POLYMERS
Fundamentals of
Polymer Technology
Supervisor : Dr. Ahmed
Ibrahim Prepared by :
Nourhan Hussien Abd El-ghany
Alaa Eldeen Mohamed Abd Elmoniem
Mohamed Ramadan Ahmed
Introduction
A compound consisting of long-chain molecules,
each molecule made up of repeating units
connected together
There may be thousands, even millions of units
in a single polymer molecule.
Most polymers are based on carbon and are
therefore considered organic chemicals.
Types of
Polymers can be separated into plastics
and rubbers
As engineering materials, it is appropriate to
divide them into the following three
categories:
Thermoplastic polymers
Thermosetting polymers
Elastomers
Thermoplastic polymers -
Solid materials at room temperature but viscous
liquids when heated to temperatures of only a
few hundred degrees shaped into products.
They can be subjected to heating and cooling
cycles repeatedly without significant degradation
EX: Polyethylene, polyvinylchloride,
polypropylene, polystyrene, and
nylon
Thermosetting polymers -
Cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles, When
initially heated, they soften and flow for
molding.
Elevated temperatures also produce a
chemical reaction that hardens the material
into an infusible solid
EX: Phenolics, epoxies, and certain polyesters
Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic
extensibility when subjected to relatively
low mechanical stress.
Some elastomers can be stretched by a factor
of 10 and yet completely recover to their
original shape.
Although their properties are quite different
from thermosets, they share a similar
molecular structure that is different from the
thermoplastics.
EX: Natural rubber
(vulcanized),Synthetic rubber.
General Properties of Polymers
Low density relative to metals and ceramics.
Good strength-to-weight ratios for certain
(but not all) polymers.
High corrosion resistance.
Low electrical and thermal conductivity.
Limitations of Polymers
Low strength relative to metals and
ceramics
Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness).
Service temperatures are limited to only a
few hundred degrees.
Viscoelastic properties, which can be a
distinct limitation in load bearing
applications.
Some polymers degrade when subjected to
sun light and other forms of radiation.
Synthesis of Polymers-
Polymerization
Synthesis of Polymers-
Polymerization
As a chemical process, the synthesis of polymers
can occur by either of two methods:
1) Addition polymerization.
2) Step polymerization
1) Addition polymerization
The connections occur on both ends of the
expanding macromolecule, developing long
chains of repeating mer.
It is initiated using a chemical catalyst to
open the carbon double bond in some of the
monomers.
EX:Polyethylene,polypropylene,polyvinylchloride,
polyisoprene
2) Step polymerization
• In this form of polymerization, two reacting
monomers are brought together to form a new
molecule of the desired compound
• In addition, polymers of length n 1and n2 also combine
to form molecules of length n=n1+n2, so that two types
of reactions are proceeding simultaneously
• EX: Nylon, polycarbonate
Degree of
The mean value of n is called the degree of
polymerization(DP) for the batch.
Higher DP increases mechanical strength
but also increases viscosity in the fluid state,
which makes processing more difficult.
Polymer
Molecular Weight:
MW =n * the molecular weight of each
repeating unit.
Since (n) varies for different molecules in a
batch, the molecular weight must be
interpreted as an average.
Typical Values of DP and MW
Polymer Molecular Structures
Linear structure – chain-like structure
Characteristic of thermoplastic polymers
Branched structure – chain-like but
with side branches
Also found in thermoplastic polymers
Cross-linked structure
Loosely cross-linked, characteristic of
elastomers
Tightly cross-linked, characteristic of thermosets
Polymer Molecular Structures
Linear Branched
Loosely cross-linked Tightly cross-linked
Effect of Branching
on Properties
Branches increase entanglement among
the molecules, which makes the polymer:
Stronger in the solid state.
More viscous at a given temperature in
the plastic or liquid state.
Effect of Cross-Linking
on Properties
Cross-linking causes the polymer to become
chemically set
The reaction cannot be reversed.
The polymer structure is permanently
changed; if heated, it degrades or burns
rather than melt.
Crystalline
Crystallized regions in a polymer:
(a) long molecules forming crystals randomly
mixed in with the amorphous material
(b) folded chain lamella, the typical form of a
crystallized region
Crystallinity and
As crystallinity is increased in a polymer
Density increases
Stiffness, strength, and toughness increases
Heat resistance increases
If the polymer is transparent in the
amorphous state, it becomes opaque when
partially crystallized.
Factors for
Slower cooling promotes crystal formation
and growth.
Mechanical deformation, as in the stretching
of a heated thermoplastic, tends to align the
structure and increase crystallization.
Plasticizers (chemicals added to a polymer to
soften it) reduce crystallinity.
Additives by
Fillers: strengthen polymer or reduce cost
Plasticizers: soften polymer and improve flow
Colorants: pigments or dyes
Lubricants: reduce friction and improve flow
Flame retardents: reduce flammability of polymer
Cross-linking agents : for thermosets and
elastomers.
Ultraviolet light absorbers: reduce degradation
from sunlight.
Antioxidants :reduce oxidation damage.
Thermoplastic Polymers
Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastics
Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness).
Low tensile strength.
Much lower hardness than metals or ceramics
Greater ductility on average.
Thermoplastic Polymers
Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic Polymers
Physical Properties of Thermoplastics
Lower densities than metals or ceramics
Much higher coefficient of thermal expansion
Much lower melting temperatures
Insulating electrical properties
Higher specific heats than metals
and ceramics
Thermoplastic Polymers
Commercial Thermoplastic Products
and Raw Materials
Fibers and filaments
Films and sheets
Packaging materials
Paints and varnishes
Thermosetting Polymers
General Properties of Thermosets
Rigid - modulus of elasticity is two to
three times greater than thermoplastics
Brittle, virtually no ductility
Less soluble in common solvents than
thermoplastics
Capable of higher service temperatures
than thermoplastics
Cannot be remelted - instead they degrade
or burn
Thermosetting Polymers
Cross-Linking in TS Polymers
1. Temperature-activated systems
Starting material is a linear polymer in granular
form supplied by the chemical plant.
As heat is added, material softens for molding,
but continued heating causes cross-linking.
2. Catalyst-activated systems
Cross-linking occurs when small amounts of a catalyst are
added to the polymer, which is in liquid form.
3. Mixing-activated systems
Mixing of two chemicals results in a reaction that forms
a cross-linked solid polymer.
Elevated temperatures are sometimes used to accelerate
the reactions.
Two categories:
Natural rubber : derived from
biological plants.
Synthetic polymers : produced by
polymerization processes like those used
for thermoplastic and thermosetting
polymers.
Elastomer Molecules:
• Model of long elastomer molecules, with low
degree of cross-linking: (a) unstretched, and (b)
under tensile stress.
Elastic Behavior of Elastomer Molecule:
When stretched, the molecules are forced to
uncoil and straighten.
Natural resistance to uncoiling provides the
initial elastic modulus of the aggregate material.
Under further strain, the covalent bonds of the
cross-linked molecules begin to play an
increasing role in the modulus, and stiffness
increases.
With greater cross-linking, the elastomer
becomes stiffer and its modulus of elasticity is
more linear.
Vulcanization
The term for curing in the context of
natural rubber (and certain synthetic
rubbers).
Typical cross-linking in rubber is one to ten
links per hundred carbon atoms in the
linear polymer chain, depending on degree
of stiffness desired.
Natural Rubber (NR)
NR = polyisoprene, a high molecular-weight
polymer of isoprene (C5H8)
It is derived from latex, a milky substance
produced by various plants, most important
of which is the rubber tree that grows in
tropical climates
Latex is a water emulsion of polyisoprene,
plus various other ingredients
Rubber is extracted from latex by
various methods that remove the water
Vulcanized Natural Rubber
It has been accomplished by mixing small
amounts of sulfur and other chemicals
with the crude rubber and heating.
Properties: noted among elastomers for high
tensile strength, tear strength, resilience
(capacity to recover shape), and resistance
to wear and fatigue.
Weaknesses: degrades when subjected to heat,
sunlight, oxygen, ozone, and oil.
Synthetic Rubbers
The most important synthetic rubber is
styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), a
copolymer of butadiene (C4H6) and styrene
(C8H8)
As with most other polymers, the main
raw material for synthetic rubbers is
petroleum
Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)
thermoplastic that behaves like an elastomer
Elastomeric properties not from chemical
cross-links, but from physical connections
between soft and hard phases in the
material
Cannot match conventional elastomers in
elevated temperature strength and creep
resistance
