Computer Networks Unit 4

PROCESS-TO-PROCESS DELIVERY
The data link layer is responsible for delivery of frames between two neighboring nodes over a
link. This is called node-to-node delivery. The network layer is responsible for delivery of datagrams
between two hosts. This is called host-to-host delivery. Communication on the Internet is not defined
as the exchange of data between two nodes or between two hosts. Real communication takes place
between two processes.
The transport layer is responsible for process-to process delivery—the delivery of a packet, part of a
message, from one process to another. Two processes communicate in a client/server relationship

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

TCP
TCP is a connection-oriented and reliable protocol; it creates a virtual connection between two TCPs
to send data. In addition, TCP uses flow and error control mechanisms at the transport level.The
bytes of data being transferred in each connection are numbered by TCP.The numbering starts with a
randomly generated number.

SCTP
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is a new reliable, message-oriented and connection
oriented transport layer protocol. SCTP, however, is mostly designed for Internet applications that
have recently been introduced. These new applications need a more sophisticated service than TCP
can provide.SCTP combines the best features of UDP and TCP.
TCP has segments; SCTP has packets.In SCTP, control information and data information are carried
in separate chunks.In an SCTP packet, control chunks come before data chunks.A connection in
SCTP is called anassociation.

CONGESTION
The main focus of congestion control and quality of service is data traffic. In congestion control we try
to avoid traffic congestion. In quality of service, we try to create an appropriate environment for the
traffic. The average data rate is the number of bits sent during a period of time, divided by the
number of seconds in that period.The average data rate is a very useful characteristic of traffic
because it indicates the average bandwidth needed by the traffic.
Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the network—the number of packets sent to
the network—is greater than the capacity of the network—the number of packets a network can
handle. Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to control the congestion and
keep the load below the capacity.
Congestion control
Congestion control refers to techniques and mechanisms that can either prevent congestion, before it
happens, or remove congestion, after it has happened. In general, we can divide congestion control
mechanisms into two broad categories: open-loop congestion control (prevention) and closed-loop
congestion control (removal).
In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied to prevent congestion before it happens.
In these mechanisms, congestion control is handled by either the source or the destination. A brief list
of policies that can prevent congestion are Retransmission Policy, Window Policy, Acknowledgment
Policy, Discarding Policy, Admission Policy
Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms try to alleviate congestion after it happens.Several
mechanisms have been used by different protocols. They are Backpressure,Choke Packet,Implicit
Signaling,Explicit Signaling

Quality of service (QoS) is an internetworking issue that has been discussed more than defined. We
can informally define quality of service as something a flow seeks to attain. Four types of
characteristics are attributed to a flow: reliability, delay,jitter, and bandwidth
Reliability
Reliability is a characteristic that a flow needs. Lack of reliability means losing a packet or
acknowledgment, which entails retransmission. However, the sensitivity of application programs to
reliability is not the same. For example, it is more important that electronic mail, file transfer, and
Internet access have reliable transmissions than telephony or audio conferencing.
Delay
Source-to-destination delay is another flow characteristic. Again applications can tolerate delay in
different degrees. In this case, telephony, audio conferencing, video conferencing, and remote log-in
need minimum delay, while delay in file transfer or e-mail is less important.
Jitter
Jitter is the variation in delay for packets belonging to the same flow. For example, if four packets
depart at times 0, 1, 2, 3 and arrive at 20, 21, 22, 23, all have the same delay, 20 units of time. On the
other hand, if the above four packets arrive at 21, 23, 21, and 28, they will have different delays: 21,22,
19, and 24.
For applications such as audio and video, the first case is completely acceptable; the second case is
not. For these applications, it does not matter if the packets arrive with a short or long delay as long as
the delay is the same for all packets. For this application, the second case is not acceptable.Jitter is
defined as the variation in the packet delay. High jitter means the difference between delays is large;
low jitter means the variation is small.
Bandwidth
Different applications need different bandwidths. In video conferencing we need to send millions of
bits per second to refresh a color screen while the total number of bits in an e-mail may not reach even
a million.
TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE QoS
Scheduling, traffic shaping, admission control, and resource reservation.
Traffic shaping is a mechanism to control the amount and the rate of the traffic sent to the network.
Two techniques can shape traffic: leaky bucket and token bucket.
A leaky bucket algorithm shapes bursty traffic into fixed-rate traffic by averaging the data rate. It
may drop the packets if the bucket is full.
The token bucket allows bursty traffic at a regulated maximum rate.
Integrated Services: Integrated Services is a flow-based QoS model designed for IP.
Signaling
Flow Specification
Admission
Service Classes
RSVP
Differentiated Services is a class-based QoS model designed for IP.
Domain name System:
DNS stands for Domain Name System.
DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the network and
its numerical address.
DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols specified
by dots.
DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users of
networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of remembering the IP
addresses.
Remote login:
In the Internet, users may want to run application programs at a remote site and create results
that can be transferred to their local site. a general-purpose client/server program that lets a user
access any application program on a remote computer; in other words, allow the user to log on to a
remote computer. After logging on, a user can use the services available on the remote computer and
transfer the results back to the local computer.

FTP
FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files from one
host to another.
 It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer that acts as
a server for other computers on the internet.
It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
WWW

WWW stands for World Wide Web. The world wide web is one set of software services running on
the internet. It is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. Http stand for
hypertext transfer protocol. It is the set of rules for transferring files like text, graphic image, sound,
video and other multimedia files etc. on the world wide web.

HTTP
HTTP Stands for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol." HTTP is the protocol used to transfer data over the
web. It is part of the Internet protocol suite and defines commands and services used for transmitting
webpage data.
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application-layer protocol for monitoring and
managing network devices on a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). The purpose
of SNMP is to provide network devices such as routers, servers and printers with a common language
for sharing information with a network management system
Introductory concepts on Network management
Network management is the process of administering and managing computer networks. Services
provided by this discipline include fault analysis, performance management, provisioning of networks
and maintaining quality of service. Network management software is used by network administrators
to help perform these functions.

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