Stat Prob

Normal random variable 6. the total area under the curve and above the
horizontal axis is equal to 1.
Normal distribution
The most important of all distributions that are used in
statistics. In many cases it serves as a generic model for
the distribution of a measurement.

Normal random variable

has a continuous distribution over the sample space of all
numbers, negative or positive 7. The standard deviation affects both the width
and the height of the curve..

PROPERTIES OF NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

1. The graph is a bell-shaped curve with the
domain −∞ < X < ∞.”bell-shaped curve”

2. The graph is asymptotic to the x-axis.– the value

of the variable approaches but will never be
equal to 0. Three Types of Kurtosis

➔ Leptokurtic is a distribution where values are

clustered heavily or pile up in the center.

➔ Mesokurtic is an intermediate distribution

3. The maximum point on the curve occurs at x=μ. which are neither too peaked nor too flat.

➔ Platykurtic is a flat distribution with values

more evenly distributed about the center with
broad humps and shot tails.
8. In general, the graph of a normal distribution is a
4. The graph is symmetrical about the line x=μ.The bell-shaped curve with two inflection points, one
Mean indicates the line of demarcation in which on the left and another on the right. Inflection
the region occupied by the curve is divided into points are the points that mark the change in the
halves. curve’s concavity.

5. The mean, median, and mode of the distribution 9. The standard deviation precisely describes the
are located at the center of the graph. This spread of the normal curve. Approximately
implies that they are equal. 68.3% of the values in the distribution are within
one standard deviation away from the mean
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(from each side), 95.4% is within two standard When the two endpoints are located on the same sides of
deviations from the mean, and 99.7% is within the mean, the individual probabilities are subtracted.
three standard deviations from the mean.
Case 2.1: Both Due Right
➔ 𝑷(𝐳𝟏 ≤ 𝐙 ≤ 𝐳𝟐) =𝛟(𝐳𝟐) −𝛟(𝐳𝟏)
Example:
A standard normal score is selected at random. What is
the probability that it falls between 1.15 and 2.49?
𝑷 (𝟏.𝟏𝟓 ≤ 𝐙 ≤ 𝟐.𝟒𝟗) = 𝛟 (𝟐.𝟒𝟗) − 𝛟 (𝟏.𝟏𝟓)
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟒𝟗
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟕
= 11.87%

Case 2.2: Both Due Left

STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
➔ 𝑷(−𝐳𝟏 ≤ 𝐙 ≤ − 𝐳𝟐) =𝛟(𝐳𝟏) −𝛟(𝐳𝟐)
In standard normal distribution the mean is equal to 0
and the standard deviation is 1. CASE 3: Normal Curve’s Extremities
In this case, you either add or subtract the
THE Z-TABLE corresponding area or probability of the z-score from
The table used to summarize the approximate areas 0.5.
under the standard normal curve, given in four decimal Case 3.1: Opposite Side
places.
➔ 𝐏 (−∞ < 𝐙 ≤ 𝐳) = 0.5 + 𝛟(𝐳)
● The Values given in the table represents the area ➔ 𝐏 (−𝐳 ≤ 𝐙 < ∞) = 0.5 + 𝛟(𝐳)
under the standard normal curve from 0 (the
Example:
mean).
➔ In symbols, this is written as: φ z = P (0 ≤ Z ≤ z) Find the probability that a number chosen at random on
the standard normal scores is less than 1.73.
CASES 𝐏 (−∞ < 𝐙 ≤ 𝟏.𝟕𝟑) = 0.5+ 𝛟 (𝟏.𝟕𝟑)
= 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟐
➔ BASIC CASE: P (0 ≤ Z ≤ z) = φ (z)
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟖𝟐
CASE 1: Two Values on Opposite Side of z = 0 = 95.82%
When the two endpoints are located on opposite sides of
the mean, the individual probabilities from 0 are added. Case 3.2: Same Side
➔ 𝑷(−𝒛𝟏 ≤ 𝒁 ≤ 𝒛𝟐) =𝝓(𝒛𝟏) +𝝓(𝒛𝟐) ➔ 𝐏 (𝐳 ≤ 𝐙 < ∞ = 0.5) − 𝛟(𝐳)
➔ 𝐏 (−∞ < 𝐙 ≤ −𝐳 = 0.5) − 𝛟(𝐳)
Example:
Find the area under the curve and between z= -1.25 and Example:
z =0.74. Find the probability that a standard normal score is less
𝑷 (−𝟏.𝟐𝟓 ≤ 𝒁 ≤ 𝟎.𝟕𝟒) = 𝝓 (𝟏.𝟐𝟓) + 𝝓 (𝟎.𝟕𝟒) than -0.18.
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟒𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟒 𝐏(−∞ < 𝐙 ≤ − 𝟎.𝟏𝟖) = 𝟎.𝟓 − 𝛟 (𝟎.𝟏𝟖)
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟓 - 𝟎.0714
= 66.48% = 𝟎. 4286
= 42.86%
CASE 2: Two Values on Same Side of z = 0

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Standardizing Any Normal Distribution

Z-score from Any Random Variable

Given a normal random variable X with mean μ and
standard deviation σ, each value x of the variable can
be transformed into z- scores using the formula:
where:
x – raw score
𝛍 – mean
𝛔 – standard deviation
Example:
A random variable X has a mean of 4 and standard Normal random variable
deviation of 2. Find the corresponding z- score for x = 7.
Population
Refers to the entire group of individuals or objects
known to have similar characteristics.
➔ The totality of observations or elements from a
set of data.
➔ The measurable quality is called a parameter.
➔ The population is a complete set.
➔ Reports are a true representation of opinion.
➔ It contains all members of a specified group.
Example: Total number of senior high school students
in Holy Angel University

Sample
A subset of the entire population
➔ Refers to one or more elements taken from the
population for a specific purpose.
➔ The measurable quality is called a statistic.
➔ The sample is a subset of the population.
➔ Reports have a margin of error and confidence
interval.
➔ It is a subset that represents the entire
population.
Example: Top 50 taxpayers in the Philippines
Parameter Vs. Statistic

Parameter – a numerical measure that describes a

characteristic of an entire population.
Statistic – a numerical measure or value that describes
a sample.
Example:
A school principal surveys the mean general weighted
average (GWA) of the students in the present school
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year. From a group of 50 random students, a mean EXAMPLE: A sample of 200 students is to be selected
GWA 86.75 is determined. from a senior high school population of 1000, of which
YAMANE’S FORMULA 200 students are in ABM strand, 150 in GAS strand, 200
in HUMSS strand, 300 in STEM strand, and 150 in TVL
where:
strand. If the sample size to be taken is 200 and should
n = sample size
be proportionally distributed, how many samples are to
N = size of the population
be taken per stratum?
e = margin of error

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Probability Sampling Techniques

Simple Random Sampling

➔ also known as “lottery method”, the most

commonly used sampling technique.
➔ every element of the population has the same
probability of being selected for inclusion in the
sample.
EXAMPLE: A company executive selected 15 Cluster Sampling
participants for the international business. Congress by ➔ The total population is divided into groups (or
writing the names of all employees and then choosing a clusters)
name one at a time until the delegation is completed. ➔ Used when "natural" but relatively
Systematic Sampling heterogeneous groupings are evident in a
statistical population.
➔ adopts a skipping pattern in the selection of EXAMPLE: Suppose a researcher wants to study the
sample units.
effect of blended learning in a particular
➔ every nth element of the population is selected
city/municipality. Since there are many schools in a
until the desired number of elements in the
city/municipality, it will be very inefficient and
sample is obtained.
impractical to consider all the schools in the study.
EXAMPLE: From a list containing the names of 500 Instead, the researcher will randomly choose a few
members of the alumni association, a sample of size 50 schools where students will be surveyed.
is obtained by including every 10th person in the list.

Nonprobability Sampling Techniques

Convenience Sampling
Stratified Sampling
➔ Known as grab or opportunity sampling or
➔ The population is partitioned into subgroups accidental or haphazard sampling.
called strata, based on some characteristics like ➔ involves the sample being drawn from that part
year, religion, gender, age, ethnicity, etc. of the population which is close to hand. That is,
➔ Samples are then randomly selected separately readily available and convenient.
in each stratum. EXAMPLE: The researcher conducts online poll in
social media in determining the respondent's choice of
TV program.

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Purposive Sampling

➔ Done with a purpose in mind.

➔ Also called judgmental or selective sampling,
focuses on samples which are taken based on the
judgment of the researcher.
EXAMPLE: The teacher announced that he needs 3
representatives to represent the school in a regional quiz
show. The teacher decided to choose the top three
students as representatives.

Snowball Sampling

➔ sometimes called chain-referral sampling.

➔ the researcher chooses a possible respondent for
the study at hand. Then each respondent is asked
to give recommendations or referrals to other
possible respondents.
➔ Used when the research is focused on
participants with very specific characteristics
such as being members of a gang.
EXAMPLE: The researcher asks respondents to suggest
other possible respondents who are members of their
organization.

Quota Sampling

➔ Equivalent of stratified random sampling in

terms of nonprobability sampling.
➔ The researcher starts by identifying quotas,
which are predefined control categories such as
age, gender, education, or religion.