8/30/2015 Unit Operations in Food Processing ­ R. L.

Earle

UNIT OPERATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING

R. L. EARLE with M.D. EARLE

An introduction to the principles

of food process engineering

This is the free web edition of a popular textbook HOW TO USE THIS BOOK:
Contents known for its simple approach to the diversity and
About the book complexity of food processing. BROWSE Chapters page
Introduction by page. (Follow the link at
First published in 1966 but still relevant today, Unit the foot of each page).
Material and energy Operations in Food Processing explains the
balances principles of operations and illustrates them by FIND by clicking on
individual processes. (underlined) Chapter, section
Fluid­flow theory and key word hyperlinks on
the Contents page.
Fluid­flow applications Each Chapter contains unworked examples to help
Heat­transfer theory the student food technologist or process engineer FIND by clicking on
gain a grasp of the subject. section and key word
Heat­transfer hyperlinks in the Chapter
applications Now in electronic form, fully searchable and cross­ indexes.

Drying linked, this online resource will also be a useful quick FIND Examples via the
reference for technical workers in the food industry. Index of Examples.
Evaporation
Contact­equilibrium The author, Dick Earle (owner of the copyright) gives FIND illustrations via the
permission to download and print any part or all of Index of Figures
processes
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References food technology, and to the wider food industry. Chapter. (N.B. Copyright
permission is given free to
Bibliography reproduce for non­
commercial purposes, subject
Useful links Unit Operations in Food Processing ­ the Web to acknowledgement of the
Feedback Edition source).
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UNIT OPERATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING

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ABOUT THE BOOK

Home
Contents
About the book The Web Edition
Introduction
Material and energy Process engineering is a major contributor to food technology, and provides
important and useful tools for the food technologist to apply in designing,
balances
developing and controlling food processes. Process engineering principles are
Fluid­flow theory the basis for food processing, but only some of them are important and
Fluid­flow applications commonly encountered in the food industry. This book aims to select these
Heat­transfer theory important principles and show how they can be quantitatively applied in the food
industry. It explains, develops and illustrates them at a level of understanding
Heat­transfer
which covers most of the needs of the food technologist in industry and of the
applications student working to become one. It can also be used as an introduction to food
Drying engineering.
Evaporation
When this book was first published in 1966, there were almost no books
Contact­equilibrium
available in food process engineering. This book met an extensive need at its
separation processes modest standard and cost. It was widely distributed and used, all over the world.
Mechanical Subsequently other textbooks have emerged and the available literature and data
separations have grown enormously. In particular there are excellent books covering
advanced food engineering and also specialist areas of food processing.
Size reduction
Mixing However there still seems to be a need for an introductory, less specialised book
Appendices at an accessible level. With the hard copy book in English having been out of
Index to Figures print for some time, it seemed appropriate to make the book widely available
through a free Web site.
Index to Examples
References
Bibliography
Useful links
Feedback (email link)

So what is largely the text of the 2nd Edition with corrections and only minor changes has been converted to a
user­friendly computer­based learning source on the World Wide Web. Here it will be freely available for
consultation or copying, indeed for any use save commercial reproduction. It is contributed as a service to the
food industry. It can be used not only as an interactive learning text for the student, but also as a quick
reference for people in industry who from time to time have a specific need for a method of calculation. The
contents are interlinked so that specific information, examples and figures can easily be found.

The book is intended to introduce technological ideas and engineering concepts, and to illustrate their use. Data,
including properties and charts, are provided, but for definitive design details may need to be independently
checked to ensure requisite precision. Every effort has been made to provide clear explanations and to avoid
errors, but errors may occur including in the translation to the Web. Also greater precision and clarity may well
be achievable. So feedback from users will be most welcome, and should be directed to The Editor.

Obviously this book is the product of much more than just the efforts of the author whose name appears on the
title. The ideas developed have been built up over the years by a multitude of researchers, inventors, scientists,
engineers and technologists, far too numerous to list. Some have been identified in the text and references, and
some of these have made individual contributions; the material they made available has provided the essence

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of the book, the facts and figures and diagrams. It is hoped that they have been accurately quoted and nowhere
misinterpreted.

Pergamon Press first published the book giving it clear layout and wide distribution at a reasonable price. A
number of colleagues helped with improvements for the second edition. More extensive acknowledgement of
these contributors has been made in the Prefaces and elsewhere in the earlier editions. The thanks and
gratitude of the author to all who have provided material remain undiminished. Prof. Buncha Ooraikul and Prof.
Paul Jelen encouraged putting it onto the Web, as it was still being used by their students.

Editions even for the Web do not come without cost. So particular mention for this
Web edition must be made of the New Zealand Institute of Food Science and
Technology which contributed finance and hosting, and of Chris Newey who
converted it to the new form. Chris found that translation of printed text carrying
many tables, equations, superscripts and subscripts into Web format moved well
beyond the capacity of the optical character recognition, and it gave him a great deal of work before final
emergence in the convenient html and swf forms. I am very grateful to him for his extensive and very worthwhile
contribution.

As in the earlier editions, even more so in this, appearance would never have occurred without the cheerful,
unstinting, and technically invaluable help of my wife Mary. We will all be rewarded by this site being both
useful, and well and widely used.

Richard [Link]
Palmerston North, New Zealand. 2003

About the Author

R. L. Earle, Emeritus Professor, Massey University, Palmerston North, New

Zealand.

Dick Earle trained as a chemical engineer, and in research in food technology,

before entering the New Zealand meat industry. His interests were particularly in
refrigeration and energy usage, heat transfer and freezing, and byproduct and waste
processing.

Dick joined Massey University in 1965, initially in food technology, and later
founding the biotechnology discipline, which had special interests in the processing
of biologically­based materials.

He has published several books jointly with his wife (Dr) Mary Earle on product
development and reaction technology, and many technical papers and reports. He is
a Distinguished Fellow of the Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand (IPENZ). Dick and Mary Earle
have recently established a scholarship for the support and encouragement of postgraduate research into
aspects of technology in New Zealand universities.

The Print Editions

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This book is now out of print. It was originally published by Pergamon Press:

First edition 1966

Second edition 1983

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Earle, R. L.
Unit operations in food processing ­ 2nd ed. ­ (Pergamon Commonwealth and
International Library)
1. Food industry and trade ­ Quality control
I. Title
664 '.07 TP372.5

ISBN 0­08­025537­X Hardcover

ISBN 0­08­025536­1 Flexicover

Copyright

Copyright © 1983­2004 R. L. Earle. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright remains with the author, however, the author gives permission to The New Zealand Institute of Food
Science & Technology (Inc.) (NZIFST) for free use and display of this material on the internet, and permission
to all site visitors for the free use and copying of all or part of the text for non­commercial purposes, subject to
acknowledgement of the source (which is, unless otherwise indicated):

Unit Operations in Food Processing, Web Edition, 2004.

Publisher: The New Zealand Institute of Food Science & Technology (Inc.)
Authors: R.L. Earle with M.D. Earle.

INTRODUCTION

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UNIT OPERATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING

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CONTENTS
Home
Contents
ABOUT THE BOOK
About the book The history of Unit Operations in Food Processing, and how it came to be
Introduction published on the web.
Material and energy
CHAPTER 1.
balances
INTRODUCTION
Fluid­flow theory Method of studying food process engineering
Fluid­flow applications Basic principles of food process engineering
Heat­transfer theory Conservation of mass and energy
Overall view of an engineering process.
Heat­transfer
Dimensions and units
applications Dimensions symbols
Drying Units
Evaporation Dimensional consistency
Unit consistency and unit conversion
Contact­equilibrium
Dimensionless ratios specific gravity
separation processes Precision of measurement
Mechanical Summary.
separations Problems.
Size reduction CHAPTER 2.
Mixing MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES
Appendices Basic principles
Index to Figures Material balances
Basis and units
Index to Examples total mass and composition
References concentrations
Bibliography Types of Process situations
Useful links continuous processes
blending
Feedback (email link) Layout
Energy balances
Heat balances enthalpy latent heat sensible heat freezing
drying canning
Other forms of energy mechanical energy electrical energy
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 3.
FLUID­FLOW THEORY.
Introduction
Fluid statics fluid pressure absolute pressures gauge pressures
head
Fluid dynamics
Mass balance continuity equation
Energy balance
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Pressure energy

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Friction loss
Mechanical energy
Other effects
Bernouilli's equation flow from a nozzle
Viscosity shear forces viscous forces
Newtonian and Non­Newtonian Fluids power law equation
Streamline and turbulent flow dimensionless ratios
Reynolds number
Energy losses in flow
Friction in Pipes Fanning equation Hagen Poiseuille equation
Blasius equation pipe roughness Moody graph
Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings
Pressure Drop through Equipment
Equivalent Lengths of Pipe
Compressibility Effects for Gases
Calculation of Pressure Drops in Flow Systems
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 4.
FLUID­FLOW APPLICATIONS
Introduction
Measurement of pressure in a fluid manometer tube Bourdon tube
Measurement of velocity in a fluid Pitot tube Pitot­static tube
Venturi meter orifice meter
Pumps and fans
Positive Displacement Pumps
Jet pumps
Air­lift Pumps
Propeller Pumps and Fan
Centrifugal Pumps and Fans pump characteristics fan laws
Summary
Problems

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CHAPTER 5.
HEAT­TRANSFER THEORY
Introduction
Heat Conduction thermal conductance thermal conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Conduction through a Slab Fourier equation
Heat Conductances
Heat Conductances in Series
Heat Conductances in Parallel
Surface­Heat Transfer Newton's Law of Cooling
Unsteady­State Heat Transfer Biot Number Fourier Number
charts
Radiation­Heat Transfer Stefan­Boltzmann Law black body
emissivity grey body absorbtivity reflectivity
Radiation between Two Bodies
Radiation to a Small Body from its Surroundings
Convection­Heat Transfer
Natural Convection Nusselt Number Prandtl Number
Grashof Number
Natural Convection Equations vertical cylinders and planes
horizontal cylinders horizontal planes
Forced Convection
Forced­convection Equations inside tubes over plane surfaces
outside tubes
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Overall Heat­Transfer Coefficients controlling terms

Heat Transfer from Condensing Vapours
vertical tubes or plane surfaces horizontal tubes
Heat Transfer to Boiling Liquids
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 6.
HEAT­TRANSFER APPLICATIONS
Introduction
Heat Exchangers
Continuous­flow Heat Exchangers parallel flow counter flow
cross flow heat exchanger heat transfer log mean temperature
difference
Jacketed Pans
Heating Coils Immersed in Liquids
Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers
Plate Heat Exchangers
Thermal Processing
Thermal Death Time
F values Equivalent Killing Power at Other Temperatures
z value sterilization integration time/temperature curves
Pasteurization milk pasteurization
High Temperature Short Time HTST
Refrigeration, Chilling and Freezing
Refrigeration Cycle temperature/enthalphy chart evaporator
condenser adiabatic compression coefficient of performance
ton of refrigeration
Performance Characteristics
Refrigerants ammonia refrigerant 134A
Mechanical Equipment
Refrigeration Evaporator Heat transfer coefficient fins
Chilling
Freezing Plank's equation freezing time shape factors
Cold Storage
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 7.
DRYING
Basic Drying Theory
Three States of Water phase diagram for water
vapour pressure/temperature curve for water
Heat Requirements for Vaporization
Heat Transfer in Drying
Dryer Efficiencies
Mass Transfer in Drying mass transfer coefficient
Psychrometry absolute humidity relative humidity
dew point humid heat
Wet­bulb Temperatures dry bulb temperature Lewis number
Psychrometric Charts
Measurement of Humidity hygrometers
Equilibrium Moisture Content
Air Drying drying rate curves
Calculation of Constant Drying Rates
Falling­rate Drying
Calculation of Drying Times
Conduction Drying
Drying Equipment
Tray Dryers
Tunnel Dryers
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Roller or Drum Dryers

Fluidized Bed Dryers
Spray Dryers
Pneumatic Dryers
Rotary Dryers
Trough Dryers
Bin Dryers
Belt Dryers
Vacuum Dryers
Freeze Dryers
Moisture Loss in Freezers and Chillers
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 8.
EVAPORATION
The Single­Effect Evaporator
Vacuum Evaporation
Heat Transfer in Evaporators
Condensers
Multiple­Effect Evaporation
Feeding of Multiple­effect Evaporators
Advantages of Multiple­effect Evaporators
Vapour Recompression
Boiling Point Elevation Raoult's Law Duhring's rule
Duhring plot latent heats of vaporization
Evaporation of Heat­Sensitive Materials
Evaporation Equipment
Open Pans
Horizontal­tube Evaporators
Vertical­tube Evaporators
Plate Evaporators
Long­tube Evaporators
Forced­circulation Evaporators
Evaporation for Heat­sensitive Liquids
Summary
Problems
Back to the top
CHAPTER 9.
CONTACT­EQUILIBRIUM PROCESSES
Introduction contact equilibrium separation phase distribution
equilibrium distribution coefficients

PART 1: THEORY
Concentrations mole fraction partial pressure Avogadro's Law
Gas­Liquid Equilibria partial vapour pressure Henry's Law
solubility of gases in liquids
Solid­Liquid Equiibria solubility in liquids
solubility/temperature relationship saturated solution
supersaturated solution
Equilibrium­Concentration Relationships overflow/underflow
equilibrium diagram
Operating Conditions contact stages mass balances
Calculation of Separation in Contact­Equilibrium Processes
combining equilibrium and operating conditions
deodorizing/steam stripping McCabe/Thiele diagram

PART 2: APPLICATIONS
Gas Absorption number of contact stages
Rate of Gas Absorption Lewis and Whitman Theory

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Stage­equilibrium Gas Absorption

Gas­absorption Equipment
Extraction and Washing equilibrium and operating conditions
McCabe Thiele diagram
Rate of Extraction
Stage­equilibrium Extraction
Washing
Extraction and Washing Equipment extraction battery
Crystallization mother liquor
Crystallization Equilibrium growth nucleation
metastable region
seed crystals heat of crystallization
Rate of Crystal Growth
Stage­equilibrium Crystallization
Crystallization Equipment scraped surface heat exchanger
evaporative crystallizer
Membrane Separations osmotic pressure ultrafiltration
reverse osmosis
Rate of Flow Through Membranes Van't Hoff equation
Diffusion equations Sherwood number Schmidt number
Membrane Equipment
Distillation Equilibrium relationships
boiling temperature/concentration diagram azeotropes
Steam Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Batch Distillation
Distillation Equipment
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 10.
MECHANICAL SEPARATIONS
Introduction
The velocity of particles moving in a fluid terminal velocity
drag coefficient terminal velocity magnitude.
Sedimentation Stokes' Law
Gravitational Sedimentation of Particles in a Liquid zones
velocity of rising fluid sedimentation equipment
Flotation
Sedimentation of Particles in a Gas
Settling Under Combined Forces
Cyclones­ optimum shape efficiency
Impingement separators
Classifiers
Centrifugal separations centrifugal force particle velocity
Liquid Separation radial variation of pressure
radius of neutral zone
Centrifuge Equipment
Filtration rates of filtration filter cake resistance
equation for flow through the filter
Constant­rate Filtration
Constant­pressure Filtration filtration graph
Filter­cake Compressibility
Filtration Equipment
Plate and frame filter press
Rotary filters
Centrifugal filters
Air filters
Sieving rates of throughput standard sieve sizes
cumulative analyses particle size analysis
industrial sieves air classification
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Summary.
Problems.

CHAPTER 11.
SIZE REDUCTION
Introduction
Grinding and cutting.
Energy Used in Grinding Kick's Law Rittinger's Law
Bond's Law Work Index
New Surface Formed by Grinding shape factors
Grinding equipment.
Crushers
Hammer mills
Fixed­head mills
Plate mills
Roller mills
Miscellaneous milling equipment
Cutters
Emulsification disperse/continuous phases stability
emulsifying agents
Preparation of Emulsions shearing homogenization
Summary.
Problems.

CHAPTER 12.
MIXING
Introduction
Characteristics of mixtures.
Measurement of mixing sample size sample compositions
Particle mixing random mixture thorough mixture
mixing index
Mixing of Widely Different Quantities mixing in stages
Rates of Mixing mixing times
Energy Input in Mixing
Liquid mixing propeller mixers Power number Froude number
Mixing equipment
Liquid Mixers
Powder and Particle Mixers
Dough and Paste Mixers
Summary.
Problems.

APPENDICES
1. Symbols, units and dimensions
2. Units and conversion factors
3. Some properties of gases
4. Some properties of liquids
5. Some properties of solids
6. Some properties of air and water
7. Thermal data for some food products
8. Steam table ­ saturated steam
9. (a) Psychrometric charts ­ normal temperatures
9. (b) Psychrometric charts ­ high temperatures
10. Standard sieves
11. (a) Pressure/enthalpy chart for refrigerant ­ R134a
11. (b) Pressure/enthalpy chart for refrigerant ­ Ammonia

INDEX TO FIGURES

INDEX TO EXAMPLES
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REFERENCES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

USEFUL LINKS

ABOUT THE BOOK

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UNIT OPERATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING

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APPENDICES
Home
Contents
About the book 1. Symbols, units and dimensions
Introduction 2. Units and conversion factors
3. Some properties of gases
Material and energy
4. Some properties of liquids
balances 5. Some properties of solids
Fluid­flow theory 6. Some properties of air and water
Fluid­flow applications 7. Thermal data for some food products
8. Steam table ­ saturated steam
Heat­transfer theory
9. (a) Psychrometric charts ­ normal temperatures
Heat­transfer 9. (b) Psychrometric charts ­ high temperatures
applications 10. Standard sieves
Drying 11. (a) Pressure/enthalpy chart for refrigerant ­ R134a
11. (b) Pressure/enthalpy chart for refrigerant ­ Ammonia
Evaporation
Contact­equilibrium
separation processes
Mechanical N.B. Alternative versions of some of the more complex charts are provided ­
these are Macromedia FlashPaper files (.swf), which allow zooming and offer a
separations more convenient format for printing.
Size reduction To view these you need the Flash Player ­ your computer probably already has
Mixing this, but if not, it is available for free download from Macromedia:
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Index to Figures
Index to Examples
References
Bibliography
Useful links
Feedback (email link)

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8/30/2015 Unit Operations in Food Processing ­ R. L. Earle ­ Appendix 1 ­ Symbols, Units and Dimensions

Unit Operations in Food Processing

Contents > Appendices > Symbols, Units and Dimensions this page

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1

SYMBOLS, UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

a acceleration m s ­2; [L] [t]­2

thickness m; [L]
aw water activity p/ps or Y/Ys ; dimensionless
A area m2; [L]2
b height of liquid in a centrifuge m; [L]
(Bi) Biot number hsL/k;hsD/k;hsr/k;hsa/k ; dimensionless
c specific heat kJ kg­1 °C­1; [F] [L] [M]­1 [T]­1,
c p specific heat at constant pressure, c s humid heat
C heat conductance J m­2 s ­1 °C­1; [F] [L]­1 [t]­1 [T]­1
coefficients ­ discharge, drag, geometric; constant; dimensionless
COP coefficient of performance in refrigeration
d diameter m; [L]
D diameter m; [L]
diffusivity m2 s ­1; [L]2 [t]­1
sieve aperture m ; [L]
e small temperature difference °C; [T]
;
E energy J; [F] [L]
Ec mechanical pump energy, Ef friction energy, Eh heat energy, Ei Bond's work index in grinding
(energy to reduce unit mass from infinitely large particle size to 100m), Ek kinetic energy, Ep
potential energy, Er pressure energy
f friction factor; dimensionless
ratio of actual drying rate to maximum drying rate, dimensionless
fc crushing strength of material kg m­1 s ­2; [M] [L]­1 [t]­2
F force N, kg m s ­2; [F], [M] [L] [t]­2
Fc centrifugal force, Fd drag force, Fe external force, Ff friction force, Fg gravitational force; Fs
accelerating force in sedimentation,
Fl mass ratio of liquid to solid in thickener feed; dimensionless
time to sterilize at 121°C min; [t]
(Fo) Fourier number (kt/c L2); dimensionless
(Fr) Froude number (DN2/g); dimensionless
F(D) Cumulative particle size distribution, F'(D) particle size distribution; dimensionless
g acceleration due to gravity m s ­2; [L] [t]­2
G mass rate of flow kg m­2s ­1 ; [M] [L]­2 [t]­1
(Gr) Grashof number (D32gt/2); dimensionless
h heat transfer coefficient J m­2 s ­1°C­1; [F] [L]­1 [t]­1[T]­1
hc convection, hh condensing vapours on horizontal surfaces, hr radiation, hs surface, hv
condensing vapours on vertical surface

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H enthalpy, kJ kg­1; [F] [L] [M]­1, Hs, enthalpy saturated vapour, Ha, Hb, Hc,enthalpy in
refrigeration system
Henry's Law constant, atm mole fraction­1, kPa mole fraction­1; [F] [L]­2
k constant
constant of proportionality
friction loss factor; dimensionless
thermal conductivity J m­1 s ­1 °C­1 ; [F] [L]­1 [t]­1 [T]­1
k 'g mass­transfer coefficient
k g gas mass­transfer coefficient, k 'g mass­transfer coefficient based on humidity difference, k l
liquid mass transfer coefficient (units and dimensions from context)
K constant, K', K'', etc.
K' mass­transfer coefficient through membrane, kg m­2 h­1; [M] [L]­2 [t]­1; for ultrafiltration m s ­1, for
reverse osmosis kg m­2 h­1 kPa­1
KK Kick's constant m3 kg­1 ; [L]3 [M]­1
KR Rittinger's constant m4 kg­1; [L]4 [M]­1
Ks rate constant for crystal surface reactions m s ­1; [L] [t]­1
Kd mass transfer coefficient to the interface, m s ­1; [L] [t]­1
Kg overall gas mass transfer coefficient
Kl overall liquid mass transfer coefficient
L flow rate of heavy phase kg h­1 ; [M] [t]­1
half thickness of slab for Fourier and Biot numbers m; [L]
length m; [L]
ratio of liquid to solid in thickener underflow;
Lc thickness of filter cake, equivalent thickness of filter cloth and precoat m; [L]
(Le) Lewis number (hc/k'gc p) or (hc/k gc s) dimensionless
m mass kg; [M]
number, general
(M) mixing index, dimensionless
M molecular weight; dimensionless
molal concentration (kg) moles m­3 ; [M] [L]­3
n number, general
N number of particles in sample;
rotational frequency, revolutions/minute or s ; [t]­1
(Nu) Nusselt number (hcD/k); dimensionless
p partial pressure Pa; [F] [L]­2
pa partial pressure of vapour in air, ps saturation partial pressure
factor in mixing and in grinding, dimensionless; factor in particle geometry in grinding, fractional
content in mixing; dimensionless
P constant in freezing formula; dimensionless;
power N m s ­l, J s­1; [F] [L] [t]­1
pressure Pa; [F] [L]­2
Ps pressure on surface Pa; [F] [L]­2
Power number (P/D5N); dimensionless
(Po)

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(Pr) Prandtl number (c p/k); dimensionless

q heat flow rate J s ­1; [F] [L] [t]­1
fluid flow rate m3 s ­1; [L]3 [t]­1
reduction ratio factor in particle geometry in grinding and mixing; dimensionless
Q quantity of heat J; [F] [L]
r radius m; [L]
rn neutral radius in centrifuge
specific resistance of filter cake kg m­1; r' specific resistance of filter cake under 1 atm pressure
[M] [L]­1
R constant in freezing formulae; dimensionless
resistance to flow through filter; dimensionless
R Universal gas constant 8.314 kJ mole­1 K­1; m3kPa mole­1K­1 , [L]2 [t]­2 [T]­1 ; 0.08206 m3 atm
mole­1 K­1
(Re) Reynolds number (Dv /) and (D2N/); dimensionless
RH relative humidity p/p , % ; dimensionless
s compressibility of filter cake; dimensionless
distance m ; [L]
standard deviation of sample compositions from the mean in mixing; dimensionless
so , sr initial and random values of standard deviation in mixing; dimensionless
(Sc) Schmidt number (/D); dimensionless
(Sh) Sherwood number (K'd/D); dimensionless
SG specific gravity; dimensionless
t time s, h, min (from context) ; [t]
tf , freezing time h
T temperature °C or T K; [T]
Tav mean temperature, Ta air, Ts surface, Tc centre
Tm mean temperature in radiation
U overall heat­transfer coefficient J m­2 s ­1 °C­1 ; [F] [L]­1 [t]­1 [T]­1
v velocity m s ­1 ; [L] [t]­1
V flow rate of light phase kg h­1; [M] [t]­1
volume m3; [L]3
volumetric flow rate m3 s ­1; [L]3 [t]­1
w solid content per unit volume kg m­3; [M] [L]­3
mass of dry material kg [M]
weight kg; [F]
W work N m ; [F] [L]
mass of material dried kg; [M]
x concentration in heavy phase kg m­3; [M] [L]­3
distance, thickness m; [L]
fraction, mole or weight, dimensionless
mean
X moisture content on dry basis ; dimensionless

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Xc critical moisture content, Xf final moisture content, Xo initial moisture content;

thickness of slab m ; [L]
y concentration in light phase kg m­3; [M] [L]­3
fraction, mole or weight, dimensionless
Y humidity, absolute kg kg­1; humidity difference; dimensionless
Ys, Ya humidity of saturated air, humidity of air
z height m; [L]
temperature difference for 10­fold change in thermal death time °C, [T]
Z depth, height of fluid m; [L]

 absorbtivity; dimensionless
 coefficient of thermal expansion m m­1 °C­1; [T]­1
1, 2 length ratios in freezing formula; dimensionless
 thickness of layer for diffusion m; [L]

 difference
tm logarithmic mean temperature difference °C; [T]
 emissivity; dimensionless
roughness factor; dimensionless
 efficiency of coupling of freezing medium to frozen foodstuff
air­drying efficiency, % , dimensionless
 latent heat kJ kg­1; [F] [L] [M]­1
shape factor for particles, dimensionless
 viscosity kg s ­1 m­1; Pa s, N s m­2; [M] [t]­1 [L]­1 ; [F] [t] [L]­2
 ratio of circumference to diameter of circle , 3.1416

 total pressure Pa; [M] [L]­1[t]­2 , [F] [L]­2

osmotic pressure kPa; [F] [L]­2
 density kg m­3; [M] [L]­3
 Stefan­Boltzman constant, 5,73 x10­8 kg m­2 s ­3 °C­4 , J m­2 s­1 K­4 ; [M] [t]­3 [T]­4 or [F] [L]­1 [t]­1
[T]­4
 shear stress in a fluid Pa; [F] [L]­2
 fin efficiency; dimensionless
 angular velocity radians s ­1, [t]­1

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 2

UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

Length 1 inch = 0.0254 m

1 ft = 0.3048 m
Area 1 ft2 = 0.0929m2
Volume 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3
1 gal Imp = 0.004546 m3
1 gal US = 0.003785 m3 = 3.785 litres
1 litre = 0.001 m3
Mass 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 mole molecular weight in kg
Density 1 lb/ft3 = 16.03 kg m­3
Velocity 1 ft/sec = 0.3048 m s ­1
Pressure 1 lb/m2 = 6894 Pa
1 torr = 133.3 Pa

1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

= 760 mm Hg
= 1 N m­2
1 Pa
= 1 kg m­1 s ­2

Force
1 Newton = 1 kg m s ­2
1 lb ft s ­2 = 1.49 kg m s­2

Viscosity 1 cP = 0.001 N s m­2 = 0.001 Pa s

= 1.49 N s m­2
1 lb/ft sec
= 1.49 kg m­1 s ­2

Energy 1 Btu = 1055 J

1 cal = 4.186 J
1 kW = 1 kJ s­1
Power
1W = 1 J s­1

1 horsepower = 745.7 W = 745.7 J s ­1

= 0.746 kW
1 ton refrigeration = 3.519 kW
Temperature units (°F) = 5/9 (°C) = 5/9 (K)
Heat­transfer coefficient 1 Btu ft­2 h­1 °F­1 = 5.678 J m­2 s ­1 °C
Thermal conductivity 1 Btu ft­1 h­1 °F­1 = 1.731 J m­1 s ­1 °C­1
Constants  3.1416
 5.73 x 10­8 J m­2s ­1K­4
e (base of natural logs) 2.7183

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R 8.314 kJ mole­1 K­1

or 0.08206 m3 atm mole­1 K­1
(M) Mega = 106,
(k) kilo = 103,
(H) Hecto = 102
(m) milli = 10­3
() micro = 10­6

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 3

SOME PROPERTIES OF GASES

(Atmospheric pressure)

Thermal conductivity Specific heat Density Temperature

(J m­1 s ­1 °C­1) (kJ kg­1 °C­1) (kg m­3) (°C)
Air (see Appendix 6)
Ammonia 0.022 2.19 0.73 15
Carbon dioxide 0.015 0.80 1.98 0
0.022 0.92 1.46 100
Refrigerant 134a 1.46 1.21 25
(tetrafluoroethane)
Ammonia 0.022 2.19 0.73 15
Nitrogen 0.024 1.005 1.3 0
0.031 100

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 4

SOME PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

Thermal
Specific heat Density Viscosity Temperature
conductivity
(J m­1 s ­1 °C­1) (kJ kg­1 °C­1) (kg m­3) (N s m­2) (°C)
Water (see
0
Appendix 6)
Sucrose 20% soln. 0.54 3.8 1070 1.92 x 10­3 20
0.59 x 10­3 80
60% soln. 6.2 x 10­3 20
5.4 x 10­3 80
3.7 x 10­3 20
Sodium chloride
22% soln.
0.54 3.4 1240 2.7 x 10­3 20

Acetic acid 0.17 2.2 1050 1.2 x 10­3 20

Ethyl alcohol 0.18 2.3 790 1.2 x 10­3 20
Glycerine 0.28 2.4 1250 830 x 10­3 20
Olive oil 0.17 2.0 910 84 x 10­3 20
Rape­seed oil 900 118 x 10­3 20
Soya­bean oil 910 40 x 10­3 30
Tallow 900 18 x 10­3 65
Milk (whole) 0.56 3.9 1030 2.2 x 10­3 20
Milk (skim) 1040 1.4 x 10­3 25
Cream 20% fat 1010 6.2 x 10­3 3
30% fat 1000 13,8 x 10­3 3

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 5

SOME PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Thermal conductivity Specific heat Density Temperature

(J m­1 s ­1 °C­1) (kJ kg­1 °C­1) (kg m­3) (°C)
1. Metals
Aluminium 220 0.87 2640 0
Brass 97 0.38 8650 0
Cast iron 55 0.42 7210 0
Copper 388 0.38 8900 0
Steel, mild 45 0.47 7840 18
Steel, stainless 21 0.48 7950 20
2. Non­metals
Asbestos sheet 0.17 0.84 890 51
Brick 0.7 0.92 1760 20
Cardboard 0.07 1.26 640 20
Concrete 0.87 1.05 2000 20
Celluloid 0.21 1.55 1400 30
Cotton wool 0.04 1.26 80 30
Cork 0.043 1.55 160 30
Expanded rubber 0.04 72 0
Fibreboard insulation 0.052 240 21
Glass, soda 0.52 0.84 2240 20
Ice 2.25 2.10 920 0
Mineral wool 0.04 145 30
Polyethylene 0.55 2.30 950 20
Polystyrene foam 0.036 24 0
Polyurethane foam 0.026 32 0
Polyvinyl chloride 0.29 1.30 1400 20
Wood shavings 0.09 2.5 1.50 0
Wood 0.28 2.5 700 30

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 6

SOME PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OF WATER

Temperature Thermal conductivity Viscosity Specific heat Density

(°C) (J m­1 s ­l °C­1) (N s m­2) (kJ kg­1°C­1) (kg m­3)
AIR
­73 0.0189 1.36 x 10­5 0.996 1.76
­18 0.0230 1.65 x 10­5 1.00 1.38
0 0.0242 1.73 x 10­5 1.005 1.29
38 0.0267 1.91 x 10­5 1.005 1.14
93 0.031 2.15 x 10­5 1.009 0.96
149 0.0334 2.40 x 10­5 1.017 0.83
204 0.0367 2.60 x 10­5 1.026 0.74
WATER

­20 2.39 na 1.943 919.4

­10 2.25 na 2.027 918.9
(ice) 0 2.22 na 2.050 916.2
0 0,57 1.87 x 10­3 4.23 1000
4 0.57 1.53 x 10­3 4.23 1000
16 0.59 1.16 x 10­3 4.19 1000
27 0.61 0.87 x 10­3 4.19 998
38 0.62 0.68 x 10­3 4.19 992
66 0.66 0.43 x 10­3 4.19 977
93 0.68 0.30 x 10­3 4.19 965
100 0.68 0.28 x 10­3 4.18 958

Extracted from An Introduction to Heat Transfer, Fishenden, M. and Saunders, 0. A., by permission of the
Clarendon Press, Oxford.

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 7

THERMAL DATA FOR SOME FOOD PRODUCTS

Freezing point Percent water Specific heat Latent heat

above freezing below freezing of fusion
(°C) (kJ kg­1°C­1) (kJ kg­1)
Fruit
Apples ­2 84 3.60 1.88 280
Bananas ­2 75 3.35 1.76 255
Grapefruit ­2 89 3.81 1.93 293
Peaches ­2 87 3.78 1.93 289
Pineapples ­2 85 3.68 1.88 285
Watermelons ­2 92 4.06 2.01 306
Vegetables
Asparagus ­1 93 3.93 2.01 310
Beans (green) ­1 89 3.81 1.97 297
Cabbage ­1 92 3.93 1.97 306
Carrots ­1 88 3.60 1.88 293
Corn ­1 76 3.35 1.80 251
Peas ­1 74 3.31 1.76 247
Tomatoes ­1 95 3.98 2.01 310
Meat
Bacon ­2 20 2.09 1.26 71
Beef ­2 75 3.22 1.67 255
Fish ­2 70 3.18 1.67 276
Lamb ­2 70 3.18 1.67 276
Pork ­2 60 2.85 1.59 197
Veal ­2 63 2.97 1.67 209
Miscellaneous
Beer ­2 92 4.19 2.01 301
Bread ­2 32­37 2.93 1.42 109­121
Eggs ­3 3.2 1.67 276
Ice cream ­3 to ­18 58­66 3.3 1.88 222
Milk ­1 87.5 3.9 2.05 289
Water 0 100 4.19 2.05 335

Based on extracts, by permission, from ASHRAE Guide and Data Books.

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Specific heats, latent heats of freezing and thermal conductivities of foodstuffs can be estimated if the
percentage of water in the foodstuff is known. If this percentage is p then:

(a) Specific heat = 4.19p/100 + 0.84(100­ p)/100 kJ kg­1 °C­1 above freezing
= 2.1 p/100 + 0.84(100­ p)/100 kJ kg­1 °C­1 below freezing.
(b) Latent heat = 335p/100 kJ kg­1
(c) Thermal conductivity = 0.55p/100 + 0.26(100 ­p)/l00 J m­1 s ­1 °C­1 above freezing
= 2.4p/100 + 0.26(100 ­p)/l00 J m­1 s ­1 °C­1 below freezing.

These equations represent a considerable over­simplification so they, and also the tabulated data, should be
used with caution, particularly in the region between 0°C and ­18°C. Freezing of foodstuffs occurs over a range
of temperatures and not at any fixed point. For complete data the only really satisfactory source is a
thermodynamic chart such as those prepared by Riedel (for example, in DKV Arbeitsblatt 8­11, 1957 C. F.
Muller, Karlsruhe) for lean beef, and also for egg yolk, potato and fish.

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 8

STEAM TABLE ­ SATURATED STEAM

Enthalpy
Temperature Pressure(Absolute) Latent heat Specific volume
(sat. vap.)
(°C) (kPa) (kJ kg­1) (kJ kg­1) (m3 kg­1)

Temperature Table

0 0.611 2501 2501 206

1 0.66 2503 2499 193
2 0.71 2505 2497 180
4 0.81 2509 2492 157
6 0.93 2512 2487 138
8 1.07 2516 2483 121
10 1.23 2520 2478 106
12 1.40 2523 2473 93.9
14 1.60 2527 2468 82.8
16 1.82 2531 2464 73.3
18 2.06 2534 2459 65.0
20 2.34 2538 2454 57.8
22 2.65 2542 2449 51.4
24 2.99 2545 2445 45.9
26 3.36 2549 2440 40.0
28 3.78 2553 2435 36.6
30 4.25 2556 2431 32.9
40 7.38 2574 2407 19.5
50 12.3 2592 2383 12.0
60 19.9 2610 2359 7.67
70 31.2 2627 2334 5.04
80 47.4 2644 2309 3.41
90 70.1 2660 2283 2.36
100 101.4 2676 2257 1.67
105 120.8 2684 2244 1.42
110 143.3 2692 2230 1.21
115 169.1 2699 2217 1.04
120 198.5 2706 2203 0.892
125 232.1 2714 2189 0.771
130 270.1 2721 2174 0.669
135 313.0 2727 2160 0.582
140 361.3 2734 2145 0.509

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150 475.8 2747 2114 0.393

160 617.8 2758 2083 0.307
180 1002 2778 2015 0.194
200 1554 2793 1941 0.127

Pressure Table

7.0 1.0 2514 2485 129

9.7 1.2 2519 2479 109
12.0 1.4 2523 2473 93.9
14.0 1.6 2527 2468 82.8
15.8 1.8 2531 2464 74.0
17.5 2.0 2534 2460 67.0
21.1 2.5 2540 2452 54.3
24.1 3.0 2546 2445 45.7
29.0 4.0 2554 2433 34.8
32.9 5.0 2562 2424 28.2
40.3 7.5 2575 2406 19.2
45.8 10.0 2585 2393 14.7
60.1 20.0 2610 2358 7.65
75.9 40.0 2637 2319 3.99
93.5 80.0 2666 2274 2.09
99.6 100 2676 2258 1.69
102.3 119 2680 2251 1.55
104.8 120 2684 2244 1.43
107.1 130 2687 2238 1.33
109.3 140 2690 2232 1.24
111.4 150 2694 2227 1.16
113.3 160 2696 2221 1.09
115.2 170 2699 2216 1.03
116.9 180 2702 2211 0.978
118.6 190 2704 2207 0.929
120.2 200 2707 2202 0.886
127.4 250 2717 2182 0.719
133.6 300 2725 2164 0.606
138.9 350 2732 2148 0.524
143.6 400 2739 2134 0.463
147.9 450 2744 2121 0.414
151.6 500 2749 2109 0.375
167.8 750 2766 2057 0.256
179.9 1000 2778 2015 0.194

* Reproduced with permission from J. H. Keenan et al., Steam Tables ­ lnternational Edition in Metric Units,
John Wiley, New York, 1969.

Note Gauge pressure  Absolute pressure + 100 kPa

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 10

STANDARD SIEVES

Aperture ISO nominal aperture U.S. no. Tyler no.

(m x 10­3) (m x 10­3)
22.6 7/8 in. 0.883 in.
16.0 16 5/8 in. 0.624 in.
11.2 11.2 7/16 in. 0.441 in.
8.0 8.00 5/16 in. 2 1/2 mesh
5.66 5.66 No.3 1/2 3 1/2 mesh
4.00 4.00 5 5 mesh
2.83 2.80 7 7 mesh
2.00 2.00 10 9 mesh
1.41 1.41 14 12 mesh
1.00 1.00 18 16 mesh
0.71 0.710 25 24 mesh
0.500 0.500 35 32 mesh
0.354 0.355 45 42 mesh
0.250 0.250 60 60 mesh
0.177 0.180 80 80 mesh
0.125 0.125 120 115 mesh
0.088 0.090 170 170 mesh
0.063 0.063 230 250 mesh
0.044 0.045 325 325 mesh

Note 500m = 0.50 m x 10­3 aperture = 35 US No. = 32 mesh

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REFERENCES
Home
Contents
About the book ASHRAE Guide and Data Books, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
Introduction and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York.
BIRD, R. B., STEWART, W. E. and LIGHTFOOT, E. N. (1960) Transport
Material and energy
Phenomena, Wiley, New York.
balances BOND, F. C. (1952) Min. Engng. 4, 484; Chem. Engng. 59, 169.
Fluid­flow theory CHARM, S. E. (1971) The Fundamentals of Food Engineering, 2nd Edition,
Fluid­flow applications AVI, Westport.
CLELAND, A. C. and EARLE, R. L. (1982) Int. J. Refrig. 5,134.
Heat­transfer theory
COULSON, J. M. and RICHARDSON, J. F. (1977, 1978) Chemical
Heat­transfer Engineering, Vol.1, 3rd Edition. Vol.2, 3rd Edition, Pergamon, Oxford.
applications DK V Arbeitsblatt 2­02 (1950), C. F. Muller, Karlsruhe.
Drying EDE, A. J. (1949) Mod. Refrig. 52, 52.
ESTY, J. R. and MEYER, K. F. (1922) J. Infec. Dis. 31, 650.
Evaporation FISHENDEN, M.D. and SAUNDERS, 0. A. (1950) An Introduction to Heat
Contact­equilibrium Transfer, Oxford University Press.
separation processes GROSSE, J. W. and DUFFIELD, G. M. (1954) Chem. and Ind. 1464.
Mechanical HENDERSON, S. M. and PERRY, R. L. (1976) Agricultural Process
Engineering, 3rd Edition, Wiley, New York.
separations International Critical Tables (1930), McGraw­Hill, New York.
Size reduction JASON, A. C. (1958) in Fundamental Aspects of the Dehydration of
Mixing Foodstuffs, Society of Chemical Industry, London.
McADAMS, W. H. (1954) Heat Transmission, 3rd Edition, McGraw­Hill, New
Appendices
York.
Index to Figures McCABE, W. L.,SMITH, J. [Link] HARRIOTT, P.(1975) Unit Operations of
Index to Examples Chemical Engineering, 3rd Edition, McGraw­Hill, New York.
References
Bibliography
Useful links
Feedback (email link)

McCABE, W. L. and THIELE, E. W. (1925) Industr. Eng. Chem. 17, 605.

MANHEIM, H. C., STEINBERG, M. P., NELSON, A. I. and KENDALL, T. W. (1957) Food Technol. 11, 384.
MOODY, L. F. (1944) Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 66, 671.
PERRY, J. [Link] al (1997) Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 7th Edition, McGraw­Hill, New York.
PLANK, R. (1913) Z. Ges. Kalteind., 20, S. 109; (1941) Ibid., Beih. Reihe 3, H.10.
RUSHTON, J. N., COSTICH, E. W. and EVERETT, H. S. (1950) Chem. Engng. Prog. 46,
395.
SOURIRAJAN, S. (ed.) (1977) Reverse Osmosis and Synthetic Membranes; Theory, Technology and
Engineering, Nat. Res. Council of Canada, Ottawa.
SPICER, A. (1974) Advances in Preconcentration and Dehydration of Foods, Applied Science, London.
STUMBO, C. R. (1973) Thermobacteriology, 2nd Edition, Academic, New York.
THIJSSEN, H. A. C. (1974) in Advances in Preconcentration and Dehydration of Foods, A. Spicer (ed.),
Applied Science, London.
TREYBAL, R. E. (1987) Mass Transfer, 3rd Edition, McGraw­Hill, New York.
TROWBRlDGE, M. E. O'K. (1962) Chem. Engng. (U.K.) No.162, A.73.
WHITMAN, W. G. (1923) Chem. and Met. Engng. 29, 147.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Search Contents > Bibliography this page

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Home
Contents
About the book General Data
Introduction
Material and energy Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Chemical Rubber Publishing,
Sandusky,(updated frequently).
balances International Critical Tables (1932) McGraw­Hill, New York.
Fluid­flow theory KEENAN, J. H., KEYES, F. G., HILL, P. G. and MOORE, J. G. (1969)
Fluid­flow applications Steam Tables, Wiley, New York.
PERRY, R. H., GREEN, D.W. and MOLONY, J.D. (1997) Chemical
Heat­transfer theory
Engineers' Handbook, 7th Edition, McGraw­Hill, New York.
Heat­transfer
applications
Drying Fluid Flow
Evaporation
STREETER, V.L., WILEY, E.B. and BEDFORD, K.W. (1998) Fluid
Contact­equilibrium Mechanics, 9th Edition, McGraw­Hill, New York.
separation processes STEFFE, J.F. (1996) Rheological Methods in Food Process Engineering, 2nd
Mechanical Edition, Freeman, East Lansing: and on
[Link]/divisions/food_eng/pub/[Link] (2000)
separations
Size reduction
Mixing Heat Transfer
Appendices
Index to Figures EDE, A. J. (1967) An Introduction to Heat Transfer, Pergamon, Oxford.
FISHENDEN, M.D. and SAUNDERS, 0. A. (1950) An Introduction to Heat
Index to Examples Transfer, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
References KERN, D. Q. (1950) Process Heat Transfer, McGraw­Hill, New York.
Bibliography McADAMS, W. H. (1954) Heat Transmission, 3rd Edition, McGraw­Hill, New
York.
Useful links
Feedback (email link)

Sterilization by Heat

STUMBO, C. R. (1973) Thermobacteriology in Food Processing, 3rd Edition, Academic, New York.

Refrigeration

ASHRAE Guide and Data Books, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers, New York.
ANDERSEN, S. A. (1959) Automatic Refrigeration, McLaren, Glasgow.
JORDAN, R. C. and PRIESTER, G. B. (1956) Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs.

Dehydration

Fundamental Aspects of the Dehydration of Foodstuffs (1958) Society of Chemical Industry, London.
[Link] 1/2
8/30/2015 Unit Operations in Food Processing ­ R. L. Earle

KEEY, R. B. (1978) Introduction to Industrial Drying Operations, Pergamon, Oxford.

VAN ARSEL, W. B., COPLEY, M. J. and MORGAN, A. I. (1973) (eds.) Food Dehydration, 2nd Edition, Vol.
1, Principles, AVI, Westport.
SPICER, A. (1974) (ed.) Advances in Preconcentration and Dehydration of Foods, Applied Science, London.

Food Engineering

BRENNAN, J. G., BUTTERS, J. R., COWELL, N. D. and LILLY, A. E. (1990) Food Engineering Operations,
3rd Edition, Applied Science, London.
CHARM, S. E. (1971) The Fundamentals of Food Engineering, 2nd Edition, AVI, Westport.
EARLE, R.L. and EARLE, M.D. (2003) Fundamentals of Food Reaction Technology,
Leatherhead Food International and RSC, Leatherhead.
FELLOWS, P. (2000) Food Processing Technology, Principles and Practice. 2nd Edition, Woodhead,
Cambridge.
HARPER, J. C. (1976) Elements of Food Engineering, AVI, Westport.
HELDMAN, D. R. (1975) Food Process Engineering, AVI, Westport.
HELDMAN, D. R. and LUND, D. E. (1992) Handbook of Food Engineering, Marcel Dekker, New York
LENIGER, H. A. and BEVERLOO, W. A. (1975) Food Process Engineering, Reidel, Dordrecht.
LONCIN, M. and MERSON, R. L. (1979) Food Engineering; Principles and Selected Applications, Academic,
New York.
SINGH, R. P. and HELDMAN, D. R. (2001) Introduction to Food Engineering, 3rd. Edition, Academic,
London.
TOLEDO, R.T. (1991) Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering, 2nd Edition, van Nostrand, Reinhold,
New York

Chemical Engineering Unit Operations

BEEK, W. J. and MUTTZALL, K. M. K. (1975) Transport Phenomena, Wiley, London.

BLACKADDER, D. A. and NEDDERMAN, R. M. (1971) A Handbook of Unit Operations, Academic, London.
COULSON, J. M. and RICHARDSON, J. F. (1977, 1978) Chemical Engineering, 3rd Edition, Vols. 1, 2,
Pergamon, Oxford.
FOUST, A. S., WENZEL, L. A., CLUMP, C. W., MAUS, L. and ANDERSEN, L. B. (1980) Principles of Unit
Operations, 2nd Edition, Wiley, New York.
HENDERSON, S. M. and PERRY, R. L. (1976) Agricultural Process Engineering, 3rd Edition, Wiley, New
York.
McCABE, W. L., SMITH, J. C. and HARRIOTT, P. (1975) Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 3rd
Edition, McGraw­Hill, New York.
TREYBAL, R. E. (1987) Mass Transfer, 3rd Edition, McGraw­Hill, New York.

USEFUL LINKS

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UNIT OPERATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING

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LINKS TO USEFUL WEB SITES

Home
Contents NZIFST ­ The New Zealand Institute of Food Science and Technology
About the book [Link]
Introduction
Material and energy Fundamentals of Food Reaction Technology – the Web Edition
balances [Link]/foodreactiontechnology/
Fluid­flow theory
Creating New Foods: The Product Developer's Guide – the Web Edition
Fluid­flow applications
[Link]/creatingnewfoods/
Heat­transfer theory
Heat­transfer Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) Food Engineering Division ­ Instructional
applications Resources.
Drying [Link]/divisions/food_eng/
Evaporation
The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) ­ Institut International du Froid,
Contact­equilibrium
Paris, France.
separation processes [Link]
Mechanical
separations
Size reduction
Mixing
Appendices
Index to Figures
Index to Examples
References
Bibliography
Useful links
Feedback (email link)

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