Heat Transfer:

Physical Origins
and
Rate Equations

Chapter One
Sections 1.1 and 1.2
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy

• What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature

difference.

• What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect of
microscopic activities and is directly linked to the temperature
of matter.
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy (cont.)

DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal Energy,

Temperature and Heat Transfer
Quantity Meaning Symbol Units
Thermal Energy+ Energy associated with microscopic
U or u J or J/kg
behavior of matter

Temperature A means of indirectly assessing the

amount of thermal energy stored in matter
T K or °C

Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q J

over a time interval  t  0

Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W

Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time and q  W/m 2
surface area

+
U  Thermal energy of system
u Thermal energy per unit mass of system
Modes of Heat Transfer

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to

the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.

Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and

random motion for fluid flow over a surface.

Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron

configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as
electromagnetic waves (or photons).

• Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature variations in a material

medium.
• Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require a material
medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
Heat Transfer Rates: Conduction

Heat Transfer Rates

Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law:

q   k T

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient

W/m 2
W/m  K °C/m or K/m

Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a

plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:

dT T T
qx  k  k 2 1
dx L
T1  T2
qx  k (1.2)
L

Heat rate (W): qx  qx  A

Heat Transfer Rates: Convection

Heat Transfer Rates

Convection
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development
of velocity and thermal boundary layers:

Newton’s law of cooling:

q   h Ts  T  (1.3a)

h : Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2  K)

Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation

Heat Transfer Rates

Radiation Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the
absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation, G), as well as convection  if Ts  T  .

Energy outflow due to emission:

E   Eb   Ts4 (1.5)
E : Emissive power  W/m2 
 : Surface emissivity  0    1
Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (the perfect emitter)
 : Stefan-Boltzmann constant  5.67×10-8 W/m 2  K 4 

Energy absorption due to irradiation:

Gabs   G
Gabs :Absorbed incident radiation(W/m2 )
 : Surface absorptivity  0    1
G : Irradiation  W/m 2 
Heat Transfer Rates Radiation (Cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Irradiation: Special case of surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform temperature, Tsur

G  Gsur   Tsur
4

If    , the net radiation heat flux from the

surface due to exchange with the surroundings is:
   Eb Ts    G   Ts4  Tsur
qrad 4
 (1.7)
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (Cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Alternatively,

  h r Ts  Tsur 
qrad (1.8)

h r : Radiation heat transfer coefficient  W/m 2  K 

h r   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur
2
 (1.9)

(1.10)
For combined convection and radiation,

q   qconv   h Ts  T   hr Ts  Tsur 

  qrad
Process Identification

Problem 1.73(a): Process identification for single-and double-pane windows

Schematic:

qconv ,1 Convection from room air to inner surface of first pane

qrad ,1 Net radiation exchange between room walls and inner surface of first pane
qcond ,1 Conduction through first pane
qconv ,s Convection across airspace between panes
qrad ,s Net radiation exchange between outer surface of first pane and inner surface of second pane (across airspace)
qcond ,2 Conduction through a second pane
qconv ,2 Convection from outer surface of single (or second) pane to ambient air
qrad ,2 Net radiation exchange between outer surface of single (or second) pane and surroundings such as the ground
qs Incident solar radiation during day; fraction transmitted to room is smaller for double pane
Problem: Electronic Cooling

Problem 1.31: Power dissipation from chips operating at a surface temperature

of 85C and in an enclosure whose walls and air are at 25C for
(a) free convection and (b) forced convection.
Schematic:
Tsur = 25oC
Substrate
Air qrad
o Chip, Pelec
= 25 C
Ts = 85 C, = 0.60
1/4 o
h = 4.2(Ts- )
or qconv L = 15 mm
W/m2-K

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Radiation exchange between a small surface and a large enclosure, (3)
Negligible heat transfer from sides of chip or from back of chip by conduction through the substrate.
Analysis:
Pelec  qconv  qrad  hA Ts  T    A Ts4  Tsur4 
A  L2 =  0.015m  =2.25×10-4 m 2
2

(a) If heat transfer is by natural convection,

qconv  CA Ts  T  =4.2W/m 2  K 5/4  2.25×10-4 m 2   60K  =0.158W
5/ 4 5/4

qrad  0.60  2.25×10-4 m 2  5.67×10-8 W/m 2  K 4  3584 -2984  K 4 =0.065W

Pelec  0.158W+0.065W=0.223W

(b) If heat transfer is by forced convection,

qconv  hA Ts  T  =250W/m 2  K 4  2.25×10-4 m 2   60K  =3.375W
Pelec  3.375W+0.065W=3.44W
Fourier’s Law
and the
Heat Equation

Chapter Two
Fourier’s Law

Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium

• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:

 
q    k  T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).

– Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the

   
medium  k   q/  T 
 

– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant

temperature (isotherms).

– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

Heat Flux Components

• Cartesian Coordinates: T  x, y , z 
 T  T  T 
q   k i k jk k (2.3)
x y z
q x q y q z

• Cylindrical Coordinates: T  r, , z 

 T  T  T 
q   k i k jk k (2.22)
r r  z
qr q q z

• Spherical Coordinates: T  r ,  , 
 T  T  T 
q   k i k jk k (2.25)
r r  r sin  
qr q q
Heat Flux Components (cont.)

• In angular coordinates  or  ,  , the temperature gradient is still

based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of C/m and not C/deg.
• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:

– Cylinder
qr  Ar qr  2 rLqr
or,
qr  Ar qr  2 rqr

– Sphere
qr  Ar qr  4 r 2 qr
Heat Equation

The Heat Equation

• A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a
stationary medium.
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
• Cartesian Coordinates:

  T    T    T  • T
  k   k   q  c p
(2.17)
k
x  x  y  y  z  z  t

Net transfer of thermal energy into the Thermal energy Change in thermal
control volume (inflow-outflow) generation energy storage
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

1   T  1   T    T  • T
 kr  2 k  k   q   c (2.24)
 
p
r r  r  r     z  z  t

• Spherical Coordinates:

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  • T
 kr 
 2 2  k    k sin    q   c (2.27)
 r sin      r 2 sin     
p
r 2 r  r t
Heat Equation (Special Case)

• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties

and No Generation

 2T 1 T

x 2  t

k
  thermal diffusivity of the medium
c p
Boundary Conditions

Boundary and Initial Conditions

• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T  x, t t  0  T  x, 0 
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:

T  0, t   Ts

Constant Heat Flux:

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

T T
k |x  0  qs |x  0  0
x x

Convection

T
k |x  0  h T  T  0, t  
x
Properties

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes

in its thermal environment.

Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Properties (Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

Micro- and Nanoscale Effects

• Conduction may be viewed as a consequence of energy carrier (electron or
phonon) motion.

• For the solid state:

1
k  Cc mfp (2.7)
3

energy carrier mean free path → average distance

specific heat per traveled by an energy carrier before
unit volume. a collision.
average energy carrier velocity, c  .

• Energy carriers also collide with physical boundaries, affecting their propagation.

 External boundaries of a film of material

Properties (Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

For L / mfp  1,
k x / k  1  2mfp /  3 L  (2.9a)

k y / k  1  mfp /  3L  (2.9b)

 Grain boundaries within a solid

Measured thermal conductivity of a ceramic material vs. grain size, L. mfp at T  300K  25nm.

• Fourier’s law does not accurately describe the finite energy carrier propagation
velocity. This limitation is not important except in problems involving extremely
small time scales.
Conduction Analysis

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Consider possible micro- or nanoscale effects in problems involving very
small physical dimensions or very rapid changes in heat or cooling rates.

• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature

distribution.

• Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the

heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.

• Applications:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Problem: Thermal Response of Plane Wall

Problem 2.46 Thermal response of a plane wall to convection heat transfer.

KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.

FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t  0), steady-
state (t  ), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at the two
surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m3).

SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal

heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

 2T 1  T

 x2   t

 Initial, t  0 : T  x,0   T uniform temperature

 i
and the  Boundaries: x=0  T/  x 0  0 adiabatic surface
conditions are: 
 x=L  k T/  x L = h  T  L,t   T  surface convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

c) The heat flux, qx  x,t  , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and
x = L.

d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as


Ein   qconv As dt
0

Ein  hAs 
0
 T  T  L,t  dt

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h 
  T  T  L,t  dt  J/m 3 
V L 0  
Problem: Non-uniform Generation due
to Radiation Absorption

Problem 2.28 Surface heat fluxes, heat generation and total rate of radiation
absorption in an irradiated semi-transparent material with a
prescribed temperature distribution.

KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a semi-transparent medium subjected to radiative flux.

FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces, (b) The heat generation rate
q  x  , and (c) Expression for absorbed radiation per unit surface area.

SCHEMATIC:
Problem : Non-uniform
Generation (Cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in medium, (3)

Constant properties, (4) All laser irradiation is absorbed and can be characterized by an internal
volumetric heat generation term q  x  .

ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are found using
Fourier’s law,
 dT   A 
q x  k    k - 2  a  e-ax  B
 dx   ka 
 A  A 
Front Surface, x=0: q x  0   k  +  1  B     kB <
 ka  a 
 A  A 
Rear Surface, x=L: q x  L   k  + e-aL  B    e-aL  kB . <
 ka  a 

(b) The heat diffusion equation for the medium is

d  dT  q d  dT 
  0 or q=-k  
dx  dx  k dx  dx 
d  A -ax 
q  x   k   e  B   Ae-ax .
dx  ka 

( c ) Performing an energy balance on the medium,

Ein  Eout  Eg  0
Problem : Non-uniform
Generation (Cont.)

On a unit area basis

Eg  Ein   q x  0   q x  L   

  Eout
A
a
 
1  e-aL . <

Alternatively, evaluate Eg by integration over the volume of the medium,

Eg   q  x dx=  Ae-ax dx=-

L
0 0
L A  -ax  L A
a 
e
0

a

1  e-aL . 
One-Dimensional, Steady-State
Conduction without
Thermal Energy Generation

Chapter Three
Sections 3.1 through 3.4
Methodology

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
• Solve for the temperature distribution.
• Apply Fourier’s law to determine the heat flux.

Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction with No Thermal Energy

Generation.

• Common Geometries:
– The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x).
– The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
– The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.
Plane Wall
The Plane Wall
• Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature:

• Heat Equation:
d  dT 
k 0 (3.1)
dx  dx 

• Implications:
Heat flux  qx  is independent of x.
Heat rate  qx  is independent of x.
• Boundary Conditions: T  0  Ts,1, T  L   Ts,2

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

T  x   Ts,1  Ts,2  Ts,1 
x
(3.3)
L
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

 Ts,1  Ts,2 
dT k
qx  k (3.5)
dx L
 Ts,1  Ts,2 
dT kA
qx  kA (3.4)
dx L
 T 
• Thermal Resistances  t R   and Thermal Circuits:
 q 
L
Conduction in a plane wall: Rt ,cond  (3.6)
kA
1
Convection: Rt ,conv  (3.9)
hA
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:

1 L 1
Rtot    (3.12)
h1 A kA h 2 A
T,1  T,2
qx  (3.11)
Rtot
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area:

L 1
Rt,cond  Rt,conv 
k h
Units: Rt  K/W Rt  m2  K/W
• Radiation Resistance:
1 1
Rt , rad  Rt, rad 
hr A hr

hr   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur
2
 (1.9)

• Contact Resistance:

TA  TB Rt,c
Rt,c  Rt ,c 
qx Ac

Values depend on: Materials A and B, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and
contact pressure (Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
Plane Wall (cont.) • Composite Wall with Negligible
Contact Resistance:

T,1  T,4
qx  (3.14)
 Rt

1  1 LA LB LC 1  Rtot 
 Rt  Rtot        
A  h1 k A k B kC h4  A

• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) :

A modified form of Newton’s Law of Cooling to encompass multiple resistances
to heat transfer.
qx  UAToverall (3.17)

1
Rtot  (3.19)
UA
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Series – Parallel Composite Wall:

• Note departure from one-dimensional conditions for k F  kG .

• Circuits based on assumption of isothermal surfaces normal to x direction or

adiabatic surfaces parallel to x direction provide approximations for q x .
Tube Wall
The Tube Wall

• Heat Equation:
1 d  dT 
 kr 0 (3.23)
r dr  dr 
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of qr with
r in the wall?
Is the foregoing conclusion consistent with the energy conservation requirement?

How does qr vary with r ?

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :
Ts ,1  Ts,2  r 
T r   ln    Ts ,2 (3.26)
ln  r1 / r2   r2 
Tube Wall (Cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

qr  k
dT

k
dr r ln  r2 / r1 
Ts,1  Ts,2 
2 k
qr  2 rqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 

2 Lk
qr  2 rLqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  (3.27)

• Conduction Resistance:
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt ,cond  Units  K/W (3.28)
2 Lk
ln  r2 / r1 

Rt ,cond  Units  m  K/W
2 k

Why is it inappropriate to base the thermal resistance on a unit surface

area?
Tube Wall (Cont.)

• Composite Wall with

Negligible Contact
Resistance

T,1  T,4
qr   UA T,1  T,4 
Rtot
(3.30)

Note that
UA  Rtot 1
is a constant independent of radius.

But, U itself is tied to specification of an interface.

1
U i   Ai Rtot  (3.32)
Spherical Shell
Spherical Shell

• Heat Equation
1 d  2 dT 
2 dr 
r 0
r  dr 

What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of
qr with r ? Is this result consistent with conservation of energy?

How does qr vary with r ?

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

T  r   Ts ,1  Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
 
1  r1/ r

1  r1 / r 2 
Spherical Shell (cont.)

• Heat flux, Heat Rate and Thermal Resistance:

dT
qr  k  2
k
dr r 1/ r1   1/ r2  
Ts,1  Ts,2 
4 k
qr  4 r 2qr 
 1  2 
1/ r  1/ r
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  (3.35)

Rt ,cond 
1/ r1   1/ r2  (3.36)
4 k

• Composite Shell:
T
qr  overall  UAToverall
Rtot
UA  Rtot 1  Constant
1
Ui   Ai Rtot   Depends on Ai
One-Dimensional, Steady-State
Conduction with
Thermal Energy Generation
Chapter Three
Section 3.5, Appendix C
Implications

Implications of Energy Generation

• Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to conversion

from another form of energy in a conducting medium.

• The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from

electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):
•
• Eg I 2 Re
q  (3.38)
 

or it may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation

passing through a semi-transparent medium. For a plane wall,
•
q  exp   x 

• Generation affects the temperature distribution in the medium and causes

the heat rate to vary with location, thereby precluding inclusion of
the medium in a thermal circuit.
The Plane Wall

The Plane Wall

• Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:

• Heat Equation:
•
d  dT  •dT q 2

k q 0 2  0 (3.39)

dx  dx  dx k

Is the heat flux qindependent of x?

• General Solution:
T  x     q/ 2k  x 2  C1 x  C2
•

 

What is the form of the temperature distribution for

• • •
q  0? q > 0? q < 0?

•
How does the temperature distribution change with increasing q ?
Plane Wall (Cont.)
Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:

• What is the temperature gradient

at the centerline or the insulated
surface?
• Why does the magnitude of the temperature
gradient increase with increasing x?

• Temperature Distribution:
•
q L2  x2 
T  x  1  2   Ts
2k 
(3.42)
L 

• How do we determine Ts ?
Overall energy balance on the wall →
• •
 E out  E g  0
•
 hAs Ts  T   q As L  0
•
qL
Ts  T  (3.46)
h

• How do we determine the heat rate at x = L?

Radial Systems

Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)

Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod) Solid Sphere

• Heat Equations:
Cylindrical Spherical
1 d  dT   1 d  2 dT  
 kr q 0  kr q 0
r dr  dr  r 2 dr  dr 
Radial Systems (Cont.)

• Solution for Uniform Generation in a Solid Sphere of Constant k

with Convection Cooling:

Temperature Distribution Surface Temperature

•
dT q r3
kr 2
  C1 Overall energy balance: •
dr 3 • • q ro
•  Eout  Eg  0  Ts  T 
q r 2 C1 3h
T    C2
6k r
dT Or from a surface energy balance:
|r  0  0  C1  0 •
dr q ro
Ein  E out  0  qcond  ro   qconv  Ts  T 
• •
•
q ro 2 3h
T  ro   Ts  C2  Ts 
•
6k
q ro  r 2 
2

T r   1    Ts
6k  ro 2 

• A summary of temperature distributions is provided in Appendix C

for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls, as well as for solid
cylinders and spheres. Note how boundary conditions are specified
and how they are used to obtain surface temperatures.
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod

Problem 3.91 Thermal conditions in a gas-cooled nuclear reactor

with a tubular thorium fuel rod and a concentric
graphite sheath: (a) Assessment of thermal integrity
for a generation rate of q  108 W/m 3. (b) Evaluation of
temperature distributions in the thorium •
and graphite
for generation rates in the range 10  q  5x108.
8

Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant

properties, (4) Negligible contact resistance, (5) Negligible radiation, (6) Adiabatic surface at r1.

Properties: Table A.1, Thorium: Tmp  2000K; Table A.2, Graphite: Tmp  2300K.
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod
(cont)

Analysis: (a) The outer surface temperature of the fuel, T2 , may be determined from the rate equation

T2  T
q 

Rtot
1n  r3 / r2  1
 
where Rtot   0.0185 m  K/W
2 k g 2 r3h

The heat rate may •be determined

•
by applying an energy balance to a control surface about the fuel
element, E out  E g
or, per unit length,
• •
E out  E g

Since the interior surface of the element is essentially adiabatic, it follows that

q  q   r22  r12   17,907 W/m

•

Hence,
  T  17,907 W/m  0.0185 m K/W   600K  931K
T2  qRtot

With zero heat flux at the inner surface of the fuel element, Eq. C.14 yields

q r22  r12  q r12  r2

• •

T1  T2  1  1n    931K  25K  18K  938K <
4kt  r22  2kt  r1 
 
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod (cont.)

Since T1 and T2 are well below the melting points of thorium and graphite, the prescribed
operating condition is acceptable.

(b) The solution for the temperature distribution in a cylindrical wall with generation is
•
q r22  r 2 
Tt  r   T2  1  
4kt  r22 
• 2 
 2
1n  r2 / r 
 1  2   T2  T1  
q r2 r1

 4kt  r   1n  r2 / r1 
(C.2)

  2  
Boundary conditions at r1 and r2 are used to determine T1 and T 2 .

 q• r 2  r 2  
k  1  2   T2  T1  
2 1
(C.14)
 4kt  r2  
•

r  r1 : q1  0 
qr1
  
2 r11n  r2 / r1 

 •2 2
 
qr r
k  1  2   T2  T1  
2 1 (C.17)
•
 4kt  r2  
r  r2 : U 2 T2  T  
q r2
  
2 r21n  r2 / r1 

1 1
U 2   A2 Rtot
    2 r2 Rtot
  (3.32)
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod
(cont.)

The following results are obtained for temperature distributions in the graphite.

2500

2100
Temperature, T(K)

1700

1300

900

500
0.008 0.009 0.01 0.011
Radial location in fuel, r(m)

qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8

•
Operation at q  5x108 W/m3 is clearly unacceptable since the melting point of
thorium would be exceeded. To prevent softening of the material, which would occur
•
below the melting point, the reactor should not be operated much above q  3x108 W/m. 3
The small radial temperature gradients are attributable to the large value of kt .
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod (cont.)

Using the value of T2 from the foregoing solution and computing T3 from the surface condition,
2 k g T2  T3 
q 
1n  r3 / r2 
(3.27)

the temperature distribution in the graphite is

T2  T3 r
Tg  r   1n    T3 (3.26)
1n  r2 / r3   r3 

2500

2100
Temperature, T(K)

1700

1300

900

500
0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014
Radial location in graphite, r(m)

qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod (cont.)

•
Operation at q  5x108 W/m 3 is problematic for the graphite. Larger temperature gradients
are due to the small value of k g .

Comments: (i) What effect would a contact resistance at the thorium/graphite interface have on
•
temperatures in the fuel element and on the maximum allowable value of q ? (ii) Referring
to the schematic, where might radiation effects be significant? What would be the influence of such
•
effect on temperatures in the fuel element and the maximum allowable value of q ?
Extended Surfaces

Chapter Three
Section 3.6
Nature and Rationale

Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces

• An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.

– Why is heat transfer by conduction in the x-direction not, in fact, one-

dimensional?

– If heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid by convection, what

surface condition is dictated by the conservation of energy requirement?
Nature and Rationale (Cont.)

– What is the actual functional dependence of the temperature distribution in

the solid?
– If the temperature distribution is assumed to be one-dimensional, that is,
T=T(x) , how should the value of T be interpreted for any x location?
– How does qcond , x vary with x ?
– When may the assumption of one-dimensional conduction be viewed as an
excellent approximation? The thin-fin approximation.
• Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly used as
fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface area available for
convection (and/or radiation). They are particularly beneficial when h is small,
as for a gas and natural convection.
• Some typical fin configurations:

Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
Fin Equation

The Fin Equation

• Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface
surface of constant conductivity  k  and uniform cross-sectional area Ac  ,
with negligible generation  q  0  and radiation  qrad
 •
  0  , the fin equation
is of the form:  

d 2T hP
 T T   0 (3.62)
dx 2 kAc

or, with m 2   hP / kAc  and the reduced temperature   T T ,

d 2
2
 m 2  0 (3.64)
dx

How is the fin equation derived?

Fin Equation

• Solutions (Table 3.4):

Base (x = 0) condition
  0   Tb  T  b

Tip ( x = L) conditions
A. Convection:  kd / dx |x  L  h  L 
B. Adiabatic: d / dx |x  L  0
C. Fixed temperature:   L    L
D. Infinite fin (mL >2.65):   L   0

• Fin Heat Rate:

d
q f   kAc |x  0   Af h  x  dAs
dx
 (*)

(#)

(**)

(*) (**) (#)

tbl_03_04
Performance Parameters
Fin Performance Parameters
• Fin Efficiency:
qf qf
f   (3.86)
q f ,max hA f b

How is the efficiency affected by the thermal conductivity of the fin?

Expressions for  f are provided in Table 3.5 for common geometries.
Consider a triangular fin:
1/ 2
A f  2 w  L2   t / 2  
2
 
Ap   t / 2  L
1 I1  2mL 
f 
mL I 0  2mL 

• Fin Effectiveness:
qf
f 
hAc , bb
 f  with  h,  k and  Ac / P 𝜀𝑓 ≥ 2
(3.81)

• Fin Resistance:
b 1
Rt , f   (3.92)
qf hA f  f
f_03_18
f_03_19
Fin Arrays
– Total surface area:
At  NA f  Ab
Number of fins Area of exposed base (prime surface)

Total heat rate:

b 1
Rt , o  
qt o hAt
• Equivalent Thermal Circuit :

• Effect of Surface Contact Resistance:

Problem: Turbine Blade Cooling

Problem 3.116: Assessment of cooling scheme for gas turbine blade.

Determination of whether blade temperatures are less
than the maximum allowable value (1050 °C) for
prescribed operating conditions and evaluation of blade
cooling rate.

Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in blade, (2) Constant k, (3)

Adiabatic blade tip, (4) Negligible radiation.

Analysis: Conditions in the blade are determined by Case B of Table 3.4.

(a) With the maximum temperature existing at x=L, Eq. 3.75 yields
T  L   T 1

Tb  T cosh mL

 
1/ 2
m   hP/kAc   250W/m 2  K  0.11m/20W/m  K  6  10 4 m 2
1/ 2
= 47.87 m-1

mL = 47.87 m-1  0.05 m = 2.39

Problem: Turbine Blade Cooling

From Table B.1, coshmL=5.51 . Hence,

T  L   1200 C  (300  1200) C/5.51  1037 C

and, subject to the assumption of an adiabatic tip , the operating conditions are acceptable.

   900 C   517W ,
1/ 2
4
(b) With M   hPkA c  1/ 2
b 2
 250W/m  K  0.11m  20W/m  K  6  10 m
2

Eq. 3.76 and Table B.1 yield

qf  M tanh mL  517W  0.983  508W

Hence,
qb  qf  508W

Comments: Radiation losses from the blade surface contribute to reducing the blade
temperatures, but what is the effect of assuming an adiabatic tip condition? Calculate
the tip temperature allowing for convection from the gas.
Problem: Chip Heat Sink

Problem 3.132: Determination of maximum allowable power qc for a 20mm

x 20mm electronic chip whose temperature is not to exceed
Tc  85 C, when the chip is attached to an air-cooled heat sink
with N=11 fins of prescribed dimensions.

Schematic:

Tc = 85oC

W = 20 mm R”t,c= 2x10-6 m2-K/W

k = 180 W/m-K
L b= 3 mm
t Tc Rt,b Too
Lf = 15 mm
qc
Rt,c Rt,o
Too = 20oC S  = 1.8 mm
Air
h = 100 W/m2-K

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Isothermal chip, (4)
Negligible heat transfer from top surface of chip, (5) Negligible temperature rise for air flow,
(6) Uniform convection coefficient associated with air flow through channels and over outer
surface of heat sink, (7) Negligible radiation.
Problem: Chip Heat Sink (cont.)

Analysis: (a) From the thermal circuit,

T  T Tc  T
qc  c 
R tot R t,c  R t,b  R t,o
6 2
R t,c  R t,c / W  2  10 m  K / W /  0.02m   0.005 K / W
2 2

   0.003m /180
R t, b  L b / k W
2
W/mK  0.02m 2  0.042 K / W

From Eqs. (3.103), (3.102), and (3.99)

1 N Af
R t,o  , o  1  1  f  , A t  N Af  A b
o h A t At
-4 2
Af = 2WLf = 2  0.02m  0.015m = 6  10 m
2 2 -3 -4 2
Ab = W – N(tW) = (0.02m) – 11(0.182  10 m  0.02m) = 3.6  10 m
-3 2
At = 6.96  10 m
1/2 2 -3 1/2
With mLf = (2h/kt) Lf = (200 W/m K/180 W/mK  0.182  10 m) (0.015m) =
1.17, tanh mLf = 0.824 and Eq. (3.87) yields
tanh mLf 0.824
f    0.704
mLf 1.17
o = 0.719,
Rt,o = 2.00 K/W, and
85  20  C
qc   31.8 W
 0.005  0.042  2.00  K / W
Problem: Chip Heat Sink (cont.)

Comments: The heat sink significantly increases the allowable heat dissipation. If it
were not used and heat was simply transferred by convection from the surface of the chip with
h  100 W/m2  K, Rtot  2.05 K/W from Part (a) would be replaced by
Rcnv  1/ hW 2  25 K/W, yielding qc  2.60 W.