SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN RAJPUT AGE

According to R.S. Sharma social changes in Indian society were the outcome of
economic conditions of then existing society.
VARNA SYSTEM- During pre-medieval period the position of Brahmins was not
only declined but Vaishyas also lost their position. Though the Vedic Varna Vyavastha
remained in the society in later period but new classes emerged and grew rapidly in the
society. Brahmans and Rajputs enjoyed highest position in the social hierarchy. On the
basis of Dharmashastras the Brahmans guided the society. The political power was
possessed by the Rajputs. Brahmans were their main advisors. They enjoyed social,
economic, political and religious privileges. They were kept free from taxes. Some of the
Brahmins embraced the duties of Kshatriya dharma and they were pronounced as
Brahma-Kshatriya.
Besides the Brahmans and the Rajputs, the third position in society was enjoyed by
the Vaishyas who conducted trade and commerce. The entire economy was
concentrated in their hands. The Shudras also took up the professions of other Varnas. This
shows that during this period the four Varnas did not perform the duties of their own
Varna strictly. On accpunt of economic pressure the Brahmins started to accept the
professions of other three Varnas. The Brahmanas who were in military and
administrative services of kings and samantas at higher level, were well reputed in the
society but those poor Brahmin who indulged themselves in the performance of religious
duties, had lost their respectable position.
CASTE SYSTEM
It will be seen that caste (jati) is not as rigid as has sometimes been believed: individuals
and groups can rise in the varna scale, and they can also fall. Sometimes, it was found
difficult to classify new castes in the varna scale. An instance of this is the kayastha
caste, which begins to be mentioned more prominently from this period. It seems that
originally people from different castes, including brahmanas and sudras, who worked in
the royal establishments, were called kayastha. In course of time, they emerged as a
distinct caste.
We also meet during this period a new caste called Rajputs.
In the case of the union of a high caste man with a woman of a lower caste, the caste of
the offspring was to be determined by the caste of the mother, but by the caste of the
father if he belonged to a caste lower than the mother's .
Some of these were guilds of workers Svhich now began to be classified as castes (jati). It
is significant that the smriti writers of the period regard handicrafts as low occupations.
Thus, most of the workers as well as tribals such as the bhilas were classified as
'untouchables'.
Though the foreigners were assimilated in Indian society during the Rajput period but
rigidity in caste system remained the specific feature of Indian society.
During this period many sub-castes emerged in the society. The foreigners who were
not assimilated in first three Varnas, assimilated in Shudra Varna.
On account of division of castes into sub-castes the castes were divided into many
classes. The caste system during this time in fact strengthened the concept of
untouchability which quickened the process of disintegration. In earlier smritis the
Achhutas were pronounced as Antyaja. According to Atri, the number of Antyajas were
seven while Ved Vyasa noticed twelve types of Antyajas in the society. The
position of Antyajas in the society was below than that of Shudras. The Chandalas were
more important among Antyajas. Seven types of Antyajas suggested by Vaijayanti
were washerman, cobblers, Venas, Barulas, Fisherman, Medas and Bhils. Generally
Antyajas were bound to keep distance with the higher Varnas.
PUBLIC LIFE There was no decline in the high standard of Indian handicrafts such as
textiles, work on gold and silver, metallurgy, etc. during the period. Indian agriculture
also continued to be in a flourishing condition. Many of the Arab travellers testify to the
fertility of the soil and the skill of the Indian peasant.
All the literary works of the period tells us that the ministers, officials and feudal chiefs
lived in great ostentation and splendour. They aped the ways of the king in having fine
houses which sometimes were three to five storeys high. They used costly foreign
apparel such as imported woollen clothes and Chinese silk and costly jewels and
ornaments made of gold and silver to adom their bodies. They maintained a large number
of women in their households and had a train of domestic servants to look after them.
Whenever they moved out, a large numberof attendants accompanied them. They assumed
high-sounding titles, such as mahasamantadhipati, and had their own distinctive
symbols, such as banners, decorated umbrellas and the yak-tail to whisk away flies.
The wealthy classes lived in pleasure. They were fond of wine, Bhang, dancing
and singing.
From the above we cannot, however, assume that there was prosperity all round.
While foodstuffs were cheap, there were many poor people in the cities who could not get
enough to eat. The author of the Rajatarangini (written in Kashmir in the twelfth century)
has them in mind when he says that whereas the courtiers ate fried meat and drank cooled
wine perfumed with flowers, the ordinary people had to be content with rice and utpala-
saka (a wild vegetable of bitter taste). As for the villages where the large bulk of the
population lived, we have to get information about the life of the peasants from literary
works, grants of land, inscriptions, etc. The commentators on Dharmashastras tell us that
the rate of the revenue demand from the peasant was one-sixth of the produce as before.
However, from some of the grants we learn of a large number of additional ceases, such
as grazing tax, tax on ponds, etc. The peasants had to pay these taxes over and above the
land revenue. In addition, some of the grants gave the grantees the right to levy fixed or
unfixed, proper or improper, taxes on the peasants. The peasants also had to render forced
labour (visti). In some cases, as in central India and Orissa, we find some villages being
given to the donees along with artisans, herdsmen and cultivators who were tied to the
soil like serfs in medieval Europe. To this may be added the frequent recurrence of
famines and wars. In the wars, destruction of water reservoirs, burning of villages,
seizure by force of all the cattle or the grains stored in granaries in the markets and
destruction of cities were normal features, so much so that they are considered legitimate
by the writers of the period. Thus, the growth of the feudal society increased the burdens
on the common man.
There were no significant changes in the style of dress of men and women during the
period, the dhoti and the sari remaining the normal dress for men and women. In addition,
in north India, men used the jacket, and women the bodice (choli). From sculptures it
appears that long coats, trousers and shoes were worn by upper class men in north India.
While cotton was the material most commonly used, the upper classes also used silk cloth
and fine muslin. The Arab travellers testify to the fondness of both men and women for
wearing ornaments. Both men and women wore gold bracelets and earrings, sometimes
of costly stones. A Chinese writer, Chau Ju Kua, says that, in Gujarat, both men and
women have double earrings and wear close fitting clothes, with hoods on their heads, as
well as red-coloured shoes on their feet. As far as food is concerned, while
vegetarianism appeared to have been the rule in many areas and sections of the
population, the leading smriti writer of the times describes at great length the occasions on
which the eating of meat was lawful. From this it appears that the peacock, the horse, the
wild ass, the wild cock and the wild pig were regarded lawful food.
Arab writers compliment the Indians about the absence of the use of intoxicants
among them. However, this appears to be an idealised picture. In literary works of the
period we have many references to wine-drinking. Wine was drunk on ceremonial
 occasions, including marriages and feasts, and outings which were very popular among
some classes of citizens. While some smriti writers forbid wine-drinking to the three
upper castes, some others forbid it only to the brahmanas, the kshatriyas and the
vaishyas being permitted to indulge in it with some exceptions.
The system of education which had been gradually developed in the earlier period
continued during this period without much change. There was no idea of mass education
at that time. People leamt what they felt was needed for their livelihood. Reading and
writing was confined to a small section, mostly brahmanas and some sections of the
upper classes.
Sometimes, temples made arrangements for education at a higher level as well.
Generally, a student had to go to the house of a teacher or to live with him for getting
initiation into higher education. The responsibility for giving education for a craft or
profession was generally left to the guilds, or to individual families. Education of a more
formal kind, with greater emphasis on secular subjects, continued to be provided at some
of the Buddhist viharas (monasteries). Nalanda in Bihar was the most famous of these.
Other such centres of learning included Vikramasila and Uddandapura which also were
in Bihar. All these drew students from distant places, including Tibet. Nalanda had a grant
of 200 villages.
Many Saiva sects and centres of learning flourished in Kashmir during the period. A
number of important maths were set up in south India, such as at Madurai and Sringeri.
The growth of science in the country slowed down during the period so that in course of
time, it was no longer regarded as a leading country in the field of science. Thus, surgery
declined because the dissection of dead bodies was regarded as fit only for people of low
castes. In fact surgery became the profession of barbers. Astronomy was gradually
pushed into the background by astrology.
During this period, the roots of superstitions were lying deep in society. The
knowledge was limited to individuals. Society could not derive any benefit out of it.
According to Alberuni, "people of the period, consider themselves higher in religion,
science and knowledge than others. They thought that no other people of the world can
equate them in knowledge. They attempted to hide their knowledge from others. Rajputs,
therefore, turned proud and self-conceited." " All this made the society to suffer. Its
originality and progressive nature ended and it became conservative and backward.
During pre-medieval period slavery was in existence. The social status of slave was
better than that of Antyajas. The slave could set himself free from vassalage by paying
debts.
CONDITION OF WOMEN
The social condition of women was declining in the society but in pre-medieval
period the females had established as a powerful section of society. They were kept in
strict control of male members of family and society. In the name of protection of
religion and society many such arrangements were made which were directly responsible
for declining condition of women. During the pre-medieval period the Shakta dharma
influenced the society. On account of the influence of Shakta dharma the girls were-
regarded as the image of Goddess 'Gauri' and Goddess 'Bhavani'. The birth of girl was
presumed as a commencement of Goddess Laxmi in the family. Banabhatta compared
Yashowati and Rajyashri with the Goddess.
In the Rajput society great honour and respect was given to womenfolk yet their
status gradually decreased. Durlabh-devi, the daughter of the king of Nadol and
Samyogita, the daughter of king Jaichandra, selected their own husbands. To protect
their honour, they collectively burnt themselves and performed Jauhar. Widow
remarriages were not allowed. Still, some examples of widow remarriges are available.
The Rajputs did not have Purda system. The women of villages worked along with their
men and participated in the work of agriculture. Polyandry was not in vogue but
Polygamy was common. During the Rajput period the condition of female was the same
as that of Smriti period. The commentaries of Smritis written during this period never
allowed the freedom of women Smritis says that the protection of physical chastity as
well as mental chastity is required. Generally monogamy was in practice in society but
second wife was also acceptable in the society. In the case of second marriage of a
person, the rules and regulations given by the Smritis were observed. A person could
keep second wife after giving divorce to his first wife. The smritis prescribed some
conditions in which a person could give divorce to his wife. According to some of the
commentaries of Smritis, the prior permission of first wife was required before the
remarriage of a person. After divorce the wife remained as the responsibility of her
ex-husband. Smriti Chandrika allowed the wanton wife to stay in the home of her
husband, and she was the responsibility of her husband.
Women were permitted to take active part in religious rituals according to traditional
rules and regulations. Women could succeed inherent property. A faithful (Pativrata)
widow could be a successor of the property of her issueless late husband only in the case
of divided family property. In royal families many women tookover the charge of
administration in her hand. Rani Suryamati the queen of Ananta of Kashmir ruled over
the state. Many princesses were appointed as administrator of provinces by the
Chalukyana rulers. These princesses fulfil their duties and responsibilities successfully.
Kaka-tiya queen Rudramma ruled over Kakatiya state for forty years in the name of
Rudradeva Maharaja. Marco Polo praised her as a ruler in her accounts. Lands were
granted by the sena rulers of Bengal to their queens.
Women were the source of entertainment to Rajput rulers. Prostitution was in
vogue. Women continued to be denied the right to study the Vedas. Furthermore, the
marriageable age for. girls was lowered, thereby destroying their opportunities for higher
education. As for marriage, the smriti writers say that girls were to be given away by their
parents, between the ages of six and eight or between their eight year and attaining
puberty. The omission of all reference to women teachers in the dictionaries written
during the period shows the poor state of higher education among women. However, from
some of the dramatic works of the period, we find that the court ladies and even the
queen's maids-in-waiting were capable of composing excellent Sanskrit and Prakrit
verses. Some women of this period were great scholars. For example the wife of
Mandan Mishra named Bharti, was expert in Shastrarth (religious debate), the wife of
Raj Shekhar named Avanti Sundari was expert in composing Poetry. In Rajput society,
though the women were respected, yet the birth of a girl child was not relished. She was
killed at the time of birth. With the growth of property rights in land, the property rights
of women also increased. In order to preserve the property of a family, women were give
the right to inherit the property of their male relations. With some reservations, a widow
was entitled to the entire estate of her husband if he died sonless. Daughters also had the
right to succeed to the properties of a widow. The growth of feudal society strengthened
the concept of private property.
Thus it is clear that the position of women in general society declined whereas in
ruling class they got many rights and secured their position in the family as well as in the
society.
The classification of the Brahmans by Deval on the basis of Vedic knowledge
1. Matra—The Brahmana who never
studied any Veda and never per
formed Brahmanical duties, and
was born only in Brahmin family.
2. Brahmin—One who studied any
part of any Veda. Shrotriya—One who studied all
six Vedangas along with a Veda, and performed six prescribed duties for Brahmins.
4. Anuchana—One who knows the
meaning of Vedas and Vedangas.
5. Rishi—One who is Brahmachari
(A religious student who observes
 celibacy) and kept himself busy in
hard austerity. He should be able to
give bane and boon.
6. Muni—One who live in Jungle
and eat fruits.
7. Bhruna—One who had some
qualities of Anuchana Brahmana.
8. Rishikalpa—One who had worldly
and Vedic knowledge.
3.
4.