Boolean Atgebya : Digital auypelins ort Aeaigecal papers Orn two alig’ts o and 4 (binary numb systin ) Binary. vowed, Gav be yep reBeatest by. q ltiw symbol A,6,C which tev hava ony dwo porte volun o #4. Booleans astelihen : (Logical 0% ) | Boolean Matrrpticahone ——— o+0 =0 spendin bepeo Cogteat AND) ott = 4 sito operation ee 0 =0 Ith = 4 men Boolen boxe frenetions AND— Aymrret() yen-8 ogp— ow ye Ar8 wor— » () ye lass of Beolon Algebra. a cae A+KG = A+B Att=1 Avlea ning oA A+tA=A NI AtT=1 p.Keo RA Bemorgea’s theorem — We Ammporctanct pet of bagleare, algebra. propenel Py. Demorgan, © Ae= A+B Complemint 0, predlecet is fo tomplement af Anew aquel he nea prodlat y campleoeals @ Are ~*e8Minin zation of Boolean Supteasions wring pbaie MaHice S 1) Prove. ABtBC+EC= ABT ABt C(B+t6) = ABtOH B+B=} = ABtC 2 A ) Simplify RE FAC+AG B(A+A) + 0-6 AtR= Bit FS b+ hE A+B = WB B+R 3) Y=(W+6)(a+e) = AR+AB+A6+ 86 eB = O+FAB+ABtTB AAZA = 0+ B(AHA) +B A+K= 4 = BtB =B A+A=A 4) Complement- AG+ CD Re+cd = Ra. cd MB -RG L (B48) (T+) ) AG =A+B 5) Y=ABC+ABT+ ABE +pae = RE (+8) + ac CB+8) Ark -| RC = T(AtA) =44 Digital Circuits and Design Table 2.3 Other laws of boolean algebra 7__No. Boolean laws { A 7 (a)A+0=4 (b) A-L _ , /| 8 (at (b)A-0 - / 9 (a)At A (b) A Idempotency 10 @ 4sd=1 (b) A-A Full set, null set u A=A AzA Double inversion or involution 4 Principle of Duality From the above properties and laws of Boolean algebra, grouped in pairs as (a) and (b). One expression can be obtaii Pair by replacing every 0 with 1, every 1 with 0, every (+) with (), and every Q with ( ). Any pair of expression satisfying this property is called dual expression. This characteristic of Boolean algebra is called the principle of duality 2.5 DEMORGAN'S THEOREMS _/ Two theorems that are an important part of Boolean algebra were proposed by \~/ DeMorgan. The first theorem states that the complement of a Product is equal tothe | sum of the complements. That is, if the variables are A and B, then , AB=A+B ‘The second theorem states that, the complement of a sum is of the complements, In equation form, this can be written as A+B=A-B ‘The complement of a Boolean logic function or a lo; Panded or simplified by following the steps of DeMorgan (Replace the symbol (+) with symbol (.), in the expression, (ii) Complement each of the terms or variable: DeMorgan's theorems can be proved for any number of variables; proof of these two theorems for 2-input variables can be found in Table 2.4, Table 2.4 Proof for DeMorgan’s theorem by itis evident tht they ar |) ined from the other in each / vA equal to the product gic expression may be ex- | 7 's theorem, hi 4 the symbol (.) with symbol (+) given s in the given expression Perfect induction method 1 2 3 [4 SVE 6 a7 ae 9 10_ Aj eB] 4} Bl ae lanl ag AB AB| AB h o7). 8 | wa stro 1 1 7 1 : OF at el | ol deg o 1 o 1 1 Veto fea [ty 'yotolol ; tistiofto}ti |i} 3 o }o lo A study of Table 2.4 makes clear that Columns 7 and 8 are equal. Therefore, : Ay Similarly, columns 9 and 10 are equal, =AB ¢ Therefore,Boolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques 45 ‘Also, De-Morgan’s theorem can be proved by algebraic method as follows: According to the first theorem, (4 + B )is the complement of AB, From the Table 2,3, he Boolean Laws 10 (a) and 10 (b) are given as, A+ A=) and Ad =0 Substituting AB for A and (4+ B) for 7 in the above expressions, AB+A+B=1 and AB(A + B)=0 A+B+B=1 and ABA +ABB =0 A+1=1 and 0+0=0 1=1 and 0=0 ‘Thus De-Morgan's first theorem is proved algebraically. Similarly, according to De-Morgan's second theorem, (A . B ) is the complement of (4 + B). Substituting (4 + B) for A and( A.B) for A in 10(a) and 10(b). A+B+A.B=1 and (A+B).(4.B)=0 A+B+B=1 and AAB+ BAB =0 A+1=1 and 0+0=0 1=1 and 0=0 h Thus De-Morgan's second theorem is proved algebraically. Min inimization (Simplification) of Boolean expressions using algebraic method The switching or Boolean expressions can be simplified by applying prop- crtics, laws and theorems of Boolean Algebra. The simplification of different Boolean expressions are demonstrated in the following examples. Pan 21 Prove that AB + BC +BC =AB+C. Solution AB+BC+BC = AB+C(B+B) eentet Simplify the expression A-B+A-B+A-B. Solution 4-B¥A-B+A-B=(4+A)-B+4-B =1-B+a B+A-B B+A (: A+A-B=A+B)7 Example 2.3 Simplify the given expression A+ A-B + 4-B. Solution A+A-B+4-B= All+B)+4-B 1+ 4-B46 pigital Circuits and pesig” Example 24 Compleme 4 a. (DD) solution ABY cD = (ap) (CP) _ (G+ BC+) = (de BC#D) fren 5 . cample 2.6 Simplify the ex i A ee ea Y=(A +B)(A+ B). =B+AA [v mea [:(4+B)(4+C)= A+ BC] =B 03 wc Example2.7 Si 7 Simpli —_— Solution implify the expression AB + ABC + A( ee +A(B+ AB) AB + ABC ee +A(B+ AB) = A(B + BC)+ A(B+ A) =A(B+C)+AB+A-ABoolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques 47 Exaple2.8 Simplify Y = ABC + ABC+ ABT to Y= A(B+C). om Y = ABC+ ABC+ ABC = AC(B+ B)+ ABC = AC-1+ ABC = A(C+ BC) = A(B+C) Example 2.9 Simplify the given Boolean expression Y=ABC + ABC + ABC+ABC. Solution Y = ABC +ABC + ABC + 4BC AC(B+B)+AT(B+B) AC +AT +4) | imple 2.10 Simplify the expression ¥ = (AB+C)(A+B+C). © Solution y=(4B+C)(4+B+C) = (4B+C)(A-B+C) = AB- AB + ABC+ABC+CC =(4+B+C)-(4+B+6) =(4+B+C).(A+B+C) Boot 2.11 Simplify the expression ¥ = AC[ABD]+ ABC D + ABC. Solution Y = AC{ABD]+ ABCD + ABC = AC|A+B+D|+ABCD + ABC = ACA+ACB+ACD + ABC D+ ABC = ABC+4CD+ABCD+ABC [- A-A=0] = BCA + A)+AD(C+ BC) = BC+AD(B+C) [- A+AB= A+ 3]48 Digital Cireuits and Desig \ Example 2.12 Prove the following Booleat expression (A+ B)(AC +C)(B + AC)=/ AB. i GE +c) +AC) rey +C)(B AC) Solution (4 +B)(AC +C)( OT ait S AC CAC +ACB + BCIBE +6) | ac +ACB + BC) (BA +BC) C-BA+AC BC +ACB-BA 4ACB-BC+BC-BA+BC.BG | 040+4BC +ACB +BCA +0 ABC +€ +C) Eyénple 2.13 Prove that ABC +ABC+ABC +ABC+ ABC = A+BxC, solution Example 2.14 Find the complement of the expression Y= ABC ABE | ABC+ABC. — = Solution ¥ = ABC+ ABC +ABC+ ABC (4+ B+C)(4+B+0)(4+ B+C)(4+B+C) = (4+B+CC\(4+C+ BB) [+(4+ B)(4+C)= A+ BC] = (A+B)(4+C) \ Example 2.15. Prove that BCD+ ACD+ ABD= BCD+ ACD +- ABC. / Solution BCD+ACD + ABD = BCD+ ACD +(ABD). \ = BCD+ ACD +(ABD)(C+C) = BCD+ ACD + ABCD + ABCD = BCD(\+ A)+AG(D + DB) | = BCD+ AC(D + B) f = BCD+ACD + ABC tBoolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques 49 Example 2.16 Simplify the given expression Y = AB+ ABD+ ABCD + BC. Solution B+ ABD+ ABCD + BC = B(A+AD)+C(B+ BAD) = B(A+D)+C(B+AD) [2 A+AB= A+B) = AB+BD+BC+ACD = AB+BD+BC(A+A)+ACD [+ A+4=1) = AB+ BD + ABC + ABC + ACD = AB(1+C)+ BD + ABC + ACD =AB+BD+ACD (+: AB+BC+AC=AB+AC| (Here A= D; B= B,C = AC} Example 2.17 \f AB+CD =0, then prove that AB+C(A+D)= AB+BD+BD Solution LHS = AB+C(A+D)+0 = AB+C(A+D)+ AB + CD (given that AB+CD =0) = AB+AC+CD+AB+CD = B(A+A)+D(C+C)+ AC =B+D+AC RHS = 4B+BD+BD+ACD+0 on = ARs BD+ BD +ACD+AB+CD (given that AB+ CD = 0)design Digital Ciranits 1 De St gital 4v AB+ ABC+ ABCD Example 219 simplify 1 tion Av AB+ ABC +4 + ABCD = A+ B+C+ BCD At BY C+CD =A+rB+C+D 1e2.20 WAB+AB=C, show tht AG +AC=B mp! aE + A= AABYAB)+AAB +B) (given that C= AB + Ay = A(A + B)A+ B)+AAB + AAB = (AA + AB)(A+ B)+ AB = AB+ AB+AB = AB+AB = B(A+A) =B 2.6 SUM OF PRODUCTS AND PRODUCT OF SUMS Logical functions are generally expressed in terms of logical variables. Values takena by the logical functions and logical variables are in the binary form. An arbitrary log: function can be expressed in the following forms: @ Sum ofProducts (SOP) Gi) Product of Sums (POS) Product term ‘The AND function is referred to as a product. In Boolean algebr. the word “product” loses its original meaning but serves to indicate an AND function The logical product of several variables on which a function depends is considered 0 bea product term, The variables in a product term can appear either in complemented oruncomplemented form. ABC), for example, is a product term, Sum term An OR function (+ sign) is generally used to refer aswm. The logical sum of several variables on which a function depends is considered to be a sum term. Variables in a sum term can appear either in complemented or uncomplemented form. A+B +C, for example, is a sum term. Sum Of Products (SOP) The logical sum of two or more logical product terms, is called a Sum of Products expression. It is basically an OR operation of, variables such as : ” AND operated @ Y=AB+BC+AC Gi) Y=AB+AC+ BCUogic. gates — ave mag atet ebytu tree operete. om a pre te pokrew a partioday bag tar ee OH Ey ot eoutsactncenenasail Number. binary, Lapis an osic frrttion ta gate aoa sa 3 enh pat at me j Bre ey mes - te ABC et e- Symbol aR Y 4a Dah put. she 6 ant anpets y AND gal And AND gate produce a MiG Ondpat ons oT tokens als its Cnpeds cre Hibs oo oo Othnsise ne outpet Of AND aX a LON. o 4 o an) ° oa L s=ipo ae “Vwulty Table, / "Sapa et A ® ° © ‘ warp Ms Aap vohons a of loo sae Inpet os how tot <— ewput 0 YY ote sinpele Cue! L! NOR Ga — fa iow oR go dotlovea Peon: gee Oulput of NOR, pes 45 inveamie a OR gale onspet . NOR gate pas Loo OndPat loden sry Of the Inpuk 4s Het A N=At8 ne A tok > B Y= +8a a ouput oy ue leidaty woed ital eiveutls vt Eth gat ta ads woh tho. apd ou hol Of “7% oye bend . Y=Warae = ABR — Borla sapeasions p—))—1-a@e + ie com ate I_Y=A@6_ ie 0 oO 0 It Nee: Op 4 4 shen, odd no 4 | Unpels ox 4 hte base) ° Ctpur b how whens eM ainpuls ene Acme, O einer me of i's Exnor gale — eR gae frttormest by ae NOT gat Lt s—ey Bvelen Unpronon— = AB + AB Y= AOB : 23D 0 $ID Ord pr Y= AOB O] Papur phe dO q 0 o|p % Age tokens dens NO 0 qCO petismine toe bootans taprinion for gine be sn | ive we Gi, = A ; B G2= Od 2 AB+CO0 Cc; —[>) 2 ys Aor pale D C.D | ® Draw bogie diecg yon from bovlun expresnen. Y= AB+C A | ep pa cl a (Ket 6c)-D Alips - lunife Otuypet- go Endivicluel pe— , oy ® Darsone logy trawl Ys AC TBE +NOe. —O a . Bo TFRBS oi pees Y=ACH+BE —Do+ e Cer "Ypuirel ruimber of logze Bate, Menke an, Ay Number Of terms srvdload td b00lan- Prichen | ao, Oryplemente a beetan Gferehor wit. beater Montero PE We hove te mins mize. Lerets (subeen) ON racnber f terms Fhe haolen., Perms an Merged dn One Y “the hep banclercd orna ! D sop (84 0F preduck ) Pes 2) Pos (Product of ay formZ we. AND Sop — Lapresn on (open fisy oy more. back APD tare Aerme which are ORedA boyenMer (Proluct tem) conots!- of on pore Vanbles oppesring Chapin complmuntel by tenceorrprlermeadt oat frm. i &% AAT 4 Be 4 pan PYoduct 4 edna i t suum fos — Opie on comtaes day cy more, OR termes likich are Anhet tegen pty dv frrre POS. eaehk OR_ Arm bonacs gry oy breve Vantahtes Pring. elie On Comptmunted or Wniomplemunted frm. L T sum berms or, - a t (AFB4+7Z). (B+). (a+a) n Prveluct: (nw (my mn anol muretdnn an Mintewma Are Aefincet 0 produce terms Me Variables bans be combined ty form 2% minterms, Mectirim Ore defined aa usm terms Ctenedard SOP g7 ABT +ABE + ABC. Pet Pit of SEEM 0 9 VEPY complement War la fi ote nO Seach, trdiviclust Aum Aa Coll A) drtenr eed ees TCA eotcye (AtB40). (WrBre merifin — 9— Yepytuat hevenal ne D atte: 14 Complemar «&) Cack Iatindual ter + collect. Mrarctiunvay Yepeiectes fe notndioven. My . pty beet SVs ROC + RR e 2 Rbe + 2at nn © € Pe 2 & |. e@¢é = a 7a Me - et gece 3 Ye Eim(o. 8,4) poee a ote Ss dence sop Ce = eta bs , iie OF = (AtG6T (A 1B+T) (eRe) og =p oCcl ot a M, Ms Me Y= 17 M(143,¢) TT dercls POS BE Obtains Ea inden SOP rnd eberwtend Pos cep drow ba Ty | Sor | aa 2 m™, Y= mo + my+ Mt mm, ~ ; ve 7 Kees ae oo lump Mm KOC + ABe + hacer a - AE Co 9 o1oO7~0 my 7 Df o Tt mz fos Teen saree ING Yo Monty Meme te Ms (CA+8+6) CK ant) (Ktmeo) 11 o— > M w 3 pp rei ; (Bre +e) Lh t-xSinplipiehon ef see * wey fee hirer ) AYebn ervbhort 2) Vewable Paderat appieg (ven) mae 9) her mun rap mekoct 1) Ta baladen, eusbured © Chott) Ausbric patted Mupllishen 4 clone. by sesing booban- Wedacd se dopesderag (Gpte nts - closet and boolrar, Fuberfe k mop (rabeed a floreving dimple fom k-Map— Tiga sephoma. meted Jor dept. and trenipelah beolan eopremiors, SA dt reat shtins tid ted fev delpu fcaen 7] boolean quer tions 1) Fer rw ynuiabls knep 2% Calla OAL Pepnd ve : 2) ésea, cell correspencles ar ors Of jhe (OMb: poh of Mirdosey | eden ° ~ Vou ab! Bae 2 uaninbtee 27 = Y cele Veaiatee a Drsg « . Yow Mele « “ 6 a Reet ANE S0 ot ttead We oble, — —o Oey te —» irony. 84218 ( [ze ee olecinnel = 2348 fom tefa | 3 verobte gow +300 +408 BE Sree 2348 AB fs 2323 Combinahory 000 0 oo | i o lo 2 { 84216 a - i Vibes ° Jo | ae (lo 6 (tl 7 \ A vautebk_ Q4= 16 Combirehor- {lot t3 Phe 0 mae ie vorl | oy ee ool® 9 go IN 3. nono o 10%. 4 ot oho gs! otlo ¢ o (ll TF 1 °°? 8 oleae 4 - tado [0 & 1s 1.132 cata MW M4Boolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques $7 ‘The complement can be obtained by the OR operation of the minterms which grenotavailable in Y. Therefore, BC + ABC+ ABC + ABC ABC +4ABC+ ABC + ABC (ABC ABC ABCKABC) = (A+B+C)(A+B+C\(A+B+C\(A+B+C) 2.7 KARNAUGH MAP Ye u ‘The simplification of the switching functions using Boolean laws and theorems becomes complex withthe increase in the number of variables and terms{The Kamaugh map technique provides a systematic method for simplifying and manipulating switching expressions. In this technique, the information contained in a truth table or available in the POS or SOP form is represented on the Karnaugh map (K-map). The K-map is actually a modified form of a truth table. Here, the combinations are conveniently arranged to aid the simplification process by applying the rule Ax+Ax'= A. In an n-variable K-map, there are 2" cells. Each cell corresponds to one combination of 2 variables. Therefore, for each row of the truth table, i.e. for each minterm and for each maxterm, there is one specific cell in the K-map}The K- -maps for 2, 3 and 4 variables are shown in Fig. 2.1 J Phe decimal codes corresponding to the combination of variables are given inside the cells. The variables have been marked as A, B, C, and D, and the binary numbers formed by them are taken as AB, ABC, and ABCD for 2, 3 and 4 variables respectively. A RB AS Re Ae AT 8 o 4 c or w olo]e2 Coljol}2e}e6]a4 1 1 3 ow 1 3 7 5 (@) two-variable (b) three-variable 4B RG AG A z Xo or SR AR GFowolo} 4 | wz] s ep orf 1 | s | ia] 9 CO uw} a ]7 | is] oa cH] 2 | 6 | uw] 0 (©) four-variable Fig. 2.1 Karnaugh mapsCape pe pe ptt e wl2 |e |r tro Favariable K-map illustrating the groupings of eight adjacent ones, g44 Grouping 2, 4, and 8 Adjacent zeice) ones (SOP) yn the ee See have considered groups of 2, 4, and 8 adjacent ones. Instead of ed cee e a ne Aue also make groups of zeros. The procedure is similar to the 1, Group of two adjacent zeros result in a term with one literal less than the number of variables. The literal which is not same in the two maxterms gets eliminated. 9, Group of four adjacent zeros result in a term with two literals less than the number of variables. The two literals which are not same in all the four maxterms get eliminated. 3, Group of eight adjacent zeros result in a term with three literals less than the number of variables. The three literals which are not same in all the eight maxterms get eliminated. We have considered groups of 2, 4, and 8 adjacent ones and zeros. The same logic can be extended to 16, 32, and 64 adjacent ones ‘and zeros which occur in K-maps with more than 4 variable: 5.5.1 Minimization of SOP Form We have seen the advantages of simplifying logical expression. If the expression is simplified require minimum number of h it can not be further simplified, it will pression is referred to as the to a stage beyond whic gates with minimum number of inputs to the gates. Such an ex} minimized expression. For minimizing a given expression in SOP form or for a given truth table, we have to prepare the K-map first and then look for combinations of ones on the K-map. We have to combine the ones in such a way that the resulting expression is minimum. To achieve this, the {allowing algorithm can be used which will definitely lead to minimized expression:grOP> oes tit nr one ca one cain in onl one bin ith °°" 5 of on 9 ou! Tdently the ore nly OTe Encirle 20 go a Ones i ema “e a is g the 0” eH EO ae e are t 9 be ©01 Te with each ns some g ° ircled the s Ge ony which have ec Of courses owever W we howd oe the lena : y oh sand in as few 8 8 ossible. In ts, the group; ep T Ong he Pes in an optimum manner, NES ty 5 without affecting ote fe eXpte, other alrea' Ete Jargest el . in rg re and nak an be included any num! the ¢s gsential Pr ime-implica’ ants obtained in steps | will be the minimi d function. The above . Botithy, cad that any © ‘he “git function 2 cons of primes implicants obtail ‘be used to minimize K-map. 41, 14) en 23) The equation is minimized in the eo (ou variable logic ia oe ym (0, 1, 2 3,5 shown in Fig- 5.12. 4 with any other 1. The term co Te Example 5.13 Minimize th (A.B, Solution The K-map of Eq. (5.23) is following steps: ich can not be combine' 4. Encircle 1 in cell 44 whi sponding to this is ABCD. ap AG AG Paty sn oN, 00 ot 1 10 PS] a 12 a+ ct 1 5 00 1 1 1 - 5 CD or} 1 | 1 i 8 1 at rt 7 ep ni [it 1° n ti Te ' r |: ie) 10| + {° ua 10 ® Fig. 5.12 map for Eq. (5.23).ibinational Logie Design 2. There are at least two possible ways for every 1 forming groups of two adjacent ones. Therefore, we ignore it for the time being and go to the next step. 3. There is only one possible group of four adjacent ones involving each of the cells 8, 11, 5 or 7 and 2, and these are (8, 9, 0, 1), (11, 9, 1, 3), (5, 7, 3, 1) and (2, 3, 1, 0), respectively. Encircle these groups. The terms corres le ponding to these groups are BC, BD, AD, and BC, respectively. Since all the ones have been encircled, therefore, the minimized equation is 1(A, B, C, 0) = ABCD + BC + BD+ AD+ AB (6.24) ‘pression in SOP form for the truth table given in Solution The K-map for the truth table of Table Using the minimization steps, we obtain the Example 5.14 Determine the minimized ex Aable 5.8, ° 5.8 is shown in Fig. 5.13, minimized expression, Y= B+ ACG + ACD (6.25) Acach row of the truth table is eng tput variable Y(0 or 1) fore: The value of the ou in the corresponding cells of the X-map- ining the terms present in adja combi around those, s based on the principle of cells. The Is in the adjacent cells can be grouped by drawing aloop following the given rules: x the 1s in those cells corresponding to 1. Construct the K-map and ente! combinations for which function value is 1, then enter the Os in the other c Simplification iee Boolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques $9 9, Examine the map for Is that cannot be combined with any other I cells and form groups with such single 1. 3, Next, look for those 1s which are adjacent to only one other 1 and form groups containing only 2 cells and which are not part of any group of 4 or 8 cells. A group of 2 cells is called a pair. 4, Group the Is which results in groups of 4 cells but are not part of an 8-cells group. A group of 4 cells is called a quad. 5, Group the Is which results in groups of 8 cells. A group of 8 cells is called an octet. 6. Form more pairs, quads and octets to include these 1s that have not yet been grouped, and use only a minimum number of groups. There can be overlap- ping of groups if they include common Is. 7. Omit any redundant group. 8 Form the logical sum ofall the terms generated by each group. When one or more than one variable appear in both complemented and uncomplemented form within a group, then that variable(s) is eliminated from the term corresponding to that group. Variables that are the same for all the cells of the group must appear in the term corresponding to that group. A larger group of Is eliminates more variables. To be precise, a group of two eliminates one variable; a group of four eliminates two variables; similarly a group of eight eliminates three variables. s Exaviple 2.26 Simplify the following expression using the Kamnaugh map for the 4- \yafiables A, B, Cand D. Y =m tmy tims + ny tig +g ty. + M3 Solution The K-map of the given equation is shown in Fig. E2.26. The expression is minimized using the following steps: Step 1 Construct the K-map and enter 1 in the cells corresponding to the minterms present in the expression and 0 in the other cells. Step 2 There are no 1s which are not adjacent to other 1s. Step 3 There are no pairs which are not part of any larger groups. Step 4 There are 2 quads. Cells 1, 3, 5 and 7 are grouped to form one quad and the second quad is made up of cells 12, 13, 8 and 9. The combinations corre- sponding to the cells in the first quad are ABCD, ABCD, ABCD and ABCD, In the above group of four combinations, the variables 4D are common in all the cells while B and C appear both in complemented and uncomplemented forms. From the preceding section, it is clear that only the variables that are the same in all the cells of the group must uppear in the term corresponding to that group. Therefore, the minimized term for the first quad isp , and that of the second quad is 4C. Step 5 There are no octets. ‘Step 6 All the 1s have already been grouped,60 ‘al Circuits and Design rated together to The terms generated by the two groups are OR ope Step 7 e term : = the expression for Y “s adie Fig. E2.26 Note: Inthe above K-map, ifa third quad is fo, Tesults in a redundant expres: already covered by quads | med as shown by the dotted lis Sion because the 1s to be covered by the third qu’ and 2, t the logical expre: tain the simplified imo a K-map, a logic ex canonical POS form, The 4-variable K-ma ob Solution ‘To enter SOP form or in the sion can be obtain Sston ABCD + ABC expre: ssion from the D+ ABC 4 AB map, Pression must be either in the cane Samonical SOP form of the given ex ed as follows: Y = ABCD + ABCD + AB C4 ap = ABCD + ABCD + AB CUD D)+ AR = ABCD + ABO +4ABON C+OVDa nmBoolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques 61 tthe K-map in Fig. £2.27, there are three quads; the minimised te nay 2.27, Js; the ni ms forth “4p, 4C aud AD and the simplified expression is: einai dee Y= AB+AC+AD Exomple 2.28 Simplify the expression Y = E,,(7,9,10,11,12,13,14,15), using the _Kemap method. Solution ‘The K-map for the above function is shown in Fig. E2.28. AB RR AD AB o\ foe oi? A? eS ts ee Je EP wo o{o]|ff|o = Tha ae GP) 9 | o | ita 7 i ae Chu) olq 7 = Poe Ss CD 10 ne 0 0 ft 4 Fig. E2.28 In the given K-map, there are three quads and one pair; the corresponding simpli- fied terms are AB, AD, AC and BCD. Now, the simplified expression is Y¥ =AB+AD+AC+BCD Since the quads and pair formed in the above K-map overlap, the expression can be further simplified using the Boolean algebra as follows: Y = AB+AD+AC+ BCD (B+ D+C)+BCD* Zeample 2.29 Simplify the expression Y =m ims +mmo tM +™a* M3 +s» using the K-map method. Solution ‘The K-map for the above expression is shown in Fig, E2.29(a). “ AB CD\. 0001 _11_10 see 0! o | ol flo ET 1) oa 0 Fig. E2.29(a)Boolean Algebra and Minimization Techniques 61 y 8. ] snahe Kop in Fig. E2.27, there are three quads the snimised terms forthem are 4p,Acand "AD and the simplified expression is: Y= AB+AC+ AD Ex jiple 2.28 Simplify the expression Y =E,,(7,9,10,11,12,13,14,15), using the ap method. Solution The X-map forthe above function is shown in Fig, E2.28. Ab RB AD AC CON 00 0111 as PF FSF EP ©) o | o| fl] o Ss ha GP) 9 | o |i Wigs . 1 aut sath a CDP No Ia i 1 pe op wl FTP : 10 ony o}o 1 Fig, £2.28 inthe given K-map, there are three quads and one pair; the corresponding simpli- fied terms are AB, AD, AC and BCD. Now, the simplified expression is Y =AB+AD+ AC + BCD since the quads and pair formed in the above K-map overlap, the expression can be further simplified using the Boolean algebra as follows: Y = AB+AD+AC+ BCD Z = A(B+D+C)+ BCD ° ample 2.29 Simplify the expression Y=, + ms img +miy +a + Mis +s. using the K-map method. Solution The K-map for the above expression is shown in Fig. E2.29(a). . AB COX. 00 01 11 10 ernie 2a © Ml olo 0 18 o “to 0 sp pee 4) o1o La] fi he Mlotlo}oj}t Fig. E2.29(a)3.4,5,7,9131415) using the above function is shown in Fig- £2.30.‘Bites Alpen ond Minominatioe Peshnigynss 4 ty dhe shows Ketnap, the cells 4.7.19 anal 13 can be grouped to form a quad ay atnaoed ty the dotted Lines: th ender 19 group the remaining $5, fone pars have to he formedt an shore 17 Fig E20. However, aff the fou be covened by the quad are alse gaveredd by the puts ‘Sa, the quad in the shows A-mup js podunddent Therefore, the tangled expreasion will be ¥ = ACD + ABC + ACD e ABC 2.31 Simnplify the expression Y = 11(0,1,4,5,6,8,9,12,13,14), using the X- pop method Solution The given function is in the POS form. This can also be written as ya(de Be C+ DAeBeC+ DAs B+ CHDK As 0+ C+ DAs B+ TD) (14 B+ C+ DXA + B4+C4 DXA + B+ C+ DXA+ F+C+ DXA+B +7 +d) ‘Yo simplify 2 POS expression, for cach maxterm in the expression, a 0 has to be entered in the corresponding cells and groups must be formed with 0 cells instead of 1 cells to get the minimal expression. The simplified term corresponding to each group can be obtained by the OR operation of the variables that are same for all cells of that group. Here, a variable corresponding to 0 has to be represented in an uncomplemented foc and that corresponding to 1 in the complemented form. ‘The K-map forthe function is shown in Fig, E2.31_- ¥ E48 Fae ma Fig. E231 designees Inthe above K-map, one octet and one quad are | by combining 0 cells. ‘The simplified sum term corresponding to the octet is C whereas for the quad is (B+ D). Hence, the simplified POS expression for the given function is Y=C(B+D) renple 213 Obtain (a) minimal sum of product and (b) minimal product of sum for the function given below: © F(A, B,C, D)=E_ (0,1, 2, 5,8, 9, 10) Solution Here, cells with ! are grouped to obtain the minimal sum of product; cells ‘with 0 are grouped to obtain minimal product of sum, as shown in Fig. E2.32.64 Digital Circuits a lor 14] [10 Ay : 4 oo} 14} Lo_| [OF] fy > or] TS lo La \ 111 fo [o [Io lo 70 lo |} a E2,32 (a) To obtain minimal sum of products: pairs can be formed as shown in Fig, sion is: A quad with four corner Is and two £2.32. Hence, the minimal SOP expres- Y=BD+ACD+ ABO (b) To obtain minimal product of sum: Fig. £2.32 with the Thus, the 2.7.1 Five-variable K-map A S-variable K-map contains 32 (2°) cells which is logic expression. A S-variable representing the decimal code umn headings and two variables columns can be marked with head which the remaining four column: In other words, the two least signi the mirror image of the corresponding bits in the four column headings and 1s to the o Femaint— ‘Map is shown of that cell. Three variaby are used to mark the ings in the same Way as the 4-variable K-map, after S can be marked with headi ficant bits of he; Three quads can be formed as shown in Corresponding sum terms ( minimal product of sum expression Y=(A+ BC+ DB + D) A+B), (C+D) and (B+D). n for the given function is: used to simplify any 5-variable ig. 2.2, with entries in each cell les are used to mark the co! in tow headings. ‘The first four ings in the reverse ordet: ‘adings in the last four columns are first four Columns. Add Ne tn tho firstDuiput ¥ 0 ' 4 $ rs 0 1 ! ' ' I 1 1 0 0 f POS Form F izing a givel pression in POS fo * Hi ified by ‘ fy Fg Eo masters for 0 outputs. The K-map '§ simpler following the & procedure as used for SOP form with ones replaced by ae two cnet clet ha ey Paice eerather than groups of ones. We shall minimize the al ples in POS fa xample 5.15 Minimize the logic function 5.5.2 Minimization o! . ewe wi rm or for a given truth table we write zero, of Eq. (5.23) in POS form. Solution Equation (5.23) can be expressed in standard POS form as ¢ 1(A, B, C, D) = HINA, 6, 10, 12, 13, 15) 6% | |e The K-map corresponding to Eq. (5.26) is shown in Fig. 5.14. Note that the K-map can ay, ke be obtained directly from Eq. (5.23). Using steps similar to those outlined for SOP form, we obtain the minimized expression, co (A+ B+ 0)- (A+ B+ 0) (eazy | seb f= (A+ B+6+D) (A+ B+ ages MS MB KB 00 or MW 10 Cr 00 (J (" JH——}—— (A+ 8+C) J+ (A+ 8+ D) (A+ 8+ E+D) Fig 5.14 (A+ B+D) K-map of Eq. (5.26).We enter 1's and 0s in the map corresponding to input to lor 0, respectively. The maps are simplified using either 1's or O's. Therefore, we make the « variables that make the function equal entries in the map for either 1's or 0's. The cells which do not contain 1 a sand vice-versa, This is not always true since there are cases in which certain combinant of input variables do not occur. Also, for some functions the outputs corresponding to certain -eqmbinations of input variables do not matter. In such situations the designer has @ flexibility and itis left to him whether to assume a 0 or a | as output for each of these combinations. This condition is known as don't-care condition and can be represented on the K-map as &% mark in ihe corresponding cell. The x mark in a cell may be assumed to be @ 1 or a0 depending upon ich one leads to a simpler expression. The function can be specified ‘ways: re assumed to contain 1. In terms of minterms and don’t-care conditions. For example, 4, B, GD) = Endl, 3, 7, 11, 15) + 0, 2, 5) (5.32) in one of the followingen in Fig. 5.184, nimized expression are given “ceare conditions. For example, a, 11, 14) ven in Fig. 5.182 Sy, SABC Kis K-map and the minimized expression are 8° 40 48 ecole not nates onto or bre 00] x 0 ° offs | x o1 o 2 (a+ 6) — 4 10} x co wl * {fo} x ie Y= AD+CD Y= (A+ C+ D(A+ B) @ eo AB cor t0 oe x co GED " aie € : (CEB t Y= €0+C6 (c) maps with don't-care conditions, 3. In tei truth table. For example, consider le In terms of truth table. Fi » consider the truth table of T le of Table 5.10. Output coHHEHooooFH ee Hola) K-map and the minimized expression in SOP form are given in Fig. 5.18Yhore eq '‘) Yom, AB ee TMZ + Ms-+mq +m" pt mMatEM2tMI9 —bo a Y=AB AACa Ben. AB RE we ag ar | j | | j | 9o ol it pe bon, 15) +l (0%, 5) er® id SOP d POS & b Ueda ha rat ayn ° a O ohkx| —_ G6 0} to Tab el ets My? y= (c+®),(2) fos- (feiro's ) { fax 1's) | & \ dn fore Ef y Ce - “e f , \ — a “Y= is (c+%) 4D) Rect deep (POS | Aaryedeey (05) Jor Ales (S0P) \ © Fas coe WM(4567,8 129.4 (234114) Nite fo © OL (Keer) ‘D> amet Poe ia x I Ys (4x8) (HrC4D) (48) ddoo't cree Weare NF able do White.© ee sine Moke totes tank do bepromer md opees 2 ey a oats ke mop.y = AmcDEABCS + hOC7 Que ABecDH Vi ©) COv00 | 5 " oo90j\-L~ 96 2 oo foto 3) oo f|_}t_o 4) 0100 ° Sy o({ ol e gy elle e aq) OF tl ° YAGTT | 0 00 (—© gabe l° Of °o 10) jo 1° \—o fee (I ,—@ ABCD lo ly> | 00 -}- 1 ——@ int @ mets 3) |) OL 1 AOeD_ , aecS reo. '{ 1) Ise aan eet Leex ooo ooolt RED = ov00 eolo ABC = Iolo roll AT = ° 1384 11 Go = ylok Bae Asaygamett COW) @) f(.8,c,0) = Sm (01254, 5, F584 "Wo 4) Bind the mintwe SOP eapehen OD Agie dnp tom