Chapter 1

Introduction

Dr/ Hala Hassan

Chapter 1: roadmap

1.1 what is the Internet?

1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-2
 The network core
 mesh of interconnected routers
 packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into
packets
 forward packets from one router to
the next, across links on path from
source to destination
 each packet transmitted at full link
capacity

Introduction 1-3
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to one-hop numerical

transmit (push out) L-bit example:
packet into link at R bps  L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward: entire  R = 1.5 Mbps
packet must arrive at  one-hop transmission
router before it can be delay = 5 sec
transmitted on next link 1-4
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming more on delay shortly …
zero propagation delay)
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 if arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link
for a period of time:
• packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
• packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-5
 Two key network-core functions

routing: determines source-

destination route taken by forwarding:
move packets from
packets router’s input to
 routing algorithms appropriate router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1

destination address in arriving 1-6

packet’s header
Introduction
Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to, reserved
for “call” between source & dest:
 in diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.

 dedicated resources: no
sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed) performance

 circuit segment idle if not used

by call (no sharing)
 commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

Introduction 1-7
Circuit switching: FDM versus TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

Introduction
time 1-8
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!

example:
1 Mb/s link
N
each user: users
• 100 kb/s when “active” 1 Mbps link
• active 10% of time

 circuit-switching:
 10 users Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
 packet switching: Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
 with 35 users, probability >
10 active at same time is
Introduction 1-9
less than .0004 *
Packet switching versus circuit switching
is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”

 great for bursty data

 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup

 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss

 protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control

 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?

 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching)

versus on-demand allocation (packet-switching)? 1-10
Introduction
Internet structure: network of networks

 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet

Service Providers)
• residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
• so that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
• evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet
structure

Introduction 1-11
Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect
them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
Introduction net 1-12
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

access
to each other directly doesn’t access
net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
Introduction net 1-13
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
Introduction net 1-14
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
….
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

access
net ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
Introduction net 1-15
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
…. which must be interconnected
access access
Internet exchange point
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access peering link

net
access
net
access access
net access net
Introduction net 1-16
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to
ISPs
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
Introduction net 1-17
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
Content provider network
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
Introduction net 1-18
Internet structure: network of networks

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national
& international coverage
Introduction 1-19
 content provider network (e.g., Google): private network that
connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional
ISPs
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

POP: point-of-presence
to/from backbone

peering
… … …
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-20
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history
Introduction 1-21
How do loss and delay occur?

packets queue in router buffers

 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output

link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
Introduction
dropped (loss) if no free buffers 1-22
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output link
 determine output link for transmission
 typically < msec  depends on congestion
Introduction level of router
1-23
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link bandwidth (bps)  s: propagation speed (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
Introduction 1-24
Caravan analogy

100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 cars “propagate” at  time to “push” entire

100 km/hr caravan through toll
 toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service car (bit transmission 12*10 = 120 sec
time)  time for last car to
 car ~ bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to
2nd toll both:
 Q: How long until caravan is 100km/(100km/hr)= 1
lined up before 2nd toll hr
booth?
Introduction
 A: 62 minutes
1-25
Caravan analogy (more)

100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a
car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced
at first booth?
• A: Yes! after 7 min, first car arrives at second booth;
three cars still at first booth
Introduction 1-26
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing
 R: link bandwidth (bps)

delay
 L: packet length (bits)
 a: average packet
arrival rate
traffic intensity
= La/R
 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large

 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay infinite!

Introduction 1-27
La/R -> 1
“Real” Internet delays and routes

 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

 traceroute program: provides delay measurement from source
to router along end-end Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
Introduction 1-28
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: [Link] to [Link]
3 delay measurements from
[Link] to [Link]
1 cs-gw ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 [Link] ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 [Link] ([Link]) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 [Link] ([Link]) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 [Link] ([Link]) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 [Link] ([Link]) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 [Link] ([Link]) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 [Link] ([Link]) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 [Link] ([Link]) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 [Link] ([Link]) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 [Link] ([Link]) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 [Link] ([Link]) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 [Link] ([Link]) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms
Introduction 1-29
 Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end system,
or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
Introduction
full buffer is lost 1-30
Throughput

 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits transferred between

sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server withbits
sends linkpipe
capacity
that can carry linkpipe
capacity
that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bitspipe Rs bits/sec
fluid at rate Rc bits/sec
fluid at rate
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)
Introduction 1-31
Throughput (more)

 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-32
Throughput: Internet scenario

 per-connection end-end
throughput: min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
Rs
 in practice: Rc or Rs is often
bottleneck Rs Rs

Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

Introduction backbone bottleneck
1-33 link R bits/sec
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history
Introduction 1-34
Protocol “layers”

Networks are complex,

with many “pieces”:

 hosts
 routers Question:
is there any hope of organizing
 links of various structure of network?
media
 applications …. or at least our discussion of
networks?
 protocols
 hardware,
software
Introduction 1-35
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-36
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions

 relying on services provided by layer
below
Introduction 1-37
Why layering?

dealing with complex systems:

 explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex
system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
 change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-38
Internet protocol stack

 application: supporting network applications

 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process data transfer application
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from source to transport
destination
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between neighboring network network
elements
 Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
link
 physical: bits “on the wire”

physical

Introduction 1-39
ISO/OSI reference model

 presentation: allow applications to interpret

meaning of data, e.g., encryption,
compression, machine-specific conventions application
 session: synchronization, checkpointing, presentation
recovery of data exchange
 Internet stack “missing” these layers! session
 these services, if needed, must be transport
implemented in application
 needed? network
link
physical

Introduction 1-40
 source Encapsulation
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
Introduction 1-41
 Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history
Introduction 1-42
Network security

 field of network security:

 how bad guys can attack computer networks
 how we can defend networks against attacks
 how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
 Internet not originally designed with (much) security in mind
 original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached to a
transparent network” 
 Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
 security considerations in all layers!

Introduction 1-43
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet

 malware can get in host from:

 virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing object (e.g., e-
mail attachment)
 worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving object that gets
itself executed

 spyware malware can record keystrokes, web sites visited, upload

info to collection site
 infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for spam. DDoS attacks

Introduction 1-44
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server, bandwidth)
unavailable to legitimate traffic by overwhelming resource with bogus
traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from
compromised hosts
target

Introduction 1-45
Bad guys can sniff packets

packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g., including
passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

 wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a

Introduction
(free) packet-sniffer 1-46
Bad guys can use fake addresses

IP spoofing: send packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

… lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8)

Introduction 1-47
Introduction: summary

covered a “ton” of material! you now have:

 Internet overview  context, overview,
 what’s a protocol? “feel” of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus circuit-
switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 layering, service models
 security
 history
Introduction 1-48
outline

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 The Network Layer: Data Plane
 The Network Layer: Control Plane
 The Link Layer and LANs
 Wireless and Mobile Networks
 Security in Computer Networks

Introduction 2-49