Networking Standards & OSI Model

Source: Feleke Merin (Dr. – Engr.)

Senior Asst. Professor

Source: Feleke Merin (Dr. – Engr.) 1

 Networking Standards & OSI Model
After reading this chapter and completing the exercises, you will be able to:

■ Identify organizations that set standards for networking

■ Describe the purpose of the OSI Model and each of its layers

■ Explain specific functions belonging to each OSI Model layer

■ Understand how two network nodes communicate through the OSI Model

■ Discuss the structure and purpose of data packets and frames

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 2

 Networking Standards Organizations
Standards defined:
 Documented agreements containing precise criteria that are used

as guidelines to ensure that materials, products, processes, and

services suit their purpose.

 Help to ensure interoperability between software and hardware

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 3
 Networking Standards Organizations
 Some of the significant standards organizations are ANSI, EIA/TIA,
IEEE, ISO, ITU, and ICANN.

ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

• An organization composed representatives from industry and government
who together determine standards for:
 Electronics industry,
 Chemical and nuclear engineering,
 Health and safety, and construction.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 4

 Networking Standards Organizations
 EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance)
• trade organization composed of representatives from
electronics manufacturing firms

 TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association)

• focuses on standards for information technology, wireless, satellite,
fiber optics, and telephone equipment.
 Both TIA and EIA set standards, lobby governments and industry, and sponsor
conferences, exhibitions, and forums in their areas of interest.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 5

 Networking Standards Organizations
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), or “I-triple-E,”
• International society composed of engineering professionals.
• Its goals: to promote development and education in the electrical
engineering and computer science fields.
• IEEE hosts numerous symposia, conferences, and local chapter
meetings and publishes papers designed to educate members on
technological advances.
• It also maintains a standards board that establishes its own
standards for the electronics and computer industries

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 6

 Networking Standards Organizations

ISO (International Organization for Standardization)

• Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland,

• A collection of standards organizations representing 146 countries.

• ISO’s goal: to establish international technological standards to

facilitate global exchange of information and barrier-free trade.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 7

 Networking Standards Organizations

 ITU (International Telecommunication Union)

• A specialized United Nations agency that regulates international
Telecommunications, including radio and TV frequencies, satellite and
telephony specifications, networking infrastructure, and tariffs
applied to global communications.
• ITU is deeply involved with the implementation of worldwide Internet
services.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 8

 Networking Standards Organizations

 ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names

and Numbers)
• A private, nonprofit corporation.
• ICANN is now ultimately responsible for IP addressing
and domain name management.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 9

 ISO’s Open System Interconnection(OSI)

ISO ISO’s OSI Model

 International Organization for  An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
Standardization network communications
 Established in 1947,  First introduced in the late 1970s.
 Multinational body dedicated  Model for understanding and developing
to worldwide agreement on computer-to-computer communications
international standards over a network.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 10

 Open System Interconnection(OSI)
 Conceptual model which allows diverse systems

to communicate regardless of the underlying

internal structure and technology

 Goal is the interoperability of diverse

communication systems with standard protocols

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 11

 Open System Interconnection(OSI)
OSI Model Purpose OSI Model Purpose
 OSI model: not a protocol,  Intended to be the basis for the
but a model for understanding creation of the protocols in the
and designing a network OSI stack.
 Goal: to be a general open standard
architecture that is flexible,  To allow vendors to enter the
robust, and interoperable. market by using their own
implementation and protocols

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 12

 Open System Interconnection(OSI)
OSI Model Layers
 Partitions a communication system
into abstraction layers

 The original version of the model

divides network communications
tasks into seven layers:

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 13

 Open System Interconnection(OSI)
 OSI layers: provide guidelines for the

development of universally compatible

architecture, hardware, and software.

 Each layer has its own set of functions

and interacts with the layers directly

above and below it.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 14

 Open System Interconnection(OSI)
 Remembering the seven layers of
the OSI Model
• Make a sentence using words that begin
with the same first letter of each layer

Example:
• Choose to remember the phrase
• “Programmers Dare Not Throw
Salty Pizza Away.”

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 15

 BENEFITS OF OSI LAYERED MODEL
• Divides the network communication process into layers to be easier
to troubleshoot
• Allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of
network components
• Various types of network hardware and software can communicate
• Layer separation makes changes in one layer do not affect other layers
• Layers can interact with each other

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 16

 FUNCTIONS OF EACH OSI LAYER
• At each layer, protocols perform
services unique to that layer.

• While performing those services,

the protocols also interact with
protocols in the layers directly
above and below.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 17

 APPLICATION LAYER OF OSI
• Enables the user, whether
human or software, to
access the network

• Provides user interface and

support for services (such
as email, remote file
access & transfer, etc. )
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 18
 APPLICATION LAYER OF OSI (CONTD.)
• User interface to lower layers

• Preparation of data for each service

• End-to-end communication on both sides

• Software applications reside in it

• Sends requests and receives reply

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 19

 APPLICATION LAYER OF OSI (CONTD.)
• HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• POP3 (Post Office transfers Protocol)
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• Telnet/SSH (Secure Shell)
• DNS (Domain Name Server)
• RTP (Real-time Protocol)

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 20

 PRESENTATION LAYER OF OSI
• Responsible for common representation
of data between source and destination
• Provides transformation of data
• Supports standardized application
interface
• Coding of data syntax
• Data encryption/decryption
• Data compression/decompression
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 21
SESSION LAYER OF OSI
• Establishing Session

• Managing Session

• Controlling Session

• Terminating Session

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 22

SESSION LAYER OF OSI(CONTD.)

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 23

SESSION LAYER OF OSI(CONTD.)
• Making sure the connection is active during session
• Securing the connection
• Dialogue synchronization
• Checking for connection failure
• Reconnecting if connection cuts off
• Terminating communication
• Defining node communication order and timing
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 24
 TRANSPORT LAYER OF OSI
• Organize data into segments

• Reliable end-to-end transport

 Loss recovery

 Flow control

 Data ordering

 Data Deduplication

• Or just Best Effort delivery

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 25
 TRANSPORT LAYER OF OSI(CONTD.)
• Segmentation
 Dividing data in small fragments that can be transmitted over network
 Different networks have different Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)
 MTU defines maximum size of one data piece carried through the network
 Data is being divided and transmitted to recipient via transport layer
 The MTU size is being acknowledged by transport layer
 MTU acknowledgment is during discovering routine and while establishing
connection with the recipient
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 26
 TRANSPORT LAYER OF OSI(CONTD.)
• Reassembly
 Done at the receiving end

 Transport layer protocols reconstruct data to its initial form

 Data can be received in different order

 Transport layer rearranges pieces of data in the correct order

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 27

 TRANSPORT LAYER OF OSI(CONTD.)
• Sequencing
• Using sequencing identifiers
• Avoids losses and duplication
• Fixes the issue of following data different paths
• Organizing data in groups of subdivided
data segments
• Identifying the order of groups of data sending and
interpretation
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 28
 TRANSPORT LAYER OF OSI(CONTD.)
• Connection Oriented
 Reliable and more secure
 Establishing two way connection between the nodes before data
transmission
 When the browser is trying to open the webpage, transport layer
would send synchronization packet to the web server
 Browser expects synchronization-acknowledgment response
 When it receives response, it sends its own response to the server
 After this process is done the data can be transmitted

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 29

 TRANSPORT LAYER OF OSI(CONTD.)
• Connectionless Oriented
 Not Reliable
 Best-effort delivery
 No connection establishment prior to data transmission
 Less security
 Allows data flooding
 Used with delay-sensitive data (Real Time)
 Audio Calls
 Video Streaming

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 30

NETWORK LAYER OF OSI
• Organize data into packets
• Responsible of end-to-end addressing
and routing
• Identifies unique logical address
for machines
• Selects the best path for destination
• Routers work in the network layer
• Performs fragmentation if
segmentation is not enough

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 31

NETWORK LAYER OF OSI (CONTD.)
• Receives the segments of data from Transport layer
• Converts them to packets by adding addressing information
Source address
Destination address
• Finds a route for data to be delivered to the receiver
• Routes may differ because it is being determined based on the following:
 Network overload
 Quality of Service (QoS)
 Cost of alternative routes
 Delivery priorities

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 32

 NETWORK AND TRANSPORT LAYERS(SUMMARY)
• Network layer defines the following:
 Source Machine

 Destination Machine
• Transport Layer guarantees either of
the following according to the used
protocol:
 End-to-End Reliable Delivery
 End-to-End Best-Effort Delivery

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 33

 DATA LINK LAYER OF OSI MODE
• Reliable data transfer across physical link

• Responsible of physical addressing

• Organize the data into frames

• Puts frames on the physical medium

• Check frames for errors

• Hop-to-hop addressing
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 34
 PHYSICAL ADDRESS
• Unique identifier
• Not bound to geographical location
• Used for hop-to-hop addressing
• Burned on the NIC
• Can not be changed
• Vendor oriented
• Common example is the MAC address
• Sometimes called hardware address

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 35

DATA LINK LAYER OF OSI (CONTD.)

• Receives data packages from network layer

• Convert data into the frames including the following:

 Data packages

 Sender and the receiver physical addresses

 Error checking and control information

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 36

 DATA LINK LAYER OF OSI (CONTD.)
• Checking and control ensures the frame has been delivered
without troubles

• If part of the frame is lost during transmission then:

 Data Link layer protocols of the receiver would see that

 Data Link layer at the receiver requests data retransmit from the sender

• Switches and Bridges devices work in Data Link layer

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 37

 FRAME CHECK SEQUENCE (FCS)
• Error checking mechanism is creating the unique frame check sequence (FCS)
• FCS number based on the values of all of the preceding fields in the frame
• The receiver’s end receives data with the FCS value
• Receiver compares FCS to the data fields in frame

• In unlucky scenario of failed comparison the following is done:

 Data is assumed corrupted

 Receiver requests data resend

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 38

 FRAME CHECK SEQUENCE (FCS)
• If the comparison is a success,
receiver sends the message of
successful data transmission back
to the sender

• If receiver did not receive the

“success” message during
specified time, automatically
the sender resends the data frames

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 39

 DATA LINK LAYER SUBLAYERS
• Another function of Data Link layer
protocols is to control the flow
when many different nodes are
sending data at the same time

• The Data Link layer has been

divided into two sublayers by
the IEEE as follows:

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 40

 DATA LINK LAYER SUBLAYERS(CONTD.)
• The top sublayer is called Logical Link Control (LLC) communicating
only with Network layer and providing the following functions:
 Hop-to-Hop Reliability
 Hop-to-Hop Flow control
• The bottom sublayer is Media Access Control (MAC)
responsible for the following:
 Adding physical address to the frame
 Communication with the Physical layer

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 41

 DATA LINK LAYER SUBLAYERS (CONTD.)
 Why has IEEE divided the Data Link layer into
two sublayers?
• Reason for this change:
 To allow higher layer protocols (for example, those operating

in the Network layer) to interact with Data Link layer protocols

without regard for Physical layer specifications.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 42

 PHYSICAL LAYER
• Transmits bit stream over the physical link
• Sends data signals to media and receives it

• Adapts to the transmission media

 Cables
• Copper (Coaxial, Twisted Pair)
• Fiber Optic (Single Mode, Multi Mode)
 Wireless
• Responsible for the representation of 1s and 0s
• NIC, Hub, and Repeater work in Physical Layer
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 43
FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 44

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Path that data takes from one computer to

another through the OSI Model

Example: Retrieving an email message from

a mail server

First, a user or device initiates a data

exchange through the Application layer.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 45

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)
Log on your office PC, start your e-mail
application, and then click a button in the e-
mail application to retrieve your mail from
the server.

At that point, Application layer services on

your computer accept data from your mail
application and formulate a request meant
for the mail server software.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 46

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

They (or application layer services) add an

application header to the data that the
program wants to send.

The application header contains information

about the e-mail application’s requirements,
so that the mail server can fulfill its request
properly.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 47

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Application layer transfers the request to

the Presentation layer, in the form of a
protocol data unit (PDU).

The Presentation layer first determines

whether and how it should format or encrypt
the data request received from the
Application layer.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 48

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

For example, if your mail client requires

encryption, the Presentation layer protocols
will add that information to the PDU in a
presentation header.

If your e-mail message contains graphics or

formatted text, that information will also be
added.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 49

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Then, the Presentation layer sends its PDU

to the Session layer, which adds a session

Header that contains information about

how your DSL communicates with the

network.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 50

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

For example, the session header might

indicate that your DSL connection can

only transmit and

receive data at 250Mbps. The

Session layer then passes the PDU

to the Transport layer.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 51

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

At the Transport layer, the PDU—your

request for mail and the headers added by
previous layers—is broken down into smaller
pieces of data, or segments.

The segments’ maximum size is dictated

by the type of network transmission method in

use (for example, Ethernet).

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 52

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Suppose your mail request PDU is too

large to be a single segment.

In that case, Transport layer protocols

subdivide it into two or more smaller

segments and assign sequence identifiers to
all of the smaller segments. This information
becomes part of the transport header.
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 53
 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Protocols also add checksum, flow control,

and acknowledgment data to the transport
header.

The Transport layer then passes these

segments, one at a time, to the Network
layer.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 54

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Next, Network layer protocols add logical

addressing information to the segments, so
that your request will be properly routed to
the mail server and the mail server will
respond to your computer.

This information is contained in the network

header.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.)

55
 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

With the addition of network address

information, the pieces of data are called
packets.

The Network layer then passes the

packets to the Data Link layer.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 56

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

At the Data Link layer, protocols add a

header to the front of each packet and a
trailer to the end of each packet to make
frames.

(The trailer indicates where a frame ends.)

In other words, the Data Link layer protocols
encapsulate the Network layer packets.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 57

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Encapsulation is frequently compared to

placing an envelope within a larger
envelope.

This analogy conveys the idea that the Data

Link layer does not attempt to interpret any
information added in the Network layer,
but simply surrounds it.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 58

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

Using frames reduces the possibility of lost

data or errors on the network, because a way
of checking for errors is built into each frame.

 After verifying that the data has not been

damaged, the Data Link layer then passes the
frames to the Physical layer.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 59

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)
Finally, your request for mail, in the form of many
frames, hits the NIC at the Physical layer.

The Physical layer does not interpret the frames or

add information to the frames; it simply transmits
them over the phone line connected to your DSL,
across your office network, and to the mail server
after the binary digits (bits), or ones and zeroes, have
been converted to electrical pulses.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 60

 FLOW OF DATA THROUGH THE OSI MODEL (CONTD.)

As the frames arrive at the mail server, the

server’s Physical layer accepts the frames

and transfers them to the Data Link layer.

The mail server begins to unravel your request,

reversing the process just described, until it

responds to your request with its own
transmission, beginning from its Application layer.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 61

 NETWORK TERMINOLOGY
The terms “frame,” “packet,” “datagram,” A frame is a piece of data enclosed by
and “PDU” are often used interchangeably a Data Link layer header and trailer.
to refer to a small piece of data formatted
“Datagram” is synonymous with
for network transmission.
“packet.” “PDU” generically refers to a
Technically, how ever, a packet is a piece of
unit of data at any layer of the OSI
information that contains network addressing
Model.
information

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 62

SUMMARY (ON FUNCTIONS OF THE OSI LAYERS )

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 63

 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The most commonly used protocol over the Internet is the __________ . TCP/IP

2. List down different protocols that work in the application layer of TCP/IP.
3. The transport layer can work in either _______ or ______ modes of delivery.
 Reliable
 Best-effort
4. The main functionalities of the network layer are the _____ and ______ .
 Addressing
 Routing

5. The network layer is responsible of ________ addressing, while the data link layer is
responsible of _______ addressing. Answer: Logical addressing; Physical addressing

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 64

 REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
6. Discuss the role of protocols in n the Session layer, (the fifth OSI Model layer).

 Coordinate and maintain links between two devices for the duration of their

communication

 Synchronize dialogue, determine whether communications have been cut off,

and, if so, figure out where to restart transmission.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 65

 REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
7. What are the primary function of protocols in the Transport layer, the fourth OSI Model layer.

 To provide source-to-destination delivery of the entire message.

 To oversee end-to-end (or source-to-destination) error free delivery of the entire message to the correct process (running

program) on that computer.

 In the case of connection-oriented protocols, this means data is delivered reliably.

They verify that data is received in the same sequence in which it was sent.

 They are also responsible for flow control, segmentation, and reassembly of packets.

 Connectionless Transport layer protocols do not offer such guarantees.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 66

 REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
8. What are the responsibilities of network layer of the OSI model?
 Responsible for the source-to-destination (end-to-end) delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple

networks (or links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems

on the same network (or link)

 Hiding the details of the lower layer (data link and physical layer)

 Find the optimum path from the many d/t paths available.

Network layer addresses, also called logical or virtual addresses, are assigned to devices through operating system
software. They are composed of hierarchical information, so they can be easily interpreted by routers and used to direct
data to its destination.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 67

 REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
9. What are the responsibilities of data link layer of OSI model?
 The primary function of protocols at the Data Link layer, the second layer of the OSI Model, is
to organize data they receive from the Network layer into frames that contain error checking routines
and can then be transmitted by the Physical layer.
 Physical addressing  Medium Access Control (MAC)
When stations in a network share the same physical medium, it may happen that more than one station tries to send
data
at the same time. There needs to be a mechanism to resolve this mechanism. This mechanism is called MAC.
 Flow control (Flow control at the data link layer is hop-to-hop not end-to-end)
The data link layer can control the rate the frame are sent on the link
Error control (the DL layer can add reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanism to detect and retransmit damaged or lost data).

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 68

 REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
10. The Data Link layer is subdivided (by IEEE) into two layers. List down those
layers and explain their responsibilities.

Answer: Logical Link Control and MAC sublayers.

The LLC sublayer ensures a common interface for the Network layer protocols.

The MAC sublayer is responsible for adding physical address data to frames.

MAC addresses are hard-coded into a device’s NIC.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 69

 REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
11. What are the responsibilities of the physical layer of the OSI model?
 Protocols at the Physical layer generate and detect voltage (signal) so as to transmit and

receive signals carrying data over a network medium.

 Also set or define the data transmission rate and

 Monitor data error rates, but do not provide error correction.

 Define the characteristics of the interface between the device and transmission medium

 Define the type of the medium to be used

 Define the direction of transmission b/n two devices: simple, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 70

REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
Match the following to one or more of the seven OSI layers.
a) Provide format and code conversation
b) Establishes, manages, and terminates session
c) Ensures reliable transmission of data
d) Provide reliable log-in and log-out procedure
e) Synchronizes users
f) Route determination
g) Flow control

SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 71

 REVIEW QUESTIONS (CONTD.)
h) Access to the network provided for the end user
i) Reliable end-to-end data transmission
J) Network selection
k) Frames defined
l) User services such as email and file transfer provided
m) Transmission of bit stream across physical medium
n) Error correction and retransmission
o) Reassembly of data packets
--------------------------- The End! -----------------------------
SOURCE: FELEKE MERIN (DR. – ENGR.) 72