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Computer Organization and Architecture
Chapter 05
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INTERNAL MEMORY
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KEY POINTS
The two basic forms of semiconductor random access
memory are dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static RAM
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(SRAM). SRAM is faster, more expensive, and less dense
than DRAM, and is used for cache memory. DRAM is
used for main memory.
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Error correction techniques are commonly used in
memory [Link] involve adding redundant bits
that are a function of the data bits to form an error-
correcting code. If a bit error occurs, the code will detect
and, usually, correct the error.
To compensate for the relatively slow speed of DRAM, a
number of advanced DRAM organizations have been
introduced. The two most common are synchronous
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DRAM and RamBus DRAM. Both of these involve using
the system clock to provide for the transfer of blocks of
data.
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Computer Organization and Architecture
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5.1. Semiconductor Main Memory
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5.1.1. Organization
The basic element of a semiconductor
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memory is the memory cell.
Although a variety of electronic
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technologies are used, all semiconductor
memory cells share certain properties:
• They exhibit two stable (or semistable) states,
which can be used to represent binary 1 and 0.
• They are capable of being written into (at least
once), to set the state.
• They are capable of being read to sense the
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state.
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5.1.1. Organization
Most commonly, the cell has three
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functional terminals capable of carrying an
electrical signal. Figure 5.1
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Figure 5.1. Memory Cell Operation
5.1.1. Organization
The select terminal, as the name suggests,
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selects a memory cell for a read or write
operation.
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The control terminal indicates read or write.
For writing, the other terminal provides an
electrical signal that sets the state of the
cell to 1 or 0. For reading, that terminal is
used for output of the cell’s state.
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5.1.2. DRAM and SRAM
Lists the major types of semiconductor
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memory.
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5.1.2. DRAM and SRAM
A dynamic RAM (DRAM) is made with cells
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that store data as charge on capacitors.
• The presence or absence of charge in a
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capacitor is interpreted as a binary 1 or 0.
• Because capacitors have a natural tendency to
discharge, dynamic RAMs require periodic
charge refreshing to maintain data storage.
• The term dynamic refers to this tendency of the
stored charge to leak away, even with power
continuously applied.
A static RAM (SRAM) will hold its data as
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long as power is supplied to it.
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5.1.2. DRAM and SRAM
SRAM VERSUS DRAM
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• Both static and dynamic RAMs are volatile;
that is, power must be continuously supplied
to the memory to preserve the bit values.
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• A dynamic memory cell is simpler and smaller
than a static memory [Link], a DRAM is
more dense (smaller cells more cells per unit
area) and less expensive than a
corresponding SRAM.
• On the other hand, a DRAM requires the
supporting refresh circuitry.
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5.1.2. DRAM and SRAM
• For larger memories, the fixed cost of the
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refresh circuitry is more than compensated for
by the smaller variable cost of DRAM cells.
Thus, DRAMs tend to be favored for large
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memory requirements.
• A final point is that SRAMs are generally
somewhat faster than DRAMs.
• Because of these relative characteristics,
SRAM is used for cache memory (both on and
off chip), and DRAM is used for main memory.
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5.1.3. Types of ROM
As the name suggests, a read-only memory
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(ROM) contains a permanent pattern of data
that cannot be changed.
A ROM is nonvolatile; that is, no power source
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is required to maintain the bit values in memory.
While it is possible to read a ROM, it is not
possible to write new data into it.
For a modest-sized requirement, the advantage
of ROM is that the data or program is
permanently in main memory and need never
be loaded from a secondary storage device.
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Written during manufacture.
5.1.3. Types of ROM
Programmable ROM (PROM). Like the
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ROM
• The PROM is nonvolatile and may be written
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into only once.
• For the PROM, the writing process is
performed electrically and may be performed
by a supplier or customer at a time later than
the original chip fabrication.
• Special equipment is required for the writing or
“programming” process.
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5.1.3. Types of ROM
Another variation on read-only memory is
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the read-mostly memory, which is useful
for applications in which read operations
are far more frequent than write operations
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but for which nonvolatile storage is
required.
There are three common forms of read-
mostly memory:
• EPROM
• EEPROM
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• and flash memory.
5.1.3. Types of ROM
• The optically erasable programmable read-
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only memory (EPROM) is read and written
electrically, as with PROM.
However, before a write operation, all the storage
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cells must be erased to the same initial state by
exposure of the packaged chip to ultraviolet radiation.
• A more attractive form of read-mostly memory is
electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory (EEPROM). This is a read-mostly
memory that can be written into at any time
without erasing prior contents; only the byte or
bytes addressed are updated.
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The write operation takes considerably longer than
the read operation,
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5.1.3. Types of ROM
Another form of semiconductor memory is flash
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memory (so named because of the speed with
which it can be reprogrammed).
First introduced in the mid-1980s, flash memory
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is intermediate between EPROM and EEPROM
in both cost and functionality.
Like EEPROM, flash memory uses an electrical
erasing technology. An entire flash memory can
be erased in one or a few seconds, which is
much faster than EPROM.
In addition, it is possible to erase just blocks of
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memory rather than an entire chip.
5.1.3. Types of ROM
An important application of ROMs is
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microprogramming
Other potential applications include
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• Permanent storage
Nonvolatile
• Library subroutines for frequently wanted
functions
• Systems programs (BIOS)
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5.1.4. Chip Logic
As with other integrated circuit products,
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semiconductor memory comes in packaged.
Each chip contains an array of memory cells.
The array is organized into W words of B bits
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each. For example, a 16-Mbit chip could be
organized as 1M 16-bit words.
Figure 5.3 shows a typical organization of a 16-
Mbit DRAM. In this case, 4 bits are read or
written at a time.
Logically, the memory array is organized as four
square arrays of 2048 by 2048 elements.
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Various physical arrangements are possible.
5.1.4. Chip Logic
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Figure 5.3. Typical 16 Megabit DRAM (4M x 4)
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5.1.4. Chip Logic
Address lines supply the address of the
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word to be selected.
• In example, 11 address lines are needed to
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select one of 2048 [Link] 11 lines are
fed into a row decoder, which has 11 lines of
input and 2048 lines for output.
• An additional 11 address lines select one of
2048 columns of 4 bits per column. Four data
lines are used for the input and output of 4 bits
to and from a data buffer.
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5.1.4. Chip Logic
Note that there are only 11 address lines (A0–A10), half
the number you would expect for a 2048x2048 array.
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This is done to save on the number of pins.
The 22 required address lines are passed through select
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logic external to the chip and multiplexed onto the 11
address lines.
• First, 11 address signals are passed to the chip to define the
row address of the array
• and then the other 11 address signals are presented for the
column address.
• These signals are accompanied by row address select
(RAS) and column address select (CAS ) signals to provide
timing to the chip.
• The write enable (WE) and output enable (OE) pins
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determine whether a write or read operation is performed.
• Two other pins are ground (Vss) and a voltage source (Vcc).
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5.1.5. Chip Packaging
An integrated circuit is mounted on a
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package that contains pins for connection
to the outside world.
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Figure 5.4a shows an example EPROM
package, which is an 8-Mbit chip organized
as 1Mx8.
The package includes 32 pins, which is
one of the standard chip package sizes.
The pins support the following signal lines:
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5.1.5. Chip Packaging
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Figure 5.4 Typical Memory Package Pins and Signals
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5.1.5. Chip Packaging
• The address of the word being accessed. For 1M
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words, a total of 20 (220 =1M) pins are needed
(A0–A19).
• The data to be read out, consisting of 8 lines
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(D0–D7).
• The power supply to the chip (Vcc).
• A ground pin (Vss).
• A chip enable (CE) pin.
Because there may be more than one memory chip,
each of which is connected to the same address
bus, the CE pin is used to indicate whether or not
the address is valid for this chip.
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• A program voltage (Vpp) that is supplied during
programming (write operations).
5.1.5. Chip Packaging
A typical DRAM pin configuration is shown in Figure
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5.4b, for a 16-Mbit chip organized as 4M x 4.
There are several differences from a ROM chip.
Because a RAM can be updated, the data pins are
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input/output.
• The write enable (WE) and output enable (OE) pins
indicate whether this is a write or read operation.
• Because the DRAM is accessed by row and column, and
the address is multiplexed, only 11 address pins are
needed to specify the 4M row/column combinations (211x
211= 222= 4M).
• The functions of the row address select (RAS) and column
address select (CAS) pins were discussed previously.
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• Finally, the no connect (NC) pin is provided so that there
are an even number of pins.
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5.1.6. Module Organization
If a RAM chip contains only 1 bit per word, then
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clearly we will need at least a number of chips
equal to the number of bits per word.
As an example, Figure 5.5 shows how a memory
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module consisting of 256K 8-bit words could be
organized.
• For 256K words, an 18-bit address is needed
and is supplied to the module from some
external source (e.g., the address lines of a
bus to which the module is attached).
• The address is presented to 8 256K 1-bit
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chips, each of which provides the input/output
of 1 bit.
5.1.6. Module Organization
This organization works as long as the size
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of memory equals the number of bits per
chip.
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In the case in which larger memory is
required, an array of chips is needed.
Figure 5.6 shows the possible organization
of a memory consisting of 1M word by 8
bits per word.
• In this case, we have four columns of chips,
each column containing 256K words arranged
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as in Figure 5.5.
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5.1.6. Module Organization
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Figure 5.5. 256-KByte Memory Organization
5.1.6. Module Organization
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Figure
5.6. 1-
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Mbyte
Memory
Organiza
tion
For 1M word, 20 address lines are needed. The 18 least
significant bits are routed to all 32 modules. The high-order
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2 bits are input to a group select logic module that sends a
chip enable signal to one of the four columns of modules.
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5.2. Advanced DRAM Organization
One of the most critical system bottlenecks
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when using high-performance processors
is the interface to main internal memory.
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This interface is the most important
pathway in the entire computer system.
The basic building block of main memory
remains the DRAM chip, as it has for
decades; until recently, there had been no
significant changes in DRAM architecture
since the early 1970s.
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5.2. Advanced DRAM Organization
In recent years, a number of enhancements to
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the basic DRAM architecture have been
explored, and some of these are now on the
market.
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The schemes that currently dominate the market
are SDRAM,DDR-DRAM,and RDRAM.
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Performance Comparison of Some DRAM Alternatives
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5.2. Advanced DRAM Organization
Synchronous DRAM
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One of the most widely used forms of
DRAM is the synchronous DRAM
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(SDRAM)
Unlike the traditional DRAM, which is
asynchronous, the SDRAM exchanges
data with the processor synchronized to an
external clock signal and running at the full
speed of the processor/memory bus
without imposing wait states.
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5.2. Advanced DRAM Organization
In a typical DRAM, the processor presents
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addresses and control levels to the memory,
indicating that a set of data at a particular location in
memory should be either read from or written into
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the DRAM.
After a delay, the access time, the DRAM either
writes or reads the data.
During the access-time delay, the DRAM performs
various internal functions, such as activating the
high capacitance of the row and column lines,
sensing the data, and routing the data out through
the output buffers.
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The processor must simply wait through this delay,
slowing system performance.
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5.2. Advanced DRAM Organization
With synchronous access, the DRAM
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moves data in and out under control of the
system clock.
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The processor or other master issues the
instruction and address information, which
is latched by the DRAM.
The DRAM then responds after a set
number of clock cycles.
CPU does not have to wait, it can do
something else
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5.2. Advanced DRAM Organization
There is now an enhanced version of
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SDRAM, known as double data rate
SDRAM (DDR-SDRAM) that overcomes
the once-per-cycle limitation.
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SDRAM is limited by the fact that it can
only send data to the processor once per
bus clock cycle.
DDRSDRAM can send data to the
processor twice per clock cycle, once on
the rising edge of the clock pulse and once
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on the falling edge.
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5.2. Advanced DRAM Organization
Rambus DRAM
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RDRAM,developed by Rambus has been
adopted by Intel for its Pentium and Itanium
processors.
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It has become the main competitor to SDRAM.
RDRAM chips are vertical packages, with all
pins on one side.
The special RDRAM bus delivers address and
control information using an asynchronous
block-oriented protocol.
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After an initial 480 ns access time, this
produces the 1.6 GBps data rate.
Computer Organization and Architecture
Chapter 6: External Memory (Reference)
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Basic Computer Networks
Reference: Computer Organization and
Architecture Designing for Performance
(8th Edition), William Stallings, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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