a Substance | m Mole (mot) Luminous Intensity L Candela (cd) This table shows a few derived quantities, Quantity Unit Unit Breakdown | Measuring Instrument Volume mxmxm Measuring cylinder / Burette Force N kg mis? Force-metre / Spring balance Speed m/s mes Ticker tape timer Pressure Pa (kg mis?y/m? Barometer / Manometer1, Avoiding parallax exrors ~ These occur wh gxeleve). Not doing this can cause inaccurate should always be placed on a Jevel surface. So from set squares in order to read instruments a ‘Avoiding Zero errors — Before using an instrument, it is important that it is calibrated to read zero at the start of the experiment, Scales and stopwatches have an ‘option to reset to zero while the gauges on ammeters and voltmeters must be checked beforehand. hen the experimenter is not viewing the readings at data to be recorded. When possible, equipment mmetimes perpendicular aids must be constructed wecurately, [sare 3. Human response time — When taking readings with stopwatches, for example, the actual time for the experimenter to start and stop the stopwatch causes a delay and accounts for a slight error in measurement. ‘This is why it is important to repeat an experiment multiple times, Accuracy and precision are two different things, mm: is when reproduced between trials refers to how correct the data is to how consistent the data "GB Ge ‘The table below shows a list of some unit prefixes that denote the magnitude (size) of the unit. Prefix Symbol | Power ‘ST Unit Conversion Example Mega M 10 S.0MI= 5.0 x 10° 1 = 50000005 Kilo k 107 452m = 4.52 x 10°m = 4520 m Cent c 10? 300cm=3 x 10%m=3 m Milli m 10° 6.8 ms = 6.8 x 10° s= 0.0068 s Micro H 10° 4500 wA= 4500 x 10*A= 0.0045 ASTANDARD FORM & UNIT CONVERSION Standard form is a means of expressing large numbers in simple ways using integer powers and sual three significant figures, Nore thar the dial point 20 after the fs Significant fel For e.g. 54880N in standard form (to 3 s.f.) will be written as $.49 x 10'N. 0,006483J in standard form (to 3 s.f.) will be 6.48 x 10° J. How to convert kuv/h to m/s How to convert m/s to km/h ‘Convert 108kmv/h to m/s Convert 18uy/s to kav 108.000m =30 m/s 18 x 3600 64.8 km/h 3600 s Tooo THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The sclentific method is a process for creating setups of situations to examine factors of the real ‘world and gather data from testing. This data can then be analyzed and replicated by other scientists to further study the models and draw reasoning from them. It was first used by scientists stich as Isaac Newton and Galilei Galileo. ‘The scientific method has FOUR main steps: 1 OBSERVATION - Which can be made visually or through apparatus. 2. HYPOTHESIS - A statement made that has to be proven true or false, It has to be testable 3. METHODOLOGY - Formulating a method to test the hypothesis and gather data. May have to be repeated several times to validate results under various conditions. 4, ANALYSIS - Determining whether or not the results conform to the hypothesis and. formulating a theory based on them. PERIOD OF A PENDULUM One of the first major experiments in Physics was Galileo’s determination for the acceleration due to gravity on Earth, also known as g. This was done using a pendulum with strings of varying lengths © The period is defined as the THE TIME TAKEN TO COMPLETE A FULL OSCILLATION. © The only factor that affects the period of the pendulum is LENGTH. The mass of the bob and the angle of displacement the bob is held at does not affect the time for one swing. © Usually 10-20 oscillations are taken because the human response time would create too large of @ delay and error ifjust testing for | oscillationExample question: Complete the table and plot a graph of T? vs. L. Length, L (m) | Time for 20 oscillations, (s) | Period, T (3) Period Squared, T? (5°) 0.10 12.96 0.65 0.42 0.20 18.00 0.90 Osi 0.30 22.00 1.10 121 0.50 28.28 14L 199) 0.60 31.10 156 243 Graph showing T s. L of pendulum 3 Using the graph, find the T? value 14s: when the length is 0.40m: 25 250 : 1.60m 2.00 1 | Cateulate the gradient: 1.50 | 1 day = 243 0= MOS 1 x2-x1 0.60-0 1.00 1 (The unit for the gradient is always 1 is unit divided by the x-axis 0.50 1 1 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.20 030 040 0.50 0.60 Lim Now calculate the acceleration due to gravity, g, using this formula, Put the unit for your answer as m/s? as that isthe unit for acceleration. (m= 3.14) 2 g=4x (3.14) x (1+ 4.05) g=4r x1 dient = 4x 9.86 x 0.25 gradient 2.86 m/s2 (very close to the which is 9.81 m/s?) tual value for ‘g’,SCALARS AND VECTORS Quantity | Definition Examples Scalar | A quantity that has magnitude but NO | Distance, speed, area, volume, density direction, Vector | A quantity that has BOTH magnitude | Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and direction. momentum Parallel and antiparallel vectors: We just add the vectors to form a single vector called a RESULTANT. A single vector may also be the resultant of two other vectors. e.g. an airplane's ‘overall flight direction is a combination of the engines’ thrust, gravity and the wind. ive. Draw the resultant vectors for the Opposite direction vectors (antiparallel) are viewed a5 us ‘two examples below. SN SN 4N 20N an ge 10 Rn < 16N NON-PARALLEL VECTORS Draw and measure the resultant forces for both diagrams below. Force 1 Force 1 resultant, resultant, Question: An airplane is flying east in still air at 92m/s. A heavy north-east wind starts to blow at 36m/s at 45°. Using a scale of lem:10nvs, draw a vector diagram to show the resultant velocity of the plane. Measure the angle the plane deviated from its original path, 36unsf-—-o Resultant = 12-13 m/s , 4 ~~ Angle = 10-12° 7.2 m/sMASS AND WEIGHT Quantity. Definition Example Mass The amount of matter contained in an Atruck has more mass than a car and thus, chjest It isamemre ofan object's | would resist a change motion more fa TNERTZA or tesistance fo chtige in| car would. would tke longer to speed up ‘and require more force on its brakes. Weight The force exerted on a body’s mass by An astronaut on the Moon would have the gravity, ‘ame mass on Earth but Jess weight, because the Moon’s gravitational field is weaker. ‘Note the formula for weight: ‘Since inertia is defined as an w= Weight object’ resistance to change, the wemg —-m=mass (ky) seater the mass, the more force is = acceleration duc required to change its motion. to gravity (Nikg) CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND STABILITY Objects balance at a point called the centre of gravity, The centre of gravity of an object ean be defined as THE POINT AT WHICH THE WEIGHT OF ABODY ACTS. ‘The force of weight acts downward from the centre of gravity, Imagine it as a straight ine ‘vector pointing down from that position Objects or systems that are stable tend to have most of their mass deposited much LOWER than unstable ones, They are said to have a Tow centre of gravity. Observe the shapes below. Stable equ Castles ia gira (ow 06 doesnot & igh ie coe) change) An irregular lamina’s centre of gravity can be found by boring holes and hanging a plumbline from each hole The purpose of the plumbline is to see which points are vertically below the hole, By marking the lines, an intersection will be noticed. This isthe lamina’scentre of gravity FORCES Forces enable masses to overcome inertia, i. they are able to cause a change in an object's acceleration, deceleration or direction (even shape and size, but NOT mass) Forces are measured in Newtons (N) which can be derived as IN = 1 ke m/s? Type of Foree Description GRAVITY Pulls objects towards the centre of the Earth WEIGHT The effect of gravity on an object's mass, FRICTION ‘The resistance an object experiences when rubbing a surface. BUOYANCY / UPTHRUST __| The upward force exerted by a fluid. ELECTROSTATIC Attraction due to charged particles called electrons stored in an object. MAGNETIC An attraction or repulsion caused by north and south poles, REACTION, ‘The force that always acts opposite to another, e.g. the forward push from swimming while pushing the water backward. ‘TENSION ‘An upward force exerted on a string or rope attached to a load. CENTRIPETAL, ‘The pull towards a central point for an object moving in a circle NUCLEAR The attraction holding the nucleus of an atom together © Forces may be CONTACT or NON-CONTACT. They may also be ABSORBED, such as by kneepads wom by athletes, eyclist helmets, bubblewrap packaging and cellphone cases. When a force is absorbed. its impact is deer * All moving objects on Earth experience some form of resistance. whiether fron the surface they are on (ftiction) or the medium that they are in, such as the atmosphere (called air resistance or drag). sow BENS sed In this example, the two “resistant forces” are equal to the applied forward thrust of the irsitance cca, This will give an overall resultant or net The block is denser As less dense than the liquid, so ‘than the liquid, At sinks so it floats. a | Weight Upthrust A large boat of great weight is able to float because of two main reasons: Ithas a HOLLOW interior, which decreases its overall density. Only the hull is made of material denser than water, such as steel or zinc. Ithas a WIDE SURFACE AREA, which increases the UPTHRUST acting on it. NOTE. The density of pure water is given as 1000 ky/im* or 1 g/cm’, Since seawater has salt and other substances, its density would be slightly higher. 16 ESPHYSICS. SECTION A (2/2): DYNAMIC: (D ENERGETICS DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT Distance is the HOW MUCH GROUND AN OBJECT HAS COVERED. The magnitude is of importance, not the direction, therefore distance is noted as a SCALAR quantity. Displacement is the OVERALL CHANGE IN POSITION OF AN OBJECT IN A STRAIGHT. LINE BETWEEN ITS ORIGIN AND DESTINATION. Both magnitude and direction are importance. It is therefore a VECTOR, 4m — destination 8 Looking at the example to the left, if a . person ran from A to B and then B to C, a ‘sm they would have travelled a distance of 7m one Dut a displacement of Sm. DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS splacement-time graph simply show an object’s position as time passes. Observe the graph below. It shows that after $ seconds, the object is 25m away fiom the stauting position. From $s to 10s, the object has not moved since its position is still 25m away. For the last 2.5s, the object has retumed to its starting position. Calculating the gradient of a line in the graph gives the object’s VELOCITY. Gradient of upward 012345 67 8 9 10423243 Ex = slope: = Feversing pe 1s E weave 5 x2 — x1 5-0 gs =5n/s ae (velocity) a Time (s) 17 SSSPEED AND VELOCITY Quantity Definition Formula Unit Category Speed (8) Distance travelled per unit time s-d a/sorms* | SCALAR time, t Velocity (v) | Displacement travelled per unit v=x m/sorms* | VECTOR time, t ACCELERATION ‘When the velocity of an object is changing, it has an acceleration. It can either speed up or slow down or change direction. A positive acceleration denotes that the velocity has increased over time, A negative acceleration (or deceleration) denotes that velocity has decreased over time. Acceleration is therefore defined as the CHANGE IN VELOCITY OVER TIME. Itis a VECTOR quantity. a= acceleration (am/s2) v= final velocity (m/s) u = initial velocity (mvs) {= time (9) Veloctyxime graph of a parachutist constant velocity — unifoytr iform [- (deceleration. / + fe) ‘These graphs above represent an object’s change in velocity as time passes. HOWEVER, note that the lines are straight for the left figure and curved for the right figure. The acceleration in gtaph A is said to be UNIFORM while graph B is said to be NON-UNIFORM. Since the line is, getting less and Jess steep in the right figure, the acceleration can be said to be at a decreasing tal, 1e‘Observe the LEFT figure for now. Aside from the appearance of the graph and general idea of motion, other quantities can also be deduced and calculated trom the graph: © The ACCELERATION can be obtained by calculating the gradient of the slope. © The DISPLACEMENT can be obtained by calculating the area under the required portion of the graph. Ifthe displacement for the entire journey is required, we need to find the ‘area of a trapezium in this case, Which is given by the following foumnla: Example Question (Graphwork) Area = + (a + b) xh 1, Calculate the gradients of B and D, and the displacement of BCD. Ar Pe 4 © an” B ! aerate ' : | ‘ 1 2 constant nfontnen »[f—-4 hn x2,y2 Gradient B x2 - xl 4-1 Gradient B x2 - xl 10-7 Displacement: % (atb) xh ‘ (3410) x 8 6.5x8= Example question: Plot the events on the graph. Label the points. A- The driver begins at 1Onv’s and keeps going at constant velocity for 20 seconds. B —He takes 10 seconds to decelerate uniformly until he comes to rest C —He remains at rest for 10 seconds, D-—He accelerates in reverse for 10 seconds until he is at -10m/s. E —He reverses at a constant velocity of -10m/ for 20 seconds F —He decelerates for 10 seconds until he is at rest again. 19time (s 20NEWTON'S THREE LAWS OF MOTION Before Isaac Newton's laws of motion were made known, many people ascribed to Aristotle’s Law of Motion, which basically stated that “Nothing moves unless you push it, Au objeet’s speed is proportional to the force applied to it.” ‘We learned previously that this is not true because: A force is not required to keep an object mo Newton’s Three Laws are stated below: ing. If there was no friction, an object would keep moving forever. Law What the Law States Example Ist An object at rest remains at rest, or an object in motion remains in motion at a constant velocity, unless an unbalanced force acts upon it A trolley will stay where itis unless someone pulls ot pushes it, It cannot move unless a force is applied to it. Similarly. if a trolley is moving. a force will be needed to stop it. This force could be friction, air resistance or the reaction force from a collision, 2nd ‘The force on a body is directly proportional to its acceleration. € ma) A trolley with more mass will need a greater force to get it to accelerate at the same rate as a trolley with less mass. Sra Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force. Ifa Body A acts on Body B. then B exerts an equal and opposite force on A. In order to swim forward, a person must push the water backwards. Pushing the water back is the “action” while the water pushing the body forward is the “reaction”. Think about how Newton’s Laws apply to the following situations: A child jumping on a trampoline. Azocket or aisplane being able to propel itself upward or forward. ‘Why an astronaut would need to tie themselves to an object while doing repairs in space, ‘Why a loaded truck is harder to stop than an empty one ‘Why seatbelts or deployable airbags are necessary in cars, 21 ESLINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE Linear momentum is defined as THE PRODUCT OF AN OBJECT'S MASS AND VELOCITY. Momentum is a VECTOR quantity, since it has a momentum of a body is called an IMPULSE. Note the formulas and units P rs t for momentum and impulse: 2 vere MeN Q)- (cna et (scenario B) ( ro en ‘The law of conservation of linear momentum states direction. The force that produces a change in ‘momentum (kg m/s or Ns) m= mass (kg) v= velocity (m/s) F=Fore(N) t time (s) ‘Scenario A: The white ball hits the 8-ball, transferring all its momentum to it, and comes to astop. The 8-ball then moves at the same velocity asthe white ball. ‘Scenario B: The two balls move at a combined ‘mass. Since the combined mass is exactly twice as large, the resultant velocity willbe halved that: IN ACLOSED SYSTEM, THE TOTAL MOMENTUM BEFORE COLLISION IS EQUAL TO THE TOTAL MOMENTUM AFTER COLLISION. 3.0 m/s Use the law of conservation of finear momentum to calculate the velocity of the trolleys if they 4.0kg 6.0kg collide and move together: Pp (before) = p (after) 7 777 mlvi = mv2 ? 4x3 = (446) xv 12 = 1l0v 4.0 k 6.0 kc v 12 + 10 8 8 1.2 m/s Question: A footballer’s boot is in (i) p=Fxet contact with a ball for 0.05s. The force = 180 x 0.05 = ‘on the ball is 180N. The ball leaves his foot at 20m/s. Calculate: (ii) ONS (i) the impulse of the force on the ball (iii) p = mv (ii) the ball’s change in momentum. m=ptv (iii) the mass of the ball L 9 + 20 = OUASIKgEAR MOMEN NI [SION The previous examples dealt with one moving object colliding with a stationary object. However, what would happen if we had a question like this: PROBLEM 1: A car, heading east at 24m/s, of mass 1200kg collides with a 4000kg truck. heading west at Svs, Ifthe wreckage moves as a combined mass, what is the velocity and direction it moves at? (east) (west) Dams o> a og First, calculate the total momentum in the system before collision. This momentum should be equal {o the momentum of the wreckage after collision, The wreckage’s mass is the sum of both vehicles. (Recall that one of the values for velocity must be negative, since itis in an opposing direction) p (car) +p(truck) = p (wreckage) 8800 = 5200 v (1200 x 24) + (4000 x -5) = (4000 + 1200) x v 8800 = 1.69 m/s (east) 28800 + (-20000) = 5200v 9200 The direction of the wreckage will move at will bein the direction of whichever vehicle had a higher momentum. In this case, it will be EAST. PROBLEM 2: Two American football players collide into each other. Calculate the velocity the first player will push the second ks 10h Before collision — After collision (90x 5) +(70x-4) = (90+ 70)xv v= 170 = 1.06 m/s —— 450 + (280) 160v 160 _— — 170 = 160 —-EORMS OF ENERGY Energy is simply defined as the CAPACITY FOR DOING WORK. The unit for energy is Joule (J). A Joule is defined as the work needed to move 1N by a 1m distance. so Ni The principle of conservation of energy states that ENERGY CAN NEITHER BE CREATED NOR DI FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER. STROYED, BUT CAN ONLY BE CONVERTED. The table below describes some of the many different types of ener ‘Type of Energy Description Example CHEMICAL Released during chemical reactions or Batteries, food, fossil fuels transformation. metabolism. ELECTRICAL The flow and movement of electrons, Power lines. lightning KINETIC ot Occurs during physical collisions and Arolling ball. A falling MECHANICAL movement. object GRAVITATIONAL _| The energy possessed by a body by virme of — | An airplane in mid-air. A car POTENTIAL (GPE) _| its position, such as its height ona cliff ELASTIC Energy that is stored within an object Compressed spring POTENTIAL experiencing deformation, Slingshot. Catapult. ELECTROMAGNETI | Held in waves such as light, X-rays and radio, | Transmitters, TV screens, c NUCLEAR the splitting (fission) of an —_| Splitting of Uranium in atom of the combining (fusion) or two atoms. | nuclear reactors. SOUND Associated with the vibrations of matter to. | Vocal cords. Music. Tyres produce various pitches and tones. screeching, THERMAL Energy that can be stored or transferred across | Heat from friction. Wasted molecules through kinetic energy. energy from appliances. Note the energy transfers in the following: (i) a car being driven on a straight road (it) burning match (iii) slingshot (iv) object falling from shelf (v) radio (vi) in a football being kicked (vii) acoustic guitar 24‘NOTE: Even though a Joule can be broken down to be a Newton-metre (Nm), J and Nm should not be used interchangeably. Nm is reserved for moments or (viii) wheels after brakes are appl{ turning forces, while J is reserved for energy.ENERGYAND POWER Energy can either be released or stored. Energy that is used or released to produce some type of change is termed WORK DONE. Work has the same unit as energy. HOWEVER, even though energy can be stored, work cannot, so these terms should not be used interchangeably. Note the formula for work below: W = Work (J) Proc d= distance (m) POWER refers to THE RATE OF ENERGY CONVERSION, OR WORK DONE OVER TIME. For example, if there are two sprinters of the same mass (70kg) who run the same 100m dash, but sprinter A completes the race in 1 minute, while sprinter B completes it in 1.5 mimutes, BOTH sprinters did the same work, but sprinter A had more power than B, since he did the work in less time - P = Power (W or J/s) P=E E = Energy (J) t t= time (s) INPUT, OUTPUT & EFFICIENCY EFFICIENCY refers to THE PERCENTAGE OF USEFUL OUTPUT COMPARED TO TOTAL SUPPLIED INPUT. Most objects will not convert 100% of one type of energy to another type. A fraction of the energy is, always lost due to heat, for example, When these energy losses are reduced, machines are said to be more ner ficient, For example, fluorescent lights tend to lose much less heat than filament lights, which heat up very quickly. As a result, fluorescent lights are more efficient and last much longer. Note the formuta for efficiency below: Energy transformation in a coal-fired power station iency = Useful output x 100% Total inputNERGY IN 4 PENI ‘When the pendulum swings from positions 1 to 5, itis converting kinetic to GPE. Note what Pendulum bob, happens at: 1 ~ Maximum GPE, minimum KE 2 GPE converting to KE 3 — Minimum GPE, maximum KE 2 5 4 4—KE converting to GPE S—Maximum GPE, minimum KE Start 7 5 KINETIC ENERGY (KE) This is the energy possessed by an object IN MOTION OR DURING COLLISION. Note its formula KE = Kinetic Energy (J) KE $v m=mass (ke) v= velocity (m/s) WI Ni NI NERGY | This is the energy possessed by an object BY VIRTUE OF ITS POSITION OR HEIGHT. ‘Note its formuk GPE = Gravitational potential AGPE=mgAh rey"? g= acceleration due to gravity (N/kg) h=height (m) KEAND GPE CONVERSION ‘When an object is falling (assuming no air resistance) or sliding down a slope, the following is noted: GPE LOST = KE GAINED For situations that account for resistance or fiction, energy loss is accounted for, e.g. A cyclist and his cycle have a mass of 70ke. They descend a slope from the 2100m point to the 1600m point. Assuming that 75% is lost to fiction, what is the velocity of the cyclist as he travels down? =i KE = 3am? = 350000) KE = 87500 0.58 35 25% of GPE --> KE m KE = 87500) = 2500 — v2/2500 =50n/s ———=Ni NI Fossil fitels are formed from the remains of decayed microscopic organisms, animals and plants from millions of years ago that have been pressed and subjected to hot temperatures over long periods of time. They mainly come in the forms of coal, crude oil or natural gas, Fossil fuels are finite resources that cannot be replaced and are said to be NON-RENEWABLE. In addition, the combustion of fossil fuels has, however, had negative effects on the environment, such as the GREENHOUSE EFFECT (due to the release of carbon dioxide by combustion) and ACID RAIN (due to the release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere). Energy sources that are infinite and can be replaced are termed RENEWABLE and can be used as viable altematives to fossil fitels. Note that the Stn is the main source of energy for all of these, except GEOTHERMAL and NUCLEAR. Some examples of alternative energy sources inchide Source Explanation SOLAR Energy obtained from the Sun ate stored in photovoltaic cells in solar panels and converted to electricity. WIND ‘Winds turn the blades that spin a shaft that powers a generator HYDROELECTRIC ‘The gravitational potential and kinetic energy of water flowing down a conduit helps power a generator. TIDAL ‘The kinetic energy from the moving tides helps generate a current. GEOTHERMAL Heat generated by converting hot water from deep beneath the earth's surface can be used as a source of power. NUCLEAR ‘The fission (splitting) of Uranium atoms release energy from their nuclei, which can be hamessed, This is non-renewable but very efficient BIOFUELS On a smaller scale, some farmers use the remainder of their harvest to produce ethanol that would act as fuel for their machinery. 2eOther things can be done to help conserve fossil ftels or reduce our usage of then, such as earpooling, switching off appliances when not In use, using fuel-based transport less often (bieycles for short distances, for e.g.) and switching to more energy-efficient uorescent lights in the household. PRESSURE ‘Question: Why does your body exert more pressure on the ground if Pressure is simply defined as FORCE ACTING PER UNIT AREA. 0 you stand on one foot? Note the formula and unit? =~) pressure (Pa or N/m?) PEE |e crorce in) A | azarea(m) Both blocks are the same mass (60kg). Block B is the same as A, but put to stand at a different position. Even though the force sol B (weight) of both blocks would be the same, the pressure will be different because that A 3" force is acting down on two different surface om areas, Calculate the pressure that blocks A and B exert. w= mg = 60 x 10 = 600N P (block A) =F /A=600/ (5x 2)=60 Pa P (block B) =F / A= 600/ (3 x 2)= 100 Pa PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS Pressure in a fluid increases as DEPTH. weight of patm_ increases. This occurs because as the position gets, deeper, the more molecules lie above that point and thus, they will exert a greater force or weight downwards. 29P = Pressure (Pa) € =density (kg/m?) g = acceleration due to gravity (N/kg) h = height/depth (m) 30Example question: An aquarium is filled with saltwater of density 1020kg/n’. It is 10m deep. The bottom of the aquarium is to be fitted with a glass window of measurements 2m x 1.5m. The atmosphere above the water surface is 101kPa. Calculate Gi) the pressure of the water acting against the base of the glass Gi) the TOTAL pressure, in kPa, acting against the base of the glass, ii) the maximum force. in KN, the glass should be able to withstand. @ ~~ P=pgh = 1020 x 10x 10 = 102.000 Pa Gi) P (total) = 102,000 + 101,000 (atm) = 203 000 Pa Gi) P=F/A F=PxA = 203,000 x (2 x 1.5) = 609 000.N = 609 KN4 vacuum Hg pressure qual toa pressure Atmospheric \\ | pressure 760mm Mercury Ho) The atmospheric pressure acts on the ‘mercury (Fg) in the reservoir container. applying a downward force to it. ‘The mercury is pushed up the bore in the middle and forms a column. The higher the ‘column has, the higher the pressure. 2. MANOMETER Lnkrown Pressure | Pe — Atmospheric pressure ed mitt) Fluid of interest (Gosin mest cases) An mercury {g=10ms*] [p of mercury = 13,600 kg/m’) Mercury is used instead of water because of its high density, Mereury is 13.6x denser than water: This means that if water was used instead, the column would be 13.6% taller. Atmospheric pressure is given as 760 ‘mmHg, but what is this value in Pascals? (iv) P=pah = 13600 x 10x 0.76m = 103.360 Pa ‘Manometers are used to find pressures of fluids of interest. It does this by making a comparison to atmospheric pressure (which is already known), Atmospheric pressure is given as either 760mmHg or 101kPa, The difference in height (Ah) of the column is used to caleulate the pressure of the gas. (i Ifthe difference in height of both columns is 30mun, what is the unknown pressure in mmHg? Pressure = 760 + 30 = 790 munFig ii) What is the unknown pressure of the gas, in Pascals? 32 ESeh = 13600 x 10x 0.79 = 107 440 PaHYDRAULIC LIFTS Hydraulic press JP Trepistons(onger ram) ~ _— pngr fe 2 am om 10m Biguid A Pai The diagram above illustrates a hydraulic press model demonstrating the relationship between the pressures of a plunger/piston, liquid and ram. When the plunger is pushed down with a pressure at P,, it exerts the SAME PRESSURE in P. ‘This is denoted by Pascal’s Law, which states: ‘THE PRESSURE APPLIED TO A POINT IN AN INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID IS EVENLY DISTRIBUTED TO ALL POINTS IN THAT FLUID. Devices following this model act as force multipliers and can be used for lifting heavy objects by applying smnall amounts of force. This also explains why a force as small as a foot on a pedal could stop a moving car: Example Question: If a 20N force is applied to the piston: (@ Calculate the pressure exerted on the liquid by the small piston Gi) Determine the pressure on the large piston. iii) Calculate the foree exerted by the large piston on the Load: @ = P=FIA 10Pa (i) 10 Pa (due to Pascal's Law) (ii) P=FIA F=PxA=10x10=100N 34Force on brake fuid by ‘brake pedal mechanism Friction force of the brake pad ‘against the metal brake drum provide the braking force to Force of brake cylinder on brake shoes Brake shoe 1A force is applied on the brake pedal. This acts as a lever to exert a force against the master cylinder ‘The master cylinder has a small surface area, so its pressure is large. Pascal's Law ensures this large pressure is distributed to the brake oil and to the four wheel cylinders. 3, The four wheel cylinders fill with brake oil and expand evenly. 4, The wheel cylinders push against the brake shoes, which press against the brake drum. The friction from this eventually decelerates or stops the automobile, 35 ESPHYSICS, SECTION B (1/2 STUD’ NATURE OF HEAT Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from areas of higher temperature to lower temperature until the objects and their surroundings are at equilibrium, the same temperature, CALORIC THEORY Heat was once believed to be a weightless fluid called “caloric” that could flow from hotter to colder bodies. Ifa gas was compressed, the concentration of calorie ‘would increase in the gas and the gas would become hotter, This theory is now obsolete, Ki TIC THEORY How ‘AS THIS DISPROVED: Count Rumford, curing his eannon-boring ‘experiments, was able to generate large amounts of heat to boil water, This occurred due to kinetic energy being converted to heat energy by friction, as later proved by James Joule, This showed that heat could be developed due to the application of mechan ‘energy and that it was indeed a fom of energy, uot a fluid. ‘The theory used today is called the Kinetic Theory of Matter. which states that molecules in a gas move freely and rapidly along straight lines. This random molecular bombardment can be observed with light reflecting off dust or smoke particles (BROWNIAN MOTION), Application of heat to molecules is able to add KINETIC energy, allowing the molecules to move aud collide more often. Heat is also able to break their intermolecular bonds and change state of ‘matter, ¢ 2. adding heat to a solid weakens its bonds and tums it into liquid. a Quantity | Bond Density Volume | Other Notes Strength Solid Highest Highest Lowest | Molecules vibrate in place. Fixed shape. Liquid | Takes shape of container, just like gases. Lowest Lowest Highest 36Gas Most KE, Molecules in haphazard motion. TEMPERATURE AND THE KELV UNIT ‘Heat represents the total amount of energy (due to molecular vibrations) in a substance, the temperature represents the average energy per molecule. A ‘cold’ substance such as an iceberg contains more heat energy in it compared to a lit match, though the lit match’s temperature would be higher ‘The S.1. unit for temperanure is given as KELVIN (K) To find the temperature in Kelvin, we simply add 273 to the Celsius value, Calculate these: Temperature Kelvin (K) | Celsins °©) | Equivatent to the temperature of... Lower Fixed Point 273 0 Pure melting ice at 1 atm Upper Fixed Point 373 100 Pure dry steam at 1 atm Absolute Zero 0 2273 Having no intemal energy in system It should be noted that absolute zero is the temperature at which there is no internal or thermal nergy in a state of mater, Put simply it is the coldest possible temperature. Therefore, since lbsolute zero is OK, there are negative Kelvin Wales, THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT The main idea of constructing a thermometer is to find a physical property that changes steadily with temperature and accurately link the fixed changes. eg. when mercury is heated, it expands proportionately and moves along the bore of the thermometer: bulb LIQUID. [N-GLASS 02°C 109¢ 20°C 300 40°C $00C OEE 709C 89°C 900C 1000¢ CLINICAL capillary bore thin bulb constriction Narrow bore thick stem. stem millivoltmeter copper copper wires wires iron wireNOTE: Mercury is preferred to alcohol because it has a much higher boiling point COMPARING THE THREE THERMOMETERS (357°C) whereas alcohol’s is 78°C, Thermometer | Response Factor | Range Structural adaptation or advantages Liquid-in-giass | Expansion of -10-110°C | Long stem for wide range of readings. mercury Clinical Expansion of 35-45°C Laws. thin bulb conducts heat quickly. mercury Small range, Constriction prevents ‘mercury from retuming to bulb quickly. Thermocouple — | Voltage -200-1250°C _} Quick, accurate readings. Can measure from junctions of small masses. Ancreaserange =| crease sensitivity —_| Increase responsiveness Longer stem, Narrow bore. More conductive finid. Less expansive liquid. Thinner glass around bulb. ‘THERMAL EXPANSION Ina solid, the molecules are held closely together. When they are heated, kinetic energy is added to the molecules, making them vibrate faster. This causes the molecules to move apart and increase their volume, This is known as THERMAL EXPANSION. Ball and Ring ; ring ON ball This phenomenon can be observed in several everyday situations, such as creaking roofs, power lines sagging ou hot days (due to expansion). running warm water over a jar lid that is too hard to open and even in carbonated beverages. When beverages get wan, the CO; bubbles expand ‘and escape, leaving it with a “flat taste. In the cold, the bubbles contract and stay within the 3839BIMETALLIC STRIPS ‘The bimetallic strip consists of 2 strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated, usually steeVirom and copper/brass. The different expansions force the flat strip to ‘end one way if heated & in the opposite direction if cooled below its nomnal temperature, — —— — Steel Straight at some Hotter than the reference’ Colder than the reference reference temperature temperature; brass expands temperature; brass more and its greater length contracts more and its puts it on the outside of the shorter length puts it on cue, the inside of he curve re In the citcuit, the bimetallic stip (when heated) would bend towards the contact to allow clectricity to flow. This effect is used in a range of mechanical & electrical Lo Bimetallc Strip “e devices, such as thermostats and fire alarms Bove ———__—T—T_T—T_—V_Tvv Q Lorewonienghetareti Whether or not radiated heat can penetrate @ Shorewavelenstvinfared glass depends on wavelength. Heat is mostly carried by infra.red waves (and some UV), Short wavelengths have higher fiequencies and higher amounts of energy. and therefore more penetrative ability than longer wavelengths Waves lose energy as they reflect off surfaces. Therefore, the short wavelengths that were able to penetrate the glass cannot eseape once they convert to long wavelengths when they ate reflected inside,EVAPORATION Evaporation requires heat and is a cooling process. If you come out of a pool in a dry sunny day. the water om your skin will use the heat energy from your body to evaporate. This produces the "cooling effect” At any temperature, the molecules of a liquid are in continuous random motion with different speeds, Heat is absorbed by the liquid from the surroundings and thus gain KE and move FASTER. At the surface, the more energetic molecules are able to escape into the atmosphere. Since the molecules with the most heat energy escape, this cools the liquid. ¢ ( a7 It should be noted that evaporation only ttt ‘occurs on the SURFACE of a liquid, so DEPTH has no effect on rate of evaporation. In what order would the vessels evaporate? ‘Other factors that affect evaporation include: HUMIDITY, AIR MOVEMENT, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE HOWIS EVAPORATION DIFFERENT FROM BOILING? Feature Evaporation Boiting ‘Temperature it occurs | Any temperature. At boiling point. ‘Temperature change | Decreases. Remains constant. Location At surface, Throughout liquid. Physical observation | Bubbles absent. Bubbles present. PERSPIRATIO: atmosphere. This shows that evaporation is a ‘cooling process. ‘When you perspire, heat is conducted into y via the sweat gland and duct. The sweat with the heat, is then evaporated into the ar sweat and then moves out of the body 4a2299099922 ‘Sweat glandTHERMAL TRANSFER PROCESSES Heat can be transferred from one place to the next, When two objects of varying ‘temperatures are placed together, a transfer of thermal energy occurs from HIGHER to LOWER temperature in an attempt to get doth objects at the same temperature. eg. cold water left in a 30°C room will gain ‘ aad Sx heat from the room and eventually have a Raden temp. of 30°C. The room loses a little heat. ‘This transfer occurs via three processes: Method Definition Example CONDUCTION ‘The transfer of heat through the Heat moving along the vibrations of molecules to adjacent | metallic frame of a frying pan molecules. CONVECTION The transfer of heat through the Smoke particles rising fiom a movement of the medium itself. fire. Water particles rising in a boiling pot. Losing body heat trough sweating. RADIATION ‘The transfer of heat through the flow} Heat from the Sun reaching of electromagnetic waves. (can occur | the Earth, Heat leaving the in a vacum) body after vigorons exercise THERMAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS © Simply put, thermal conductors are materials that allow heat to pass casily. Conductors ‘are materials with free electrons (such as metals), which allow the efficient transfer of heat. © Insulators do not have many free electrons and may have structural gaps or air spaces that do not efficiently transfer heat, stich as cloth or polystyrene. Air is a POOR CONDUCTOR of heat. 43 SSVACUUM FLASKS ‘A vacuum flask is a container that is designed to retain the heat in a liquid. 1y inner walls Helps prevent radiated heat from escaping by reflecting it back into the flask. Cover Prevents heat frome escaping through the top via convection. Vacuum layer Evacuated space between the double walls greatly limits conduction of heat in and out of the flask. Ny. M Materials of various textures and colour, absorb, emit and reflect different amounts of heat, Note ‘that good absorbers are also good emitters of heat, Would a Caribbean house roof be a good reflector or emitter? What about a car radiator? Or a car windscreen shade? Good absorbers Good reflectors Black colour White colour Dull Mart Shiny 7 Glossy Rough texture ‘Smooth texture ‘Small surface area Laige surface area Black << Shiny ie = White Metal SOLAR WATER HEATER glass pane black copper pipesThe purpose of a solar water heater is convert solar energy into useable heat ‘energy. Tt consists ofa solar panel, water tank and an insulated frame. The black copper pipes absorb any radiated heat from the Sun and conduct the heat into the flowing water. The glass pane mimics the Greenhouse effect and traps heat inside.The diagram above shows a metal pan placed on a hot plate, The objective is to illustrate the movement of water molecules inside the pan. To determine this, we must answer the following questions 1. How do the heated water molecules move? They tise as they spread out and become less dense, 2. When these molecules reach the surface, ‘what happens? The more energetic molecules leave the surface. 3. What happens to the temperature of the surface after? As heat is lost, the temperature of the surface decreases, 4. How can one prevent heat from escaping from the pan? Place a lid, which will prevent heat from escaping to the room. ACTION OF SEA BREEZES Sea breezes are another example of convection currents, Note the diagram below and compare it to the heated metal pan above. Ocean is cooler, so and sink: si Sea Level X y— SN deat mass of . CONVECTION air loses Reet \ CURRENT ir rises over fandPHYSICS, SECTION B P” (2/2) - RELATIONSHIPS OF HEAT SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY mass = thy mass = the temp. befor heating emp. before heating = 50 = 30 temp. after heating temp, fer heatin =3IC temp, afer heating Beaker A Beaker 6 Observe the diagrams above. The same mass, 1kg, of two different liquid samples are placed in beakers A and B, Both samples had the same initial temperature (30°C). Both beakers are heated for the same time (60s) with the burners set at the same power (70W). However, at the end, the final temperatures differed. Sample A required more heat to change its temperature. Sample A was thus said to be have a The Specific Heat Capacity is defined as THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REQUIRED TO CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF IKG OF A SUBSTANCE BY IK. Note the formula and unit for Specific Heat Capacity: NOTE: The specific heat capacity of water is given as 4200J/(kg I). What this means is that Ike of water would require 42004 of heat to increase its temperature by 1K. Similarly, it would have to lose 4200J of heat to decrease its temperature by 1K.HEAT CAPACITY is defined as: ‘THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REQUIRED TO CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF A BODY BY IK. Note the formula and unit for Heat Capacit While SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACTTY js used for materials and is constant that only accounts per kg, HEAT CAPACTTY is used for bodies and is dependent on the mass of that body. For example, while the specific heat capacity of pure water is 4200 (kg K). the heat capacity of a 10kg body of pure water is 42000 J/K (using C = mc). What this means is that 42000J of heat is required to raise the temperature of that LOkg body of water by IK. TESTING FOR SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, METHOD ONE (CALORIMETER) The setup is called a CALORIMETER, «1 apparatus used to measure specific heat capacity. The following must be known to calculate specific heat capacity, = Mass of material + Voltage and current ( - Time (=v) Iv) ‘The metal aluminum block is heated for 3 minutes with a $A, 10V supply. If the initial ‘and final temperatures of the 2kg block are 30°C and 35°C respectively. calculate its specific heat capacity E=IVt =5x10x(3x60)=90005 E=meaT + (mAT) = 9000 +2 x 5) = 900 Ike °C aeLow voltage supply = } etal block | Logging | f Heater | i METHOD TWO (METHOD OF MIXTURES) Since the specific heat capacity of pure water is already known (42005/(kg K) ot —Thermometer 4.2 W(gK)), this value could be used to = | —Cotton threa determine the SHC of another material. The principle to remember is: Heat gained by water = Heat lost by metal By measuring the intial and final ce temperatures of both the water and metal, the following formula can be used: mcAT (water) = mcAT (substance) 49Example question: A 50g block is placed in 200g of water. The block was heated to 100°C. The temperature of the block dropped to 30°C and the water rose fiom 30°C to 35°C. Using 4.25(@K) as the SHC of water, calculate the SHC of the block, in Tg K). meAT (water) = mcAT (block) 200 x4.2x5 =S0xex (100-30) 4200 =3500¢ c = 4200+ 3500 = 1.2J/gK Example question 2; A piece of iron of mass 21.5g at a temperature of 100.0°C is dropped into an insulated container of water. The mass of the water is 132g and its temperature rose from 20.0°C 214°C. The iron’s final temperature is 19.6°C. Using 4.21/(g K) as the specific heat capacity of water, calculate the specific heat capacity of iron. meAT (water) = meAT (iron) 132x4.2x14 =215x¢x(100-19.6) 776.16 =1728.6¢ = 176.16 ~ 1728.6 = 0.45 Jig‘SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT Temperature /°C ah sh Time/s. ithalen AB - Gas is being cooled. BC - Condensation is occurring. CD - Liquid is being cooled. DE - Freezing is occurring. EF - Solid is being cooled. Observe the sections of the graph where there are no temperature changes. Heat is still being lost at these points, but {HiHGHETEIRPUCKAHE. This type is heat is known as LATENT HEAT. Latent heat is thermal energy bein: ed to either reform intermolecular bonds or break them This type of heat is lost or gained only during changes in state of matter, i. freezing, melting, condensation, boiling, Quantity Definition Formula Specific Latent Heat of | THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY E=mL FUSION REQUIRED TO CHANGE IKG OF A ‘ SOLID TO A LIQUID WITHOUT A E=Energy (3) TEMPERATURE CHANGE m=mass (ke) L= Latent heat (kg) Specific Latent Heat of | THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY E=mL. \VAPOURIZATION REQUIRED TO CHANGE IKG OF A v LIQUID TO A GAS WITHOUT A TEMPERATURE CHANGE 5A student heats 200g of ice at 0°C until it tums to steam at 100°C. How much energy was needed 10 do this? [specific heat capacity of water = 4200.Hikg K)] [specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36x 10° Jka] [specific latent heat of vapourization of water = 2.25 x 10°Ikg] ice (0 Celi (0 Celsius) mL, = 0.2 x (3.36 x 10%) 7200 J water (0 Celsius) = meAT = 0.2 x 4200 x 100 = 840005 ‘water (100 Celsius) mL, = 0.2 x (2.25 x 10%) = 450 0005 steam (100 Celsius) = = a oe thes + 110g Tera Mwarer, Mater ae 30° 100g Trae, (Heat Lost by Water) = (Heat Used to Melt Ice) + (Heat Gained by Melted Ice) Calculate, in order, the following: [SHC of water = 4.2 J(¢K)] (@ The heat energy lost by the water (i) The heat energy gained by the melted ice (ii) The heat used to melt the ice (iv) The specific latent heat of fusion of ice = meAT = 100 x 4.2 x 10 = 42005 e 4.2% 20-8405 AE = 4200 — 840 = 33603 meAT =y m3 First, itis important to understand what exactly creates air pressure. Air pressure is caused by the random motion of gas molecules (Kinetic Theory of Matter) and their collisions with the surfaces of objects (not the molecules hiting each other!) the surfaces, the greater the pressure. ‘The greater the frequency of collisions or the greater the force the air molecules collide with There are three quantities that are examined with each of the gas laws: Pressure, Volume and ‘Temperature, For cach law, wo of these quantities vary while one is Kept constant. It can be represented by the equation: P,V, Boyle’s Law states that FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VOLUME ARE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL. Calculate the pressure in the 20cm and 10cm cylinders, in kPa. For 20cm? cylinder: For 10cm cylinder: PIV, = PAV, 2x30=P,x 10 P, =60+20=34Pa P, = 60+ 10-6 kPa Boyle's Law can be graphed as shown below. ‘The lower the volume, the less space the molecules have when they are moving. Due to this, they collide more often, increasing the pressure. KiCharles’ Law states that FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS AT CONSTANT PRESSURE, VOLUME IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE. It can be represented by the equation: ‘The pressure is made constant by increasing volume. This means that as heat increases, there is ‘more space for the molecules to move. so they don’t collide against the surfaces as often, despite moving faster and hitting with greater force. (i) A gas at 27°C was heated, which caused the gas to expand and push the syringe upwards, Pressure eine) Vote 2) remained constant. If the volume increased from 30cm’ to SOcm’, what OB eronann is the final temperature? 274273 = 300K Gi) What would be the temperature to raise the volume to 60cm"? 00K Answer ‘There are two graphs used to represent Charles’ Law, depending whether or not the Kelvin ot Celcius scale is used as the unit for temperature. Vv Vv 0 TK) -273 TC)Pressure Law states that FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS AT CONSTANT VOLUME, PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ARE DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL. It can be represented by the equation: ‘Why does pressure increase with At absolute zero, there will be in the temperature? This is because as the substance. This is because at this ‘molecules are heated, they gain more kinetic temperature, the molecules have no intemal energy and collide against the walls ata ockinetic energy and do not move, thus they ‘aieater sate aud with greater force, camot collide against the walls and create pressure ‘Two graphs may represent the Pressure Law, depending on whether Kelvin or Celcius is used as the unit for temperature Va a T(K) 273 T(C) ws ww All three gas laws can be combined to form one formula called the General Gas Law. This is ‘employed when no quantity remains constant. The formula for itis a combination of all three as laws and is stated as: PW=RWY 4. PV=k T, T, T NOTE: Not to be confused with the IDEAL GAS LAW, which will be learned at A’ Level.PHYSICS, SECTION C : WAVES AND OPTICS WAVE FEATURES Waves carry energy without carrying matter. Some waves must propagate through a medium, They involve oscillations, where there can be just one oscillation (called a PULSE) or a series or succession of oscillations (called a PROGRESSING WAVE), ‘Waves that require a medium to be transferred are termed MECHANICAL waves, while those that can travel through a vactnum are classed as ELECTROMAGNETIC. Feature of Wave Definition IN PHASE Points on successive waves that lie on the same position WAVELENGTH Distance between two successive crests, troughs or points in phase AMPLITUDE Height of a wave, indicating its maximum displacement FREQUENCY Number of waves passing a point per second (measured in Hz) PERIOD Time taken for a wave's complete oscillation (measued in s) 1 2 3 3 waves = 6m 1 wave = 2m Frequency 3 Cycles per 3waves = I second Second = 3 Hz I wave = 1/3 second (period) |, si i (* Period +) The VELOCITY of the wave can +——— _1 ——— be found by the following formula Second i v= fa I 6m 1 i & Other formulas Question: Calculate the wavelength and velocity of the waveform above Frequeney = No. of waves Wavelength => 6m +3=2m Time Velocity v= fi=3x2=6mis Period (T) = 1 + Frequency Frequency = 1+T‘STWave Phenomenon Description REFLECTION All waves can bounce off a surface. REFRACTION All waves bend or change direction when entering another medium, DIFFRACTION All waves can curve or bend through narrow openings and edges, INTERFERENCE All waves can fuse, increasing or decreasing their amplitude. DISPERSION Light can split into different colours. Note that light waves with only one frequency (MONOCHROMATIC) cannot do this, TRANSVERSE and LONGITUDINAL WAVES propagation (direction) of wave acrest x /\ ‘ displacement Amplitude “nuumetie ae of particles f\of hf Nf Tf} f | transverse wan (perpendicular) / ; \ | WM MM Meron C= Compression R= Rarefaction NOTE: A compression’ molecules are closer together (higher pressure). A rarefaction’s is farther “4 C displ wat of particles (parallel) apart. Transverse Longitudinal Has CRESTS and TROUGHS. Has COMPRESSIONS and RAREFACTIONS. Displacement of particles is Displacement of particles is PARALLEL to PERPENDICULAR to propagation of wave. | propagation of wave. Examples: Any wave from the ean. spectrum | Examples: Sound and some seismic waves (radio, visible light, microwaves, gamma rays) 58SOUND WAVES: Sound is transferred by LONGITUDINAL waves that are MECHANICAL in nature, meaning that they require molecules oramedimn for their transfer, They are unable to tavel througha ‘vacuum stch as in space. ‘The presence of more molectiles enables ‘Sout 10 inerease its Speed. This means that sound will travel faster in denser states of matter, €.g Sounds can have different pitches or volumes. The PITCH of a sound is dependent on its FREQUENCY while its LOUDNESS is dependent on its AMPLITUDE for e.g. a mouse’s squeak has high-freq, low-amp. A loudspeaker’s bass has low-freq, high-amp. ECHOES AND SONAR Reflected ultrasound” = ‘State | Medin | Approx. Speed of Sound in ms m Gas_| Air 330 Liqui | Water [1500 4 Solid | Steet__| S000 The human audible range is 20Hz - 20000Hz. Any wave with a frequency higher than that range is termed an ULTRASOUND wave. Ultrasound has numerous practical applications, including the observation of fetuses in their pre-natal stages, ultrasonic ‘leaning (dental scalers, jewelry cleaning) and probing materials for internal flaws. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is a technology that uses ultrasound pulses to determine distances formula for calculation is given as: Question: Ifthe speed of sound in sea water is 1600 mvs and the time taken for the sound pulse to hit the sea bed and retum to the detector is 400 ms, calculate the depth of the sea bed, in km. 2d 2d=sxt t mn 2d = 1600 x 0.45 = 640m d= 640 +2 = 320m = 0.32km_REMEMBER THE ORDE! Rich Men in Vegas Use Xpensive Gadgets MAGN) IM ‘This is from lowest to highest frequency. ‘The electromagnetic spectrum refers to the range of wavelengths or frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. Radiation Type ‘Wavelength (m) ‘Approximate Scale fot wavelength ~ZV/VVA page Merowmve amd Vale, Ure Xa 10? w® oso 10 li ® Lb ke tw 0 Buikings Humans Butorties Neadle Point Protozoans Molecules Atoms omic Nuclei wo? Pe ORDER FROM SHORTEST TO LONGEST WAVELENGTH NAME SOURCE APPLICATION. Gamma-rays Radioactive decay ~ Penetrates matter. = Causes fluorescence. Xerays Electron bombardment against an anode ~~ Gamma-rays are useful in killing cancer cells. Uttra-violet | Ulra-heated bodies (such | - Tuning beds as the Sun) - Fluorescent lights - Used to sterilize medical equipment. Visible tight | Emission of excited - Detected by stimulating nerve endings of human electrons. retina. Incandescent bodies - Used in optical fibres in telecommunications, as Injra-red | Heated bodies. - Our bodies emit this type of wave. + Detection of bodies and matter, Microwaves | Magnettoa circuits - Radar and telephone communicationRadiowaves | Transmitters - Radio broadcasting or telescopes. ‘DIFFRACTION Diffraction occurs when a wave passes through a narrow aperture (opening) and thus spread out over a large area as it continues to progress. All waves can undergo diffraction. Wi) pd LargeAperure-LowLaveleotDemacten SralApartre-High Lava f Deracton NOTE: It is difficult to observe diffraction of light because of its SMALL WAVELENGTH. Special equipment would be needed for proper observation. THEORIES OF LIGHT ‘Many notable scientists had differing theories of lights over the eras, Scientist Theory Tsaac Newton Light is a stream of particles called corpuscles. Christiaan Huygens 11 ight isa transverse wave, not particles. ‘Thomas Young Light is a wave that can undergo interference. Albert Einstein Light behaves as both a wave and a particle. (Quantum Theory) Einstein also came up with the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel Prize). The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that produces elections when light is shone on a metal plate [deal examples of this are DIGITAL CAMERAS and SOLAR PANELS.In digital cameras, the photons are of different strengths, which produces variations of brightness and colour to translate the photograph image,INTERFERENCE Interference occurs when two waves superpose with each other to form a resultant wave that might either raise or lower the amplitude, There are two types of interference: Destructive interference has the waves being out of phase by exactly % i. 1. CONSTRUCTIVE Interference 2, DESTRUCTIVE Interference The concept of interference proved that ligt experienced properties of a wave. The diagram below shows Thomas Young’s double-slit experiment Double sie ‘Where the waves are in phase (CONSTRUCTIVE interference), the crests and troughs are aligned and result in bright fringes (called MAXIMAS). ‘Where the waves are out of phase (DESTRUCTIVE interference), th result in dark fringes (called MINIMAS). ‘Troughs of one wave ‘cancel? out the crests of another. penumbra 63‘A.NORMAL is an imaginary 90° line to any boundary or REELECTION OF LIGHT surface. All angles are measured from the normal. Reflection occurs when a wave bounces off a surfSC= COMPETE WE WHETHIS TET normal incident ray 1 reflected ‘The ray would 1 ray, be reflected Gi = angle of | straight up at an incidence | angle of 0°. r= angle of reflection —_ TWO LAWS OF REFLECTION Law States First The incident ray, normal and reflected ray all Hie on the same plane. Second The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. (i= 1) Example of a Plane @_obiect image % abject! ) © . Image height height L The image that is formed in a mirror is called a VIRTUAL image and typically has the following characteristics:REFRACTION Refraction occurs when a wave passes through a MEDIUM OF DIFFERING DENSITY for example: sunlight entering a piece of glass from the ar, or light exiting water In the diagram, the light is reflected off the fish and enters the person’s eye, However, because the light has to move across a different medium (water to ait), it reffacts and the image of the fish seems ‘loser than it really is. Characteristic of Wave Denser medium Less dense medium Change in direction TOWARDS NORMAL AWAY FROM NORMAL Speed DECREASES INCREASES Wavelength DECREASES INCREASES Frequency NO CHANGE NO CHANGE ‘The diagrams below show refraction of light in two prisms, lateral displacement K incident ray Z ‘mergent ray violet Fay As the ray enters the block, it bends TOWARDS the normal. It bends AWAY from the normal as it leaves. If the block was not there, the ray would not refract. Its change in position as a result of refraction is called White light undergoes BISPERSION in a prism and splits into the colours of the rainbow as it refracts. Red has a longer wavelength than violet, so it refira Jess.TEAVEFRONT DIAGRAMS deep shallow ZZ shallow deep deep shallow it NOTE: A wavefront is defined as a point of connection for molecules that are all in phase. e.g, straight waves on water or circular ripples. ‘Wavelength decreases. ‘Speed decreases. Wave bends towards normal, Wavelength increases. ‘Speed increases.MIRAGES Mirages occur mostly in hot places. This is because heated air is less dense than cooler al (which is why heated ait rises). Sanlight rect of tree ‘The difference in density is important to note, as heated air and cooler air would be considered two separate mediums. As a result, light would refract or bend as it moves from one to the other Asa result, itis as ifthe ground acts a mirror, showing a reflection of the sky. GLARE Upon hitting a surface, light is said to be POLARIZED. Direct light sources are unpolarized. Ifboth a polarized and ‘unpolarized light source enter the eye simultaneously, this results in a blurry visual called glare. LAWS OF REFRACTION Law States First ‘The incident ray, normal and refracted ray all lie on the same plane. Second The refractive index is equal to the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and (also called | Traction Snell's Law) | R€Presented asthe forma: sinrCRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION ‘We have now understood the concept that light refracts away fiom the normal when entering a less dense medium, However, ifthe angle of incidence is too LARGE, it will be unable to be reffacted in such a way to escape. ‘The point at which the angle of refraction is equal to 90° is called the CRITICAL ANGLE. The angle of refraction cannot be more than 90°. Instead, TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION will ‘ocour, keeping the light inside the medium. In other words, the insides behave like a mirror. - so refracted tr, “ tray i (total internal reflection) ‘APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION Optical fibres are usually held in bundles to sepa carry data at high speeds, They may be used as ENDOSCOPE, an instrument that is put into the body to view the internal parts Light is shot into the fibre and itis reflected back up to a detector with images. The incident ray is shone at an angle greater than the critical angle so that it keeps reflecting over and over again in the fibre. Optical fibres are made ofa core of high refiactive index and surrounded by cladding that is LESS DENSE than the core. Another example of total intemal reflection would be in the use of road reflectors, which are usually right-angled prisms that reflect light back to a vehicle,‘The incident ray enters the prism UNDEVIATED at an angle greater than the critical angle of glass (which is about 42 degrees). As a result, the ray does not refract. Instead, it undergoes TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION twice and is reflected back out of the prism at 180 degrees. REFRACTIVE INDEX ‘The refractive index of a material. put simply. tells how optically dense an object is. The higher the refractive index, the slower the light will travel. For example, ifalglass has a Tebachive inex of LS, this means light will travel 1.5x more slowly in glass than in a vacuum, ‘The refractive index (n) can be properly defined as THE RATIO OF THE SINES OF THE. ANGLES OF INCIDENCE AND REFRACTION OF A RAY PASSING FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER In order to calculate this refractive index, we may use either of these formulas: given angles Taiven speeds Taiven wavelengths sinO1 speed (vacuum) ‘wavelength (vacuum) => = ee sin@2 speed (medium) wavelength (median) Example question (i Calculate the reftactive index of light passing from Medium A to B sinOl + sinO2 in60 + sin4S Gi) Ifthe angle of the ray in Medium A was increased to 45°, what would be the new angle of refraction? Angle = sin"! 0.58 = 35428ii) What is the speed of light through Medium B? n= speed (vacuum) * speed (medium) speed (med) = speed (vacuum) +n x 10°) + 1.22 70Example question 2: A manufacturer was asked to investigate the relationship between angles of incidence, 6i, and refiaction, @r, for a certain type of fibre glass to build an optical fibre. The results are shown below. eis? 30.0 | 40.0 | 500 | 60.0 70.0 | 80.0 @r/* 23.6 38.0 | 43.7 48.5 | 52.0 sini oso foo 077 | 087 094 | 0.98 sinr 040 fost foez | 0.09 0.75 | 0.79 (a) (i) Complete the table above for both sin i and sin r () Plot a graph of sin i vs. sin r below. oss 060 6065 070 «0075 080 oss SINT (b)(i Calculate the gradient of the line. (ji) Caleulate the critical angle of fibre glass. Gradient = y2—y x2-xl n= sine = 0.98 0.64 0.79 -0.51 sinc=1 = 1 =Q83 1.21 n i2l (This aso TeprEsENTS Whe Terrace —FT ————————LENSES. Type Diagram Example CONVEX Magnifying glass, (converging) microscope CONCAVE (iverging) Flashlights, peepholes, Tenses for shortsighted people mage distance Gv) Example question: An object of 4cm height is placed 6cm distance from the optical center of a lens. It produces a 20cm height image. Calculate: (i) The magnification of the lens (iii) The focal length of the lens M=hi+ho I/f= ut liv 20+4 =5 b-1+1 Gi) The image distance f 20+ 30 M=di~do 3+2- 5 di =Mxdo 0 60 5x6 = 30am Invert => f= 60/5 = (26m () Principal axis — A horizontal line cutting across the optical centre. (i) FORGE — The distance between the lens' centre and the focal point. (ili) Principal focus — The point at which the Tightyays converge. (iv) Focal plane ~ A vertical line cutting the focal point.Object between F and 2F Object beyond 2F Object at F Concave Lens Diagram Image is inverted ~ real ~ magnified Image is ~ magnified . ~ upright ~ - virtual ? $ Image is i ~ Diminished - Inverted - Real The rays are parallel (will never meet) so image forms at INFINITY. 73Concave lens forms an image that is ~ Diminished ~ Virtual - UprightPHYSICS, SECTION D (1/2) - ELECTROSTATICS AND CIRCUITS STATIC ELECTRICITY AND ATTRACTI Electzostatics is the study of charges at rest. When two insulators are rubbed together, they can produce Sléetrostatic attraction. Matter is made of atoms which have negatively charged particles called ELECTRONS ovbiting around a small nucleus In the normal state, the atom has an equal number of electrons and protons, therefore we say that it is electrically balanced or uncharged. At times, when rubbing a surface, electrons are removed from the orbit and the object becomes POSITIVELY charged. The object that the electrons rubbed off on then become NEGATIVELY charged. It should be noted that only the electrons will move because they are much lighter than protons. Protons are also bound to the nucleus, which make them unlikely to move due to friction. srt ska becomes +ve become -ve Ifa plastic rod was used, it would gain electrons instead. charge (C) t= time (s) Note the formuta for charge: @=Tt 1 = Current (A) Charge is measured in COULOMBS. One coulomb is equivalent to 6.25 x 10* electrons. Devices that store charge are called CAPACTTORS. and gain current as time passes. It should be noted that time plays a major factor in terms of charge Example questions: 1. During a certain lightning strike, a current of 5 x 10* A flows fora time period of 0.15 ms. Calculate the quantity of charge of the lightning strike, t 5 x 10%) x (0.15 x 10°) =2.5C 2. The makers of a cellphone have upgraded its battery capacity from 4320C to 9000C. Ifa charger delivers 0.6, how much more time will it take to charge the new battery than the old? = 4680.C At=AQ+I= 4680+ 0.6 = 7800 s (or 130 mins) 75kinetic energy based on differences in height higher voltage (Such as a river flowing downstream) pad. refers to the eneigy that generates an eat. (electromotive force), allowing charges to flow to a component om For e.g. the laptop has to have a lower pd, than the solar cell for the charges to flow Potential difference (or p.d.) is simply from the solar cell to the laptop. If the laptop ‘another term for voltage. Similar to how had a higher p.d. than the solar cell, the sravitational potential may convert to laptop would charge the solar cell instead. CHARGING BY INDUCTION. Objects can also be charged by placing them next to each other and using a charged rod within proximity. This method is called charging by INDUCTION. Two uncharged spheres ‘charges align. Positives When spheres separate, they attract to-ve rod. retain their charges. Examples of technology that employ electrostatic forces are: PHOTOCOPYING MACHINES, ELECTROSTATIC PAINTING, ELECTROSTATIC SMOKE PRECIPITATORS. ELECTRIC FIELDS An glecttc field is defined as a region around a charged particle or object within which a force ‘would be exerted on other charged particles or objects, a ar Electric fields flow outward from < . - +ve charges and inward from —ve + Neutra Ce charges. ap NP ROS So they always flow from positive Unlike Charges Atract Esch Other Like Charges Repel Each Other to negative.CIRCUIT COMPONENTS Component Circuit Symbol Note Dry cell / Battery Converts chemical to electrical energy ‘Switeh Controls paths of electron flow. Fixed Resistor Decreases current. value is constant. Variable Resistor (rheostat) Decreases current, value can adjust Bulb /Lamp. Converts clectricity to light + heat Voltmeter “Measures voltage. Comected in parallel ‘Ammeter Measures cusrent. Connected in series Fuse Breaks circuit path if cuent is too high ‘Semiconductor diode Converts ac. voltage to d.c. voltage. ac. Power Source ‘Typically a power outlet. Motor Converts electrical to mechanical energy. Transformer Alters voltage by altering current Galvanometer Deflects needle due to small currents. Heater Generates thermal energy. Bell Releases sound energy. Thermistor Resistance reduces when temperature apleoflfolofa ala incteases. FPhotoresistor / LDR (Light-Dependent Resistance reduces when light intensity’ increases. a] o Resistor) LED (Light-Emitting ‘Semiconductor light source. Releases| Diode) photons, Very efficient 78w Quantity | Definition Unit | Derivation of Unit Voltage | The amount of energy per unit charge. volt (v) | 1v=14/c Curent | The amount of coulombs passing a point per | Ampere | 1A=1 C/s second. “ Resistance | A measure in the opposition ofthe flow of | Ohm — | 19=1 V/A current. (2) The general formula that links each quantity above is: V=IR P=VI or P=IR Ohm's Law Joule's Law This is also called OHM’S LAW, which states that ‘THE CURRENT THROUGH A CONDUCTOR BETWEEN TWO POINTS IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO VOLTAGE AND INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO RESISTANCE. Measuring Voltage and Current Instrument Measures How itis hooked "p AMMETER, Current IN SERIES Ithas a very low resistance, so as to not affect the circuit. VOLTMETER Voltage. INPARALLEL _| Ithas a high resistance. which could affect the circuit in series. 79GALVANOMETER Direction of small amounts of current, Same as ammeter. ‘Same as ammeter,TIRES AND RESISTANCE Factor Explanation LENGTH Long wites have higher resistances than shorter ones. More power loss tends to occur along far distances. Electrical energy converts to heat. ‘THICKNESS Wires of thick diameter have more conducting material and thus can transfer more current. The thicker the wire, the lower the resistance. CONDUCTOR, Wires made of good conducting material. eg. copper have low resistance. =| dc. voltage (battery) Alternating current is specific type of electric current in which the direction of the current’s flow is REVERSED on a regular basis. The magnitude of the voltage produced FLUCTUATES ac, voltages are found in: Power lines, transformers, power outlets Direct current is simply when it flows in ONE DIRECTION at all times. Ithas a FIXED magnitude. d.c. voltages are found in: Cell phone battery, laptop battery, simple electtomagnet, hybrid vehicles - a.c, voltage (power outlet) An ac. voltage can be converted to dc. voltage using a SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE ot RECTIFIER v + 0} t =e comerted from ac. (hai wave rectification)PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BATTERY CELLS. Batteties can be divided in two categories: primary cells and secondary cells, Characteristic Primary cell (Dry Cell) Secondary cell (Wet Cell) Rechargeability Absent. Present. Portability High (small size) Low (usually larger size) ‘Tenminal Voltage Lower (eg. AA-1.5¥) Higher (e.g. Car~ 12V) Intemal Resistance Higher Lower Structure of MnO... Zinc anode, carbon cathode, | Sulphuric acid electrolyte coutains a powder or paste with lead plates. Or lithium-ton batteries. Liquid electrolyte. RECHARGING 4 BATTERY CELL Secondary batteries (which are d.c.) are recharged when they are connected to a. supplies (such as outlets) A TRANSFORMER steps down the voltage from the outlet and a RECTIFIER converts, the ac. voltage to d.c to flow into the battery and be stored VI-GRAPHS -H} Components that obey the relationship given by Ohm's Law are said to be OHMIC while components that don't, such as filaments lamps and diodes are said to be NON-OHMIC, proportional Line passes through “ohmic conductor lament lamp (pure metal) Directly proportional until the heating occurs (Rincreases) v 1 ' v copper sulphate Leon Ze semi. diode (Slightly extra v needed to generate 1) (Current only flows in one direction through diode)goer omer Scam . a seas QR . Method 1 Method 2 ‘The apparatus is set up as shown in both methods with the ammeter in series with the resistor and the voltmeter in parallel. However, the methods differ when it comes to obtaining different values of current, In Method 1, the length of the resistance wire ‘d”is varied by connecting the contact at different points (recall that longer wires have higher resistance). In Method 2, a sheastat is used to vary the resistance to obtain different values. Using the setup in Method 2, a student obtained the following results. Plot a graph of V vs. I, and find the gradient. What does the gradient represent? vv | 200 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 vA 0.42 0.60 0.84 1.02 118Voltage (V) Gradient = y2-y1 x2exd = 5.00 - 2.00 1.02-0.42 = 3.00 = 5.000 0.60 (The gradient represents the resistance of the component; R= V/I) 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 Current (A) eaLet's analyse the simple series circuit below to state its characteristics: ‘working in a series circuit, i 1 the cireuit breaks and @ (a current cannot travel to the Ry Ro other parts in the circuit. uy 100 sa LJ This is duc to there being only one pathway. ev Ifone component stops | NCE IN ~The total resistance in series is the sum of all resistors in the circuit. For example, find the total resistance of a circuit which has two resistors of 102 and 150. FORMULA: Rs=Ri +R: CALCULATION: R, = 10 + 1 (CURRENT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT — The current flowing into each component in a series circuit is equal to the current flowing out of each component, This means that each ammeter (A, Azand A.) would have the same reading. Show the calculation: I-VR = 6/25=0244 Note: Ammeters are placed in series next to the component to be observed. They have very low resistance, so as to avoid significant alteration of the current passing through it in series, VOLTAGE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT ~The sim of the voltages of the individual components in the circuit should equal the voltage of the power source. This means that the sum of voltages in RI and R2 should be equal to 6V. What are the voltages in R, and R,? VR)>V-R VR)>V-R 24x 10=24V. =0.24x15=36V ‘Now recall that total voltage = 2.4 + 3.6 = 6V ‘Note: Voltmeters are connected in parallel to the components. They have very high resistance, so only very small amounts of current pass through it, since voltmeters are on separate wire paths, 85 ESYow, ler’s analyse a simple parallel circuit with the same components as before. Houses are wired in parallel. This is because the overall resistance is lower than series. ‘Also, if one component ceases to work, the circuit is not broken like in series, due to other electron pathways being available. RESISTANCE INA PARALLEL CIRCUIT ~ The total resistance in a parallel circuit is smaller than the value of the individual resistors, FORMULA: f/Rp = 1/Ri* URS CALCULATION: y=aea R 10 15 Therefore R = 30/5 B+2=5 “60 30. 30 VOLTAGE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT — The voltage in a parallel circuit is €qjmal on each wire. Therefore, on this circuit, the voltage on each wire would be 6Y. CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT — Since the wire splits at several junctions, so does the conducting path for the electrons. This causes the current to decrease through these paths. Therefore, since A, and A, are on the same pathway, their current will be equal However, A; and A, will have different currents, The sum of A, and A, = Calculate the currents through A, A, and then use those to find the current in A, ForA, I=V/R=6/10 ForA? I=VIR= 6/15 4A, Therefore, the total voltage 0.6 + 0.COMBINING SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS av ff ABandC © In the diagram, each resistor is 6Q. A and B are in series with each other. C is parallel to both A and B. And resistor D is series to A, B and C combined. To simplify the circuit, we need to reduce the number of resistors by “fusing” their values. (a)(@) Calculate the total resistance of A and B. R,=6+6=120 Gi) Calculate the total resistance of A, B and C. y-aead a B's Therefore R= 12/3 =40 (ai) Calculate the total resistance of A, B, C and D. R,=4+6=100 (b) Calculate the total current in the circuit vi = 12/10 - 1.24 (©) Calculate the voltage through C. (Keep in mind that resistor D draws voltage) Finding voltage through D V=IR .256= Therefore Voltage through A, Band C would be: V=12-7.2=48V22 7 From the diagram, calculate the value of Vix R, = 1000 + 500 = 1500 I=ViR = 12/1500 = 0.0084 V.u.= IR = 0.008 x $00 = 4V Your OR 500/150 x 12 = 4V Potential dividers (or potentiometers) operate simply by splitting the voltage at various points ina circuit, They usually involve some type of variable resistor or sensor-operated resistor. They are widely used for adjusting voltages in appliance circuits. For e.g. a radio may only need 6V from a 9V battery. The divider splits the voltage and allows 6V to flow as a Vig. Value. ELECTRICAL HAZARDS, WIRING AND FUSES Some metals melt easily at much lower temperatures than normal. These metals can be used to make a SAFETY FUSE. If too much electricity flows through the fuse wire. it will get so heated that it will melt, This will BREAK THE CIRCUIT and no more CURRENT can pass. Ifn0 fuse is present and too much current passes. there can be a risk of an electrical fire. Circuit breakers have the same purpose of a fuse. One main difference is that fuses must be replaced, while circuit breakers don’t have to be. Fuses act faster than breakers, however. ‘If an $A current is being delivered through the live wire, which fuse will be best? 2A, $A or [0A ‘There are three types of wires: Type of Wire Purpose Colour LIVE Delivers electrical energy and high ac. voltages to | BROWN (or red) appliances. Connects all switches and fuses. NEUTRAL Carries current back to the supply. Has roughly zero | GREY (or blue) volts. EARTH or Deposits excess electrons from the circuit into the | GREEN-YELLO) GROUND ground. It is connected to the appliance frame or w casing, not mains, ‘Time main electrical hazards are: 1. Damp wires 2. Broken insulation in wires 3. Short circuitsmetal case of dryer Fuses and switches are always connected 10 : the live wire, There is a potential danger of the live wire becoming loose and touching tthe metal case of appliances. ‘Touching the metal casing can then result in electrocution. However, the ground wire will carry those excess electrons into the ground, earth wire connected’ so ie art wie salva Comte TOS to metal case case or frame. Heer Ene) ag, reer ammceadey MICE. acta ney sclcranan "seer hawegens coo al Ee bo vl SERENE oa, 1, BOILER ~ An extemal energy source (¢.g. coal, biofuel, uranium) heats water into steam. 2. TURBINES ~ The steam provides mechanical energy for the turbines to spin, 3. GENERATOR ~ The turbines spin a generator, which is a large magnet that spins in a coil. 4, TRANSFORMER ~ Increases voltage for power line transmission, decreases for household. Since we are dependent on non-renewable fossil fuels, we can do a number of things to conserve them: Switch off electrical appliances and lights when not in use. Convert from incandescent to LED light bulbs. Find alternative methods of transport (e.g. publie transport, bicycles). Employ aiternative sources of energy (e.g. solar, wind, biofuels). 59 SSPHYSICS, SECTION D (2/2) - ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPONENTS MAGNETS A magnet is a material that has a north and south pole that could either attract or repel other ‘magnets or magnetic materials. Magnetic materials, however, have no poles and cannot attract ‘others but can be attracted by a magnet. Temporary Magnet Permanent Magnet Nature Can be magnetized easily Refains its magnetism for a long time. Material Iron, nu-metal Steel, alnico Application Electromagnets, transformers Compass needles, décor magnets, metal detectors ‘Magnets create fields around them, as illustrated below. 30Single magnet ingle magy A compass will always point in the direction of the field line at that point. So compasses always point away from the N-pole and towards the S-pole, Pole-to-Pole ATTRACTION %. , a Parallel Antiparallel AN Me We ANI ~, + neutal point MAGNETIC INDUCTION ‘When a piece of unmagnetised magnetic material (such as IRON) touches or is brought near to the pole ofa permanent magnet, it is attracted to the magnet and becomes a magnet itself. In other ‘words, the material is said to have been magnetically induced. It should be noted that only 3 ‘metals can be magnetized: By wrapping a cylindtical coil or SOLENOID around an iton core and passing de. through it, the iron core will become magnetized. The electric field creates a magnetic field because they are wire both part of the same electromagnetic force. fron nall They are 90° to each other battery DEMAGNETISING A MAGNET‘Method Explanation HEATING Molecules begin to vibrate so quickly that domains are rearranged and the charges at the poles disappear: HAMMERING Physical force rearranges domains and polar charges disappear. AC. VOLTAGE | The ace. causes some domains at the magnetic poles to switch directions Ifdone long enough, the polar charges will be nullified RELAY CIRCUITS (ELECTRIC BELL) A ypical relay citeuit contains a switeh that is, electromagnetically operated, Switch ‘hh Battery Spring ‘When the current passes through the electromagnets, they generate a magnetic field The soft iron armature is then attracted to the lectromagnet. It is pulled towards it, and the soft iron armature hammer hits the gong. At the same time, the contacts are broken in the Electromagnet —— cirenit, causing current flow to cease and the ‘HGGHEHE HAA HOIWE TSE. This restarts the circuit, causing the bell to ring in rapid successions. FLOW OF CHARGES & CONVENTIONAL CURRENT. Flow of charges is different fiom a metal Election few conductor and electrolyte. In an electrolyte oso} (a liquid conducting material), Both positive - ‘and negative ions cam flow. It can also Se cet ‘occur in both directions. sas Electrolyte However. in a metal conductor, only Ks negative charges flow (electron flow) and “Anode Cathode only in one direction (-ve to +ve terminals). ‘There is one thing to note, however. While electrons indeed do move from ve to +ve, tradition in the field of Physics is to work the opposite way. Due to past limitations, we must assume that {low is +e to -ve instead, This system is called CONVENTIONAL CURRENT,In the figure above, the thamb pointing straight out represents the CURRENT While the other four curved fingers, represent the MAGNETIC FIELD. With this rule, the magnetic effect of a current can be predicted, > —— = N »> No Ys THERM SEEEE —shdtne duets crn the wie s > NO ® IS L_ 9 J Pr — > wire with current coming out of the pageHleming’s LeftHand Rule is used to baie! predict the force (or thrust), magnetic field _ ~~ and direction caused by a passing current. In = waetic oer for this interaetion to occur, aL he® ssfiela ‘must be perpendicular to each other, I Current Force, magnetic field and current are linked this way. Iftwo are ata right angle, the third cau be produced. Eirst Finger ~ Field/Elux SeCond Finger = Current ‘THumb = THrust [a Fig Fig? © Predict the direction of the wire in Fig 1. (downwards) © InFig 2. the wire is being thrusted out of the page. Draw an arrow indicating the conventional current direction, as well as the +ve and —ve terminals. (downwards) APPLICATION OF LEFT HAND RULE TO A TURNING COIL anticlockwise —magnetiefield “ee Predict whether the coil ABCD will have a clockwise or anticlockwise moment by determining the forces on AB and CD. ‘Why would there be uo force on BC 94In order to produce a thrust, the magnetic flux must be PERPENDICULAR to the current. ATBC, they are not perpendicular to each other, but parallel. There is no force as a result.D.C. MOTORS AND 4.C. GENERATORS: Characteristics | d.c. motor ac. generator Power source Battery Extemal turning force Energy conversion | Electrical Mechanical Mechanical Electrical ‘Components, Split ring commutator Slip rings Howto make the | Increase battery voltage. Increase turing force velocit motor spin faster | racrease umber of tims. Increase mumber of tums. or make the generator create | Use Stvonger magnets. Use stronger magnets, ‘more power ~_ A.C. generator rotator dc. Motor: The purpose of the dc. motor is to create a MOMENT on both sides of the wire loops to create a turning force. This is due to Fleming's Left Hand Rule, which says that in order to create a force, a current must be PERPENDICULAR to the magnetic flux, ‘When the loop is turning. there is a chance the direction can reverse every half-rotation. A SPLIT RING COMMUTATOR is used to BREAK THE CIRCUIT every half-turn to keep the ‘motor spinning in one constant direction. The direction of the turing force depends on the orientation of the magnets and direction of conventional current ac. Generator: It is noted that instead of a commutator, that SLIP RINGS are placed at the end of the wire loop. The pumpose of these is to allow the transfer of the altemating em. induced by